Literary Form
The Song of Songs, titled Song of Solomon in most English translations, concludes the collection of Wisdom literature in the Christian Bible. This poetic work focuses not on the religious beliefs or practices of ancient Israel, but on human love and lovemaking. Through the centuries, many Christians and Jews have sought to ease their discomfort with the inclusion in the biblical canon of this unashamedly sensual, openly erotic book by interpreting it as an allegory of Christ's relationship to his bride, the church, or of God's relationship to his chosen people, Israel. But even a cursory reading clearly reveals that these poems represent expressions of the very basic longings, fears, joys, and passions of a man and woman in love. Indeed, the Song of Songs contains not even one mention of God.
The Song approaches love and lovemaking from the standpoint of feelings and emotions, not technique or mechanics. Nevertheless, it contains timeless lessons for the lover. For example, compliments, not complaints, lead to sexually satisfying encounters. Verbal wooing generates sexual desire. Forcible intercourse becomes a nonissue in lovemaking done right. While the Song's presence in the Bible reaffirms the divine sanctioning of romantic love and sex between husbands and wives, this theme does not provide the framework for interpreting the rest of the Bible; nor does sexual fulfillment represent the ultimate goal of the human endeavor, contrary to the message of modern Western culture. Rather, the bool's canonical setting invites us to say that the more we understand intimate love, the more we understand our relationship to God, often imaged as a marriage.
Literary Form
Scholars disagree on issues relating to the literary form of the book and the characters represented
in it. Some see the work as a cohesive unit with a discernible progression of events leading up to and beyond a wedding night, while others view the poems as originally unrelated units strung together by an editor. Certain sections appear to feature a country girl and her beloved, a shepherd. Other poems identify a bride, at one point called the "Shulammite," and a groom, specified in one passage as King Solomon (3:6-11). Some scholars believe the book represents the thoughts and conversations of a single couple (the bride and groom); others who take the book as a unified whole see a country bride rejecting the advances of Solomon as she remains true to her shepherd-husband; and still others perceive multiple voices from different couples in a presumed collection of unrelated love poems. At several points, interjections by the "daughters of Jerusalem," brothers of the bride, and anonymous, secondary parties also surface.
Authorship
The opening verse of the Song identifies the work as Solomon's. Indeed, the book contains additional allusions to the king, and the likening of the woman in 1:9 to "a mare among Pharaoh's chariots" suggests Solomon's international commercial activities (cf. 1 Kgs. 10:28-29). Yet the title represents an editorial addition. Just as Ecclesiastes associates itself with the renowned wisdom tradition of Solomon although not claiming Solomonic authorship, so might the final editor(s) of the Song have sought to associate the work with the king famed for his love of women (cf. 1 Kgs. 11:3). Proposed dates of authorship for the Song range from ca. 950 to 200 B.C.
Interpreting the Song of Songs
The Song of Songs is one of the most perplexing books of the Old Testament and perhaps the most difficult to interpret. Several reasons account for the wide diversity of interpretations that have been proposed: (1) the lack of specific religious themes; (2) the erotic lines; (3) the vagueness of any plot; (4) the abundance of figurative language; and (5) the fact that the book is nowhere quoted in the New Testament so as to provide a guide for understanding it.
Six basic interpretations have been proposed. They are not necessarily mutually exclusive. (1) Allegorical. In this view, most prevalent throughout earlier church history, the literal details of the book are given an allegorical meaning. Thus the man is said to represent the Lord Jesus, and the bride his church, so that the real meaning of the book is Christ's love for his church. Those who took this approach felt the erotic details of the book were too "earthy" (and thus unspiritual) to be taken literally. Not surprisingly, the interpretation of details became quite diverse and fanciful. For example, the one who is brought into the king's chambers (Song 1:4) is said to be those whom Christ had wedded and brought into his church, and the two breasts in 4:5 are the Old and New Covenants. There were many subviews to the allegorical approach. For instance, some Roman Catholic scholars under
stood the extolling of the bride in 4:7 to have the Virgin Mary in view.
(2) Typical. Although similar to the allegorical view, it takes into account the historical setting of the book and is more restrained in interpretation. It is based on the idea in Scripture of Solomon as a type of Christ and the recognition that typology has a rightful place in the Bible. This would allow for understanding the book's message as a depiction of Christ's love for the church, but without pressing all the details for allegorical meaning.
(3) Drama. The first of two primary variations is the two-character drama, involving Solomon, or the man, and the Shulammite maiden, or the woman, in which the Song was originally meant to be acted and/ or sung. A second variation is the three-character shepherd hypothesis, which proposes three primary characters to the drama: the man, the maiden, and a common shepherd. Supposedly, the maiden is really in love with the young shepherd, and the tension in the book stems from the man's efforts to win her away from him.
(4) Mythological-cultic. Certain critical scholars suggest that the Song derived from heathen cultic songs associated with pagan worship. Some take the view that the Song was really a celebration of the union of deities such as Ishtar and Tammuz, or perhaps associated with an ancient cultic funeral
feast that extolled love as the only power greater than death (8:6).
(5) Dream. Here most, if not all, of the book's episodes are a reflection of the couple's feelings experienced in dreams (3:1-5; 5:28; and the refrains in 2:7 and 8:4). The characters are said to recall the early days of their married life together, though the woman struggles with insecurity and jealousy. Supposedly the book records the character and growth of the woman's love as a response to the purifying effect of the man's love.
(6) Literal. One of several different variations to this understands the book as primarily a celebration of the romantic and sexual relationship that God intended for a man and woman to have in a legal marriage sanctioned by God. One subview (the anthology view) understands the book to be a collection or anthology of love poems with no unifying thematic organization.
In another variation, the literaldidactic view, the Song is understood literally (thus underscoring the divinely intended beauty of God-ordained marriage), but the primary point of the book is found in the "moral lesson" that derives from the story, especially in the book's conclusion (8:5-14). The bride (who has carefully remained a virgin - 4:12; 8:8-10) feels insecure in their relationship precisely because the groom is a man of many lovers (6:8-9), and she yearns to be exclusively his (8:6-7). Thus the bride, the real heroine, delivers the great lesson of the book: there is a level of love far beyond sexual satisfaction, a love that is exclusive and possessive,
and one that quite rightly feels jealous of all other intruders (2:15). Without such fidelity, the whole relationship is jeopardized, and the
experiencing of love in its highest attainment is diminished.
J. PAUL TANNER
1 The Best of Songs
This "best of songs" (the Hebrew is a superlative; v. 1) poetically expresses the mutual passion of a man and a woman in sensual terms. By itself, chapter 1 alludes to four of the five senses - touch, taste, smell, and sight - in conveying the emotional responses of people in love (for hearing, see 2:14). In verses 5-6, the woman defends her physical beauty despite being viewed by the shade-protected, urbanite "daughters of Jerusalem" as a lower-class working girl from the country. She compares her dark complexion to the black, goatskin tents of the nomadic Kedarites of the Sinai desert N. 5) and attributes the neglect of her personal "vineyard" to her forcibly heavy workload. She has had neither time nor opportunity to take care of herself.
That the woman does not conform to ancient standards of beauty makes little difference to her man. He sees her through the eyes of love as "fairest among women" (v. 8), and he pays her the utmost compliment by likening her to his standout, chariot-pulling mare (v. 9). She answers by comparing him to a pouch of fragrant myrrh (an aromatic plant gum) suspended from her neck under her clothing. Women of means in the ancient Near East commonly wore such pouches in lieu of liquid perfume. The exchange of compliments continues as the man equates his beloved with the blossoms of the henna plant, used to manufacture a cosmetic dye, from En-gedi, site of a spring-fed oasis near the western shore of the Dead Sea and David's refuge during his flight from Saul (1 Samuel 24).
2 The Springtime Blossoming of Love
The beloved woman feels like a beautiful flower (v. 1), the"rose of Sharon" or crocus, one of the first flowers to bloom in the spring. Overcome with emotion, the woman longs for her lover's reclining embrace (v. 6). She pictures him running swiftly and agilely toward her and watch
ing intently to spot her from a distance (vv. 8-9). She dreams of a private springtime rendezvous when he admires her appearance and revels in the sound of her voice. She censures all threats to the blossoming of their exclusive relationship (v. 15). Literally, "little foxes" did spoil vineyards (cf. Judg. 15:1-5; Samson accelerated their usual damage by using them to destroy Philistine fields). Verse 7 (also 3:5; 8:4) seems to acknowledge the need for love to blossom naturally and on its own (cf. 4:16; 7:10-13).
3 Manifestations of Love
Unable to tolerate another night of dreaming that she cannot find her beloved, the woman conducts a nocturnal search throughout the city. Once successful, she clings to him all the way home to her "mother's house," where the unwed woman would have lived and where the presence of a parental chaperone made it acceptable for the lovers to stay together (vv. 1-4).
Verses 6-ll describe the well-guarded wed ding procession of Solomon and liken the pedestrian caravan, which undoubtedly kicked up a good deal of dust, to columns of smoke rising up from the desert. David and Solomon used the famous cedar and cypress wood of Lebanon for their royal and religious building projects (2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Kgs. 5:1-10).
"I am a rose of Sharon, a lily of the valleys" (Song 2:1). (Wikimedia Commons)
4:1-5:1 Portrait of a Wedding Night
The first six verses of chapter 4 take the form of a wasf, a convention of Arabic literature that uses metaphors from nature and craft to describe the human body (cf. 5:10-16; 6:4-7; 7:1-9). While visual comparisons normally dominate in the wasf, other senses also come into play, such as touch and taste. Today, Syrian weddings continue to incorporate the wasf.
In describing the dark locks of his bride's hair against the lighter background of her skin, the groom envisions from a distant perspective a flock of goats winding their way down Mount Gilead, an area of fertile pastureland east of the Jordan River. Newly shorn, freshly bathed, and therefore gleaming white ewes portray the bride's teeth, not one of which she has lost! For every tooth in the upper jaw, a matching "twin" corresponds in the lower (cf. 6:5b-7). Her "temples, likely her cheeks, remind him of the inside of a pomegranate because of their rosy color and the netlike shadow cast on them by her veil. He likens her regal, stately neck to the strong tower of David, a fortification structure in the defense wall around Jerusalem. The decorations on her elaborately ornamented bridal headdress, which would have hung down to cover her neck, remind him of military shields mounted on the city wall. He compares the feel of her breasts to that of fawns, which have soft hair and supple skin. He intends to make love to her all day (v. 6).
The smitten groom continues to excite the bride's sexual desire by extolling her complete appeal to him. Not only does she look and feel perfect, but she also smells and tastes wonderful. His references to Lebanon (north of Canaan), Amana (possibly a river in Syria), Senir, and Hermon (mountains on Canaan's border with Lebanon) summon her to leave all outside thoughts and fears behind as they enjoy each other's love. The groom calls his bride "sister;" an ancient term of endearment (vv. 10, 12). He describes her virginity metaphorically as a "locked garden, inside which grow all manner of sensual pleasures (v 12). Her sexual desire naturally and auspiciously aroused, she invites him to feast in the garden of her body, which she now calls his, and he satisfies himself liberally. The time for the ultimate expression of love has come to fruition. The last two lines of 5:1 represent the encouragement of the bride's and groom's mutual sexual enjoyment by knowing outsiders.
5:2-6:3 Departure and Pursuit
In a second bad dream, the man searches out the woman, who has already gone to bed. By the time she answers his knocking at the door, he has gone away. Emotionally frustrated, she pursues him on foot. After suffering blows from the night watchmen, she enlists the women of the city to communicate a message to her elusive beloved: she is sick with love for him. The wasf (see 4:1-5:1) resurfaces in verses 10-16 as she describes her one "among ten thousand": thick, curly black hair (v. ii); soft eyes that sparkle against their white background (v. 12); sweetsmelling cheeks and tasty lips N. 13); a washboard abdomen N. 14); and rock-strong legs N. 15). He has the Midas look from head to toe (vv. ii, 14-15), and his physique, magnificent as the anciently famous cedars of Lebanon, makes him as wholly desirable to her as the bride in 4:7 is to the groom.
6:4-13 The Uniqueness of the Beloved
The groom compares the beauty of his bride to Tirzah ("pleasantness"), initial capital of the northern kingdom of Israel (1 Kgs. 16:23), and to Jerusalem, capital of the southern kingdom of Judah. When she looks at him, he can't think straight (v. 5a). The theme of the beloved's uniqueness reappears in verses 8-9, where for the groom neither queens nor concubines nor countless maidens can compare with his "perfect" bride (cf.1:9; 5:10). Even the competition recognize her exceptional qualities (vv. 9-10) and find her beauty compelling (v. 13).
The identification of the woman as "Shulammite" (v 13) is unclear. It should not be linked with the Shunammite beauty, Abishag, who nursed David in his old age (1 Kgs. 1:3-4). It may be a feminine parallel to the name Solomon or connote "peace" or "wholeness," from its Hebrew root shalom.
7 The Bride's Beauty Extolled Again
The groom further describes intimate features of the bride's body as he extols her beauty, again in wasf style. Curvaceous hips, a rounded belly, and a stately nose contribute to his ideal of the female form. Heshbon (v. 4) was the former Amorite capital in Transjordan (Num. 21:26). Carmel (v. 5), where Elijah challenged the prophets of Baal, refers to the range of mountains that rises eastward from the Mediterranean Sea in the area of modern Haifa. Likening his bride's hair to "purple" threads signifies a royal look.
The bride, who has saved her love for the groom, responds to his expressed desire by summoning him to the country, where she promises to give herself to him sexually. The springtime setting and the mention of the mandrake herb raise the notion of fertility (cf. Gen. 30:14-22).
8 The Compulsion and Discipline of Love
The bride knows that the social mores of her day prohibit the public display of affection between spouses, but not between siblings; hence the wish that her husband were "like a brother" to her. She imagines an impromptu kiss leading to their reclining embrace in romantic privacy.
The groom recalls his "awakening" of the bride's love in the very location of her birth. She would not allow it to occur until the time was ripe (v. 4; cf. 2:7). The groom's admonition that she wear him as a "seal" over her heart expresses his desire for the unequivocal emotional bond with his bride and by extension for exclusive sexual intimacy with her. In antiquity, rings and cylinder seals, often hung on cords as necklaces, featured engravings of the owner's signature, initials, or other distinctive marks, the clay or wax impression of which identified the owner of the item bearing it (cf. Gen. 38:18). Verses 6-7 highlight the power of "love" in its broadest sense of total emotional and physical intimacy characterized by the same irresistible power as death and Sheol.
The bride's brothers chime in with a reflection on their determination to guard their sister's virginity during her physically immature youth (v. 8), in antiquity an important element in preserving the honor of the entire family (cf. Genesis 34). Family leaders arranged marriages for their eligible members, hence the brothers' reference to the "day when she is spoken for."
In confirming her chaste behavior as an unmarried woman, the bride compares her breasts to defense towers incorporated into a fortification wall. Unlike the members of Solomon's harem (v. 11, "a vineyard at Baal-hamon"), which caretakers oversee, the bride is mistress of the vineyard of her own body.
This book of love poetry concludes with urgent expressions of desire by an eager husband and wife. He longs to hear her voice, and she beckons that he hurry to her for a passionate reunion (vv. 13-14).