Numbers
Leviticus - named after the tribe of Levi, which inherited the Israelite priesthood - restates and expands the Law given to Moses on Mount Sinai as recorded in Exodus 20-23. But not all Levites became priests (only Aaron and his descendants), and not all of Leviticus focuses solely on the rituals of the ancient Israelite priesthood. While chapters 6-17 provide instruction for the priests in conducting worship, chapters 1-5 and 18-27 focus mainly on guiding the Israelite community in matters of practical holiness. Chapters 17-26 are often identified as the "Holiness Code."
Holiness evidenced by ritual purity and personal morality represented a new development in religion in the Near East of the 2nd millennium B.C. and signaled Israel's distinctiveness from other nations. More importantly, holiness made possible the Israelites' appropriation of God's grace and forgiveness evidenced by his continuing to dwell in their midst (cf. Exodus 33).
Content
The account in Leviticus flows logically from the setting presented at the end of Exodus, with the Israelites poised to celebrate God's dwelling among them by beginning the service of the newly erected tabernacle. By giving detailed instructions concerning ritual purity and the sacrificial system, Leviticus emerges as a rulebook for the priests in exercising their duties in the tabernacle and a handbook for their teaching of the laity, particularly regarding the maintenance of ritual cleanness. See "Holy, Clean, and Unclean" (127-28).
In the latter half of the book, instructions for the nation as a whole address all areas of life - worship (through celebration as well as sacrifice), personal morality, family and community relationships, the treatment of resident aliens, and economic dealings (especially regarding land and property). Many of these laws provide the roots for Christian principles mandated in the New Testament, such as loving one's neighbor, caring for society's weak and oppressed, resisting conformity to the world, and carrying out not only the letter but also the spirit of the Law (esp. ch. 19).
Authorship
Although Leviticus does not identify its author directly, the writer presents God as communicating his laws to Moses, to whom traditionalists ascribe the authorship of the book. The Documentary Hypothesis attributes the present form of Leviticus to the priestly line of the exilic period and dates the material to the late 6th century s.c., although it recognizes that much of the book's content predates the exile by many years. Another view posits that preexilic editors closer to Moses' time compiled Leviticus.
1-7 Sacrifices
God commands the Israelites to offer five kinds of sacrifices - three voluntary, and two compulsory. Unlike the sacrifices in other ancient Near Eastern religions, these offerings were not attempts to manipulate God for personal gain; rather, they represented thankful responses for God's blessings, effected forgiveness of sins, and restored fellowship with God and neighbor. Both the poor and the wealthy received complete forgiveness by means of their obedient observance of the sacrificial rites regardless of the monetary value of their offerings. Although God's instructions require the Israelites to give of their best to God, the sacrificial system does not impoverish them, for God's primary interest is the contrite hearts evidenced by the offerings, not the material value of the sacrifices themselves (cf. 1 Sam. 15:22; Mark 12:33).
Sacrifices and Offerings
According to the biblical witness, the offering of sacrifices is as old as the relationship between God and Israel. The people as a community of faith join themselves with Yahweh, the god they will serve, in the ritual of a sacrificial meal. Both the account in Exod. 18:12, where Moses, Aaron, and the elders of Israel encounter Yahweh in the wilderness, and the binding of the people in covenant at Sinai through the offering of sacrifices followed by eating and drinking attest to the significance of sacrifice for the Yahweh-Israel relationship (Exod. 24:1-11).
The language of sacrifice and offering found in the biblical text shares common features with other societies of the ancient Near East. The offering of food to the gods was an important aspect of the religious expression of surrounding cultures. Whether or not the people of Israel understood their sacrifices along similar lines (cf. Lev. 1:9,13, 17), it is important to understand how the sacrifices offered to God define and reflect both the character of God and the nature of the covenantal relationship that binds God and people together.
The place of sacrifice and offering is woven throughout the biblical story. From initial spontaneous acts of gratitude in which one's best produce is dedicated to God, whether animal or vegetable, to a systematic fulfillment of a regimented sacrificial system that develops later in Israel's history, sacrifice and offering work
to affirm, enhance, repair, and sometimes restore the relationship between worshipper and God. When the Philistines threaten Israel, Samuel intercedes on their behalf by sacrificing to the Lord (1 Sam. 7:7-10). Saul (who was not a priest) receives condemnation for a similar act (1 Sam. 13:8-13). On the occasion of bringing the ark into Jerusalem, David offers "burnt offerings and offerings of well-being before the Lord" (2 Sam. 6:17-18), and Solomon offers regular sacrifices and offerings in the temple (1 Kgs. 9:25).
Israel's early history allowed for sacrifices to be offered on family altars, at local shrines, and at high places. Such acts gave way to the demand that legitimate sacrifices be offered only at the temple (Deut. 12:13-14), with strict condemnation of the high places as Israel's cult became centralized in Jerusalem.
"Offering" is a broader term than "sacrifice." Any sacred gift or donation given to the deity or to the deity's cultic personnel at an altar or cult place is an "offering." A "sacrifice" is a gift that is burned totally or partially as a part of the offering ritual. A variety of sacrificial terms are used in describing the manner or substance of the offering, the place or timing, and the purpose or motive.
A "burnt offering" (Heb. `olah) refers to an offering that is wholly burned on the altar. An unblemished male animal, ranging from a bird to a bull, was brought by the presenter to the altar. The pre-
senter identified the offering as his, for his need or benefit, by placing his hand over the animal. Either the presenter or priest would slaughter the animal, splash or pour out its blood against the altar, and burn the animal for the purpose of allowing its smoke or odor to go up" or "ascend" Calah) pleasantly to the deity. Biblical examples suggest that the burnt offering was at times used to gain the attention of the deity in order that the worshipper might then present his primary concerns (cf. Num. 23:1-6;1 Kings 18) and at other times for expiation or atonement (Lev. 1:4; Job 42:8), as well as to fulfill of a vow or as a freewill offering (Lev. 22:17-19; Num. 15:3).
Grain or cereal offerings (minhah) are closely associated with the burnt offering. Whether as grain, flour, or bread; mixed with oil, frankincense, and salt; presented raw or formed into cakes and cooked, the grain offering moved from being burned in its entirety to a time when only a part was burned and the remainder consumed by the priests (Lev. 2:1-16, esp. vv. 8-1o). Not only were cultic personnel provided for by such offerings, but the poor were likewise included in a sacrificial system that might otherwise exclude them. Over time, offerings of incense became daily fare (Exod. 30:1-8).
Sometimes translated as "peace offering" or "communion offering," the sacrifice of well-being (zebah shelamim) establishes or maintains communion with the deity. The emphasis is on a right relationship between the worshipper and God. Similar in procedure to the burnt offering, the sacrifice of well-being differs in that all participants share in the distribution of the meat. Blood and fat, considered as life-giving, belong to God. The priest receives the breast and right leg, and the person bringing the
sacrifice keeps the remainder (Lev. 7:28-34; 10:14-15). This sacrifice follows the burnt and grain offerings in passages that present them in 1-2-3 order (Leviticus 1-7; Josh. 22:23, 29; 1 Kgs. 8:64; Jer. 33:18; Amos 5:22). Particular usages of the sacrifice of well-being occur in celebratory moments, both public and private. The thanksgiving offering expresses gratitude for God's deliverance (Lev. 7:12-15), the votive offering seeks to secure the aid of the deity through payment of a vow (Lev. 7:13), and the freewill offering celebrates life's goodness. Each is found within official religious expression as well as in family religious practices.
Sacrificial altar in the 10th/9th-century Israelite temple at Arad; made of unhewn field stones, 5 x 5 cubits (2.5 x 2.5 m.). (Phoenix Data Systems, Neal and Joel Bierling)
Two sacrifices serve to bring about atonement: the purification offering (hatta't) and the reparation offering ('asham). The first is often called a "sin offering" and is designed to purify the altar or sanctuary. Should other sacrifices be offered, they must come first with the blood of the sacrifice serving a purifying role. The benefit to the worshipper was the removal
of his guilt, with all the meat being given to the priests. Should the offering be for the benefit of the high priest or community, the entire offering was burned outside the camp and no one could eat of it (Lev. 4:1-5:13; 9:7-21; 14:19). The reparation offering, likewise called a "guilt offering," occurs often with the purification offering and is in many cases difficult to distinguish from the sin offering (Lev. 5:14-6:7; 7:1-7). Numbers 5:5-8 has restitution being made to the wronged person as well as a fine of 20 percent accompanying the reparation offering.
Over time a set pattern developed of daily sacrificial ritual at the
temple that would be supplemented on occasion by particular sacrifices of individual worshippers. Special festivals or days of worship would occasion other sacrifices, such as the Passover lamb (Exodus 12) and the Day of Atonement's scapegoat (Leviticus 16).
The ritual practices of sacrifice and offering served to maintain an order of holiness and purity, provide the means for consuming the flesh and meat, and bind people and God in community. Additionally, the presentation of the tithe and firstfruits (Deut. 12:6) became a celebratory means by which God was thanked (Deut. 14:22-26) and two categories of people were cared for - the priests and those in priestly service (Deut. 14:27-28; 26:12; Num. 18:21-32; Neh. 10:3738; 13:10-12) and those without regular means of support from the land - resident aliens, orphans, and widows (Deut. 14:28).
When the true meaning of sacrifice becomes lost in ritual, prophetic critique is harsh (Amos 5:2127; Isa. 1:11-17; Mal. 1:6-14). Yahweh is not a god who needs to be fed (Ps. 50:13) but rather a god who demands obedience and justice (Amos 5:24), a god who delights in legitimate sacrifices (Ps. 51:19).
For Further Reading
Anderson, Gary A. "Sacrifice and Sacrificial Offerings (OT)." ABD 5:870-86.
KANDY QUEEN-SUTHERLAND
Voluntary sacrifices include the burnt offering (ch. 1; 6:8-13), which functions mainly to atone for sins, but which also expresses thanksgiving or announces a vow of obedience. Although all the sacrifices involve burning a portion of the offering, the burnt offering is the only sacrifice completely consumed by fire (with the exception of the hide). As with the other animal sacrifices, the burnt offering must come from the offerer's own herd or flock (not from the wild) to ensure that the sacrifice costs the offerer something. This requirement also ties the offerer to the animal in the transfer of guilt by the offerer's laying a hand on the animal's head. Further, as God required the best of materials for the construction and furnishing of the tabernacle, he also requires the best of animals - unblemished ones - as sacrifices.
The second voluntary sacrifice, the grain or cereal offering (ch. a; 6:14-18), often accompanied other sacrifices (cf. Num. 15:1-16). The poor could give a grain offering by itself in place of an animal. Oil and frankincense mixed with finely ground flour add value and express joy in this offering. (The offering of firstfruits requires only whole grains.) The grain offering cannot include leaven or honey (perhaps because these ingredients cause fermentation and therefore symbolize corruption), but it must include salt (perhaps as a preservative symbolizing the offering's perpetual effectiveness). The priests are to burn only a small portion of the grain offering on the altar and eat the remainder. In this way, God provides sustenance from grain for the landless priestly tribe.
The voluntary peace, or fellowship, offering (ch. 3; 7:11-36) restores relationships, both between God and his people and between individuals and their neighbors. It serves both personal and communal functions and provides an occasion for a shared meal between family and friends. This offering could signify personal thanksgiving or the fulfillment of a vow and later accompanied the dedication of the first temple (1 Kgs. 8:63-66) and Saul's appointment as king (1 Sam. 11:15). No one may eat the sacrificed animal's fat (considered the best and richest part and therefore God's portion) or the blood (which symbolizes life). As
with the other animal sacrifices except those offered as burnt offerings, the priests take their prescribed portion of meat as God's provision for their sustenance.
The offering for unintentional sin (4:1-5:13; 6:24-30), required when an individual realizes his or her transgression, does not so much achieve atonement as cleanse from sin - which breaks a person's relationship with God and endangers the welfare of the entire community. Because it applies to inadvertent offenses, not to deliberate wrongdoing, it also purifies the ritually unclean (e.g., a woman after giving birth, or an individual with a skin disease). A gradation exists in the sacrifice required that reflects the degree to which the offense of one individual affects the congregation of Israel as a whole. While the high priest, God's special representative of all the people, must sacrifice the most costly of animals - a bull - the common poor person may offer a bird or some grain.
The guilt offering (5:14-6:7; 7:1-10) makes right a wrong by requiring not only sacrifice but also compensation. Again, the kinds of sacrifices offered may vary depending on the economic status of the offerer, but all offenders must make restitution of 120 percent for their misdeed. Leviticus 5:17 allows no escape from the guilt of sin: even the person unaware of his offense will "bear his punishment" and must offer an atoning sacrifice.
In all these cases, the offerer prepares the sacrifice either by grinding and mixing the grain, oil, and incense, or by slaughtering, skinning, cleaning, and cutting up the animal. The priest sprinkles the blood on the altar and/or arranges the offering on it. In 6:9-7:36, God gives additional instructions to the priests concerning their specific duties and entitlements regarding each kind of sacrifice. The "wave [or `elevation'] offering" (7:30) probably involves the offerer's raising his sacrifice as he hands it over to the priest in a symbolic gesture of transferring its ownership from the human realm to that of the divine. The "pleasing aroma" the offerings provide for God symbolizes God's pleasure with his people for their obedience (and perhaps makes possible his continued dwelling among them).
Holy, Clean, and Unclean
Modern readers may be puzzled that in the Bible there is a connection between the ideas of holy and clean/unclean. Leviticus 10:10 assumes their association: You must distinguish between the holy [Heb. qodesh] and the profane [or'common'; hol], between the unclean [tame] and the clean [tahor]" (NIV). To understand these concepts and their relationship, let us examine the concept of holy, show its connection with clean/unclean by a specific example in the life of David, and then discuss the interpretation of these concepts in the New Testament.
When David fled King Saul, he came to the sanctuary at Nob and requested food for himself and his men from Ahimelech the priest. The priest replied to David, "I don't have any ordinary [hol] bread on hand; however, there is some consecrated [qodesh] bread here - provided the men have kept themselves from women" (1 Sam. 21:4 NIV). The consecrated bread was the 12 loaves in the sanctuary, known as the "bread of the Presence" (KJV "shewbread"), which after their weekly removal could be eaten by the Aaronic priests (1 Sam. 21:6; Lev. 24:5-9). The rationale behind the consecrated bread versus the ordinary bread was its status in relation to God. Only God is by nature holy (Isa. 6:3-5), meaning that he is morally perfect in his character and in his acts. All persons, creatures, and things are dependent on God's holiness, becoming holy when they
move from the common sphere to the holy sphere (e.g., priests, Lev. 8:30). Because of the presence of God among his people (Exod. 25:8), any person or thing related to him was holy. This was especially but not exclusively true of Israel's worship, such as places (tabernacle/temple), persons (priests), things (altar), rituals (sacrifices), and time (Sabbath). The important ideas of holy are divine presence and relationship to the Holy One.
In our Samuel passage, Ahimelech provided the sacred bread on the condition that neither David nor his men had engaged in sexual relations. This requirement reflects the purity laws concerning clean and unclean. Leviticus 15:18 instructs persons who have had sexual intercourse to wash themselves, indicating that they were in the condition of ritual uncleanness until evening (cf. Exod. 19:15). Anyone who was ritually "unclean" could defile the holy by contact. Thus the spheres of holy and clean/unclean can overlap, creating the very complex regulations practiced by the Israelites. The world of the clean/ unclean pertained to the physical existence of the people, especially foods (Leviticus 11; Deuteronomy 14) and persons (Leviticus 12-15; Num. 5:2-4). The rationale behind Ahimelech's objection explains the relationship of holy and clean/unclean. David's men had been consecrated to the Lord; if they became unclean through
sexual intercourse, by eating the holy bread they would defile the sanctuary and the Lord (Lev. 15:31). Ritual purity was necessary for any person or thing that approached or pertained to the holy, requiring regular purification of the sanctuary from sin and uncleanness. Purity laws also applied to other areas of life (e.g., skin disease, Leviticus 13-14). The primary purpose for these laws was to acknowledge the presence of God in Israel's midst, distinguishing the people of God thereby from the nations (Lev. 20:25-26). The holy character and actions of the Lord and the demands made on his people to imitate his holiness (Lev. 19:2; 20:7; Deut. 23:14) necessitated redemption and sanctification (Exod. 19:6), for the people were both sinful and impure.
The Hebrew psalmists and prophets especially employed the language of holy - clean/unclean to describe sinful moral and ethical behavior (Isa. 6:5; Ps. 51:7). Jesus and the church also emphasized this ethical or spiritual significance (Mark 7:18-23; Heb. 1:3). The popular Greek terms in the Septuagint and New Testament for "holy" (hagios) and "sanctify" (hagiazo) translate the Hebrew word group for "holy" (qadosh). The New Testament writers affirmed the Old Testament understanding of God as holy (John 17:11) and the people of God (church) as sanctified (1 Pet. 2:9). In particular, the New Testament shows that the redemptive sacrifice of Jesus Christ by his death and resurrection sanctifies those who believe, fulfilling the demands that God's presence places on his people (John 17:1719; 1 Cor. 1:30). By drawing on the imagery of Old Testament cult and covenant, the writer to the Hebrews declares that Christ is both perfect high priest, tabernacle, and atoning sacrifice, whose shed
blood sanctifies believers once and for all, requiring no further offering (Heb. 9:11-14:10:1-18). Through the gift of the indwelling Holy Spirit (Rom. 15:16; 1 Cor. 6:11), the individual (6:19) and the church (3:16-17) are holy vessels who must cast off sinful living. The sanctifying presence of the Spirit (1 Pet. 1:2) requires Christians to
seek a lifestyle of love and blameless conduct (Rom. 12:1; 1 Thess. 3:12-13; Heb. 12:10; 1 Pet. 1:14-16; 2:5). Sanctification also has an eschatological dimension, when at the coming of Christ the church will be presented and dwell with God in all eternity (1 Thess. 3:13; 5x3; Rev. 20:6; 21:2-3). The New Testament authors viewed the holiness of God's people primarily as one's right relationship with God through the sanctifying work of Christ, not cultic purity through ritual observance. The Apostle Paul often referred to Christians and to his readers as the holy ones/saints" (Rom.1:7;15:31), indicating their redemption and sanctification in Christ (Rom. 1:4; 1 Cor. 1:2; Col. 1:12).
Food Laws
Clean Animals
Quadrupeds that chew the cud and have cloven hooves
Ox, sheep, goat, deer, gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, ibex, antelope, mountain sheep
Fish with scales and fins
Other birds
Leaping insects
Locusts, cricket, grasshopper
Unclean Animals
Those that do not
Camel, rock badger, hare, pig
Quadrupeds with flat paws
Dogs, cats
Fish without scales and fins
Lobsters, crabs, shrimp, shellfish
Carnivorous or swamp-dwelling birds
Eagle, vulture, osprey, buzzard, kite, raven, ostrich, nighthawk, sea gull, hawk, owl, cormorant, water hen, pelican, stork, heron, hoopoe, bat
Winged insects
Swarming creatures
Weasel, mouse, lizard, gecko, crocodile, chameleon
For Further Reading
KENNETH A. MATHEWS
Although foreign and seemingly gory to modern Westerners, the ancient Israelite sacrificial system represented a much more humane, orderly, and reverent means of worship than that of other ancient Near Eastern religions, which included rituals of divination using animals' entrails, sexual and fertility rites, occult practices, the shedding of blood through self-mutilation, and human sacrifice. Christ's death on the cross made the sacrificial system unnecessary by achieving atonement for sin, cleansing from unrighteousness, pay ment of the debt of sin, and restored fellowship with God (cf. Eph. 1:7; Col. 1:20; i John 1:7).
8-10 Institution of the Priesthood
Now that the priests and people know how and what to sacrifice to God, the ceremony to consecrate the priests outlined in Exodus 28-29 proceeds. In front of the congregation gathered at the entrance to the tabernacle, Moses conducts the elaborate, seven-day ritual, which involves clothing Aaron with the priestly vestments; anointing him, his sons, and the objects set apart for worshipping God; and offering sacrifices on behalf of the newly ordained priests. The sin offering cleanses Aaron and his sons ritually, the burnt offering achieves their spiritual cleansing through atonement, and the peace offering establishes their fellowship with God.
Yet these outward signs of dedication to God and adherence to his commands do not reach the hearts of Aaron's sons Nadab and Abihu, who begin their priestly duties by offering "strange fire before the Lord." Whatever the nature of this action, it clearly represents a disregard for God's commands regarding priestly service. Lest anyone believe from the outset that the Lord tolerates priestly disregard for his holiness and his commands, God strikes Nadab and Abihu dead. Then God commands Aaron that Israel's priests refrain from drinking alcohol before attending to their duties - a departure from Canaanite religious practice. The entire incident surrounding Nadab's and Abihu's death emphasizes the higher standard to which God holds those he places in positions of spiritual leadership and evidences the greater judgment those leaders incur for causing others to stray (cf. Jas. 3:1).
Yet neither do Eleazar and Ithamar, Aaron's surviving sons, follow God's instructions. Instead of eating the meat of a sin offering to achieve atonement for the Israelite congregation, they let it burn up (io:16-18). Aaron intercedes with Moses on their behalf, apparently attributing their breach to the recent death of their brothers, and Moses accepts Aaron's explanation.
11 Laws regarding Food
God wants the Israelites to stand out from other peoples not only in their religious beliefs and practices ("holiness"), but also in practical ("common") matters, including eating habits. Here God prohibits his people from eating specific animals, fish, birds, and insects - in many cases, creatures that today are identified as particularly likely to carry and spread disease easily in hot climates.
Foods forbidden for consumption consist of flesh-eating animals, birds of prey or carrion, pigs, vermin, and shellfish. Permitted foods include animals with cloven hoofs that also "chew the cud" (primarily domesticated animals), sea creatures that have both fins and scales, birds not listed as forbidden, and four kinds of locusts.
Chapter ll also outlines procedures for ensuring that the Israelites do not consume contaminated food or water, as well as rules for purifying anything that has become defiled through contact with dead creatures' carcasses. Note that physical contact with live animals declared as unclean for consumption does not result in ritual contamination.
12 Ritual Cleansing after Childbirth
Sexual intercourse, conception, pregnancy, and childbirth do not constitute sins for which an Israelite wife needs atonement. Humans are to "be fruitful and multiply" (Gen. 1:28); motherhood is a woman's social crown, and children are a blessing from God (Gen. 30:1-24). Rather, the woman's issue of blood for several weeks following delivery makes her ritually unclean (as does monthly menstruation); since blood represents life, the mother's continued loss of blood signifies an unnatural and therefore "unclean" state of losing life.
To allow time for the blood loss to stop, the woman must remain confined for several weeks after giving birth - twice the amount of time for bearing a girl as for a boy (perhaps in anticipation of the girl's one day giving birth herself). Following the mother's period of confinement, she must offer a burnt offering (perhaps partly to express thanksgiving for her child) and a sin offering (cf. Luke 2:21-24). These sacrifices achieve her atonement and cleansing.
13-14 Treating and Cleansing from Skin Diseases and Fungi
Priests must also diagnose, treat, and ritually cleanse people, fabrics, and houses affected by various skin diseases and fungi all classed under the general category of "leprosy" (not modern Hansen's disease). The instructions here provide basic guidelines for distinguishing temporary conditions from chronic ailments, for pronouncing people and items with "leprous" spots ritually clean (in cases of stable or healing states) or ritually unclean (in cases of infectious and spreading states), and for preventing defilement of the holy (normally by isolating the infected person or item).
As with mourners, individuals declared unclean must tear their clothes, sport messy hair, and cover their faces. They must verbally warn others of their diseased state (13:45) and live outside the Israelite camp to avoid physical contact with others. Neither may they enter the tabernacle court to worship and offer sacrifices. Again, however, moral wrongdoing does not figure in "uncleanness" (cf. ch. 12), and chapter 14 describes the process of ritually cleansing a person whose skin disease has healed. The lengthy ceremony publicly reverses the social isolation made necessary by the disease and welcomes the healed individual's return to worship through sacrifice.
Priests must treat houses "infected" with fungi, mildew, dry rot, and the like in a similar manner. After quarantining the house and ordering the replacement of necessary parts, the priest must anoint the "healed" house by using cedar wood, hyssop, and blood from a bird (to symbolize renewed life; cf. the ritual for humans healed of skin diseases, 14:1-32). But a house in which the problem persists must be torn down.
15 Cleansing from Bodily Discharges
Both natural and abnormal bodily discharges from male and female reproductive organs render an ancient Israelite unclean and require washing and waiting before the resumption of worship at the tabernacle (cf. Mark 5:24-34). That men and women become ritually unclean from sexual intercourse does not suggest the sinfulness of sexual activity. Rather, the declaration of a person's ritual uncleanness after sex makes it clear that God rejects sexual and fertility rites as part of Israel's worship.
16 The Day of Atonement
Yom Kippur, the solemn Day of Atonement (23:27-28), represents Israel's cleansing from sin so God may continue to dwell in their midst. Six months after Passover, the Day of Atonement continues to represent the highest holy day in the Jewish religious calendar.
God's instructions here dictate that Aaron (and subsequent high priests) enter the tabernacle's holy of holies only on this one day of the year. Clad in simple clothing (in contrast to the elaborate priestly vestments worn on other days), Aaron must atone for the sins of all the priests, including his own, through the sacrifice of a bull, whose blood he must sprinkle on and in front of the lid of the ark of the covenant. He must also make atonement for the people by sprinkling a goat's blood before the ark and then purify the altar outside the tabernacle with the blood of the bull and goat.
The ceremony reached its climax when Aaron symbolically transferred the Israelites' guilt to a second, live goat by laying his hands on the goat's head and confessing all Israel's sins, after which he would drive the scapegoat away into the wilderness to represent the removal of the people's iniquities both from sight and from memory. Scholars dispute the meaning of Azazel ("scapegoat," "goat of removal"), but the term certainly does not represent an offering to a demon (cf. 17:7). Burnt offerings and cleansing rituals conclude the atonement ceremony. The institution of this observance as a permanent statute ensures that the Israelites continue to confess their sinfulness before a holy God and celebrate his forgiveness and mercy.
The author of Hebrews connects the significance of Jesus' death on the cross with the purposes of the Day of Atonement (Heb. 9:1-10:22) and adds that Christ's sacrificial blood achieved eternal atonement and free access to God once and for all (esp. 9:12; cf. 2 Cor. 5:21; 1 Pet. 2:24).
17 Additional Food Laws
Chapter 17 further addresses the regulations regarding the sacrifice of animals and the eating of meat. The Israelites viewed the killing of domestic animals as sacrifice; therefore, God requires his people to sacrifice any domestic animal killed for its meat as a fellowship offering to him at the tabernacle (cf. Deut. 12:13-18). This ensures the Israelites' faithfulness to God alone by guarding against their ritual recognition of spirits of nature, such as the "goat demons" worshipped by the Egyptians N. 7). The prohibition against eating blood appears again; here blood commands special respect, because blood represents life, and the sacrificed life effects atonement (vv 10-14). The restrictions apply not only to the Israelites but also to outsiders living with them in order to prevent both idolatry and the introduction of foreign religious practices into Israel's worship.
18 Sexual Purity
Israel's distinctiveness from its neighbors must extend beyond purely religious rituals and into many practical areas of life, including sexual relationships. The sexual taboos given here ensure healthy social relationships within the Israelite community by guarding against jealousy and rivalry and also honor God by preserving the sexual relationships implied and established at creation.
The Israelites must honor their own marriage bonds but resist the practices of their neighbors. They must avoid incest by refraining from sexual relations with persons related through blood and birth as well as those related through marriage. Whereas the Egyptians and Canaanites incorporated all manner of perversions into their religious practices, the Israelites must not "defile" themselves by engaging in "abominations," such as adultery, childsacrifice, same-sex intercourse, or bestiality, lest God judge them in the same manner as the Canaanites (by causing the land to spew them out).
19 Practical Holiness
If the first chapters of Leviticus primarily legislate ritual holiness, chapter 19 makes clear that God also requires of his people a practical holiness in both public and private life that results from fearing God (emphasized by the repeated phrase, "I am the Lord") and that results in loving others in both word and deed (vv. 18, 34). Each of the Ten Commandments appears in some form here, with added directives that emphasize the importance of carrying out not only the letter but also the spirit of the laws. Not only must an Israelite refrain from robbery - he must not even delay paying a worker promptly (v. 13); an Israelite may express anger toward another, but he must not allow his anger to turn into heartfelt hatred N. 17); and not only must a person restrain himself from taking vengeance on another - he must not even bear a grudge (v. 18). The Israelites' oppression as slaves in Egypt gives birth to admonishments to love the needy and the resident alien through practical acts of concern (vv. 10, 3334)• Care must extend beyond one's neighbor to include the rest of God's creation - both land and animals (VV. 19, 23-25; cf. 25:1-7). So holiness must manifest itself not only in rejection of pagan practices (vv. 26b-3o), but also in the performance of just and merciful acts - in right behavior.
20 Penalties for Covenantal Offenses
For the Israelites, breaking God's covenantal laws demands serious punishment. Offenses against God and neighbor measured by the Ten Commandments and prohibited in chapters 18 and 19 incur penalties ranging from capital punishment (administered by the Israelites themselves) to the "cutting off" of a person from the Israelite community and to childlessness (both administered by God). The severity of the punishments guards Israel's distinctiveness from other nations and, more importantly, preserves the holy status conferred on them by God.
21-22 Priestly Holiness
Israel's priests must conform to a higher standard of behavior than the common Israelite, and the high priest must adhere to the highest standard of all. This hierarchy of holiness applied to Israel's priests provides an internal model of the Israelite nation's distinctiveness from her neighbors through her commitment to holiness and godly behavior. Special restric tions apply to the priests regarding mourning and marriage. Just as physically defective animals may not serve as acceptable sacrifices, so men from the priestly line with physical defects, abnormalities, diseases, and ritual uncleanness may not fulfill priestly duties (cf. 1 Tim. 3:i-i3; Tit. 1:5-9).
The Calendar of Israel's Worship
When God miraculously rescued the descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob from the tyranny of their enforced enslavement in Egypt, he set in motion a process designed to create a nation that would be radically different from all others. Based on the covenant made at Mount Sinai, the newly formed theocracy was meant to be "a kingdom of priests," mediating between God and the nations, and "a holy nation," mirroring God's moral perfection in their daily lives (Exod. 19:6). To support these
objectives, various institutions (the tabernacle, the Aaronic priesthood) and practices (the Levitical sacrificial system, the distinction between clean and unclean foods) were set in place during Israel's temporary sojourn at Mount Sinai. As part of these new arrangements a calendar of special days and times was also inaugurated.
Alongside the weekly Sabbath and monthly new moon celebration, arrangements were put in place for the three annual pilgrimage feasts of Unleavened
Bread (incorporating Passover), Weeks, and Tabernacles. In addition, the seventh month of the year (Tishri) started with the Feast of Trumpets, to be followed on the loth day of the month by the Day of Atonement. (For a detailed list, see Leviticus 23; Numbers 28-29 catalogues the special offerings associated with each of these occasions.) Beyond these weekly, monthly, and annual occasions, the Israelites were also expected to observe as special times every seventh year and every 49th (or possibly 5oth, depending upon how the biblical evidence is interpreted) year - the Year of Jubilee. (Much later in Israel's history, the Feast of Purim was introduced [see Esther] and the festival of Lights [or Hanukkah], celebrating the cleansing of the temple by Judas Maccabeus in 164 B.c.)
Although it was the most common of all the special days, the weekly Sabbath, along with the Day of Atonement, was the most sacred. On these days all work was prohibited (Lev. 23:3, 28). In contrast, the pilgrimage festivals of Unleavened Bread, Weeks, and Tabernacles and certain other days were considered less holy and required only refraining from regular work (Lev. 23:7, 21, 25, 35)• Likewise, while the Israelites were expected to make particular offerings on the first day of each month at the new moon, they were permitted to work on these days, indicating that these were the least holy of all special days.
The importance of the Sabbath is evident from the prominence given it in connection with the making of the covenant at Sinai. Just as the rainbow and circumcision function as signs for the covenants with Noah and Abraham respectively, the Sabbath is the sign of the Sinai covenant (Exod. 31:12-18). The Lord's instructions to the Israelites underline its significance: "Above all you shall keep my Sabbaths, for this is a sign between me and you throughout your generations, given in order that you may know that I, the Lord, sanctify you" (Exod. 31:13). Not only do God's comments explain why the Sabbath receives special mention in the Ten Commandments (Exod. 20:8-10), but they also show the importance
of the link between the idea of holiness and the Sabbath. By setting one day in seven apart, God intended the Sabbath to be a regular reminder to the people that they were to be a holy nation. Moreover, since it was the sign of the covenant between God and the Israelites, anyone who deliberately profaned the Sabbath was viewed as defiantly rejecting God's rule; by failing to maintain the sanctity of the Sabbath an individual put at jeopardy his or her right to be part of God's people (Num. 15:32-36).
For the Israelites, holiness as it applied to time was graded on the basis of how much or how little work could be undertaken. As Exod. 20:11 reveals, this outlook is reflected in Gen. 2:3, where the divine sanctification of the seventh day is linked directly to God's resting from his work. Underlying this is the idea that resting either sanctifies the day in some manner or maintains the sanctity already imparted to the day. Consequently, to maintain the holiness of the Sabbath, the Israelites, including their servants and animals, were divinely instructed to refrain from all labor.
While the Sabbath was a weekly reminder to the Israelites of their unique status as a holy nation, the pilgrimage feasts of Unleavened Bread, Weeks, and Tabernacles were annual reminders of how God had delivered the people from the oppressive rule of the Egyptian pharaoh. The idea of recalling God's past actions is particularly obvious in the Passover meal, which reenacted the events of the 14th day of the month of Abib, when God slew the firstborn of the Egyptians, passing over the houses of the Israelites because of the blood sprinkled on their door
frames (Exod. 12:1-51). Although the Passover meal bore witness to the events in Egypt, a full week was dedicated to celebrating the divine deliverance of the Israelites. The eating of unleavened bread became a hallmark of this particular week (Exod. 12:14-20; 13:3-10). Similarly, the Feast of Tabernacles (or Booths), with its focus on the Israelites' living in temporary structures for a week, was designed to recall the wilderness experience of the Israelites, when they lived in tents during their journey from Egypt to the land of Canaan, and to allow later generations to experience it for themselves and thus connect with that event.
Aside from remembering the past, the pilgrimage feasts also celebrated God's goodness toward the Israelites through the provision of bountiful harvests in the land of Canaan. For this reason, Unleavened Bread is associated with the firstfruits of the barley harvest, Weeks (also called the Feast of Harvest in Exod. 23:16; cf. 34:22) is linked to the firstfruits of the wheat harvest, and Tabernacles (called the Feast of Ingathering in Exod. 23:16; 34:22) coincides with the end of Israel's agricultural cycle after the grapes were harvested. Out of gratitude the Israelites were expected to bring the best of their firstfruits to the Lord. In this way they recalled that the exodus was not only about deliverance from bondage but also about enjoying a new life of bounty under the security of God's reign.
The pilgrimage feasts were predominantly joyful celebrations (even though the necessary offering of sacrifices would have been a vivid reminder of human failure and the need to repent), but the Day of Atonement was an exceptionally solemn occasion with particular attention being given to the process by which the high priest atoned for the sins of the nation. On this day the people fasted, acknowledged their sins, and looked to God for forgiveness.
Although Israel's sacred calendar was intended by God to help establish and maintain the holy status of the newly formed nation
of Israel and to provide testimony to that status, the limited evidence available suggests that the people became exceptionally lax about celebrating these occasions or did so in a way that invited God's condemnation of their hypocrisy (e.g., Isa. 1:11-14). Later, in the postexilic period greater attention appears to have been given to observing Sabbaths and festivals. The four Gospels bear witness to the im
portance of these occasions in the time of Jesus, although there were differing attitudes toward how the Sabbath in particular should be kept. Significantly, the crucifixion of Jesus takes place at Passover, providing justification for the idea that through his sacrificial death a new exodus is inaugurated (cf. 1 Cor. 5:7).
T. DESMOND ALEXANDER
Feasts and Festivals
23 Feasts and Festivals
The covenantal law builds the celebration of God's goodness into the life of the Israelites throughout the year. The appointed festivals mark agricultural seasons, incorporate sabbatical principles, and remind Israel of her history of redemption. Passover, followed immediately by the Feast of Unleavened Bread, occurs in the spring (March/April), and both celebrate Israel's exodus from Egypt. The offering of firstfruits at the end of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (April) anticipates the Feast of Weeks (or Pentecost), which occurs 5o days later (June) and concludes the grain harvest. See "The Calendar of Israel's Worship" (132-34).
A group of three religious observances also occurs in the fall (September/October) at the end of the agricultural calendar. A festival announced by trumpets heralds the new year; the Day of Atonement fosters a spirit of repentance and establishes a spiritual "clean slate" for the year to come (ch. 16); and the Feast of Tabernacles (or Booths), at the end of the olive and grape harvests, celebrates the completion of the ingathering of the year's crops and preserves the memory of Israel's tent-dwelling days in the wilderness. As the festival year begins with a reminder of God's delivering Israel from slavery in Egypt, so does it end.
Clay incense burner, ca. 3500 B.C. (Richard Cleave, Pictorial Archive)
24:1-9 Provisions inside the Tabernacle
Expanded instructions for activities inside the tabernacle's holy place include the provision for continual light from the lampstand and the placing of 12 loaves of fresh bread (one to represent each tribe) on the table each Sabbath. The loaves, sometimes called the bread of the Presence, provide sustenance for the priests (cf. 1 Sam. 21:1-6; Matt. 12:3-4).
The Tabernacle
Within the account of the divine deliverance of the Israelites from bondage in Egypt and the journey to the promised land of Canaan that followed, the construction of the tabernacle occupies a major place. Modern readers may find the detailed reporting of the Lord's commissioning speech in Exod. 25:1-31:ii and the almost identical compliance account in 35:1-40:33 uninspiring unless they learn to appreciate fully the significance of what happens here. At the very heart of these events is the transformation of the Israelites into a holy nation as the Lord, the incomparable king of all creation, comes to dwell among his chosen people. What begins as a dramatic, but temporary, theophany in Exodus 19, when God reveals something of his majestic power on Mount Sinai, ends with a cloud covering the newly constructed tent and the glory of the Lord" filling the tabernacle (Exod. 40:34-35).
Resembling tentlike structures from the Bronze Age period of the ancient Near East, the tabernacle and its furnishings were made from approximately 1 ton of gold, 4 tons of silver, and 2.5 tons of bronze. The lavishly decorated structure (see diagram) consisted of an outer courtyard, approximately 50 m. by 25 m., surrounded by a curtain about 2.5 m. high, within which was placed a tent about 5 m. wide and 15 m. long. The tent itself was divided into two parts, the holy of holies (5 m. x 5 m.) and the holy place (5 m. x
to m.). Placed at the center of the Israelite camp, the tent and surrounding courtyard were a powerful witness to the reality of God's presence among the people.
In Exodus three different expressions are used for the tent. "Sanctuary" (Heb. haqqodesh) reflects the holy or sacred nature of the structure. While God's presence makes the entire area holy, differing degrees of holiness exist within the tent and courtyard. At the heart of the tabernacle was the holy of holies, which housed the ark of the covenant - a goldplated chest that functioned, in part at least, as a divine throne. The holy of holies was considered to be so holy that only the high priest could enter it. A veil embroidered with cherubim separated the holy of holies from the holy place; the cherubim were a reminder that the way into God's immediate presence was barred to sinful
human beings (cf. Gen. 3:24). The holy place, which ordinary priests could enter, held the menorah or seven-branched lampstand, symbolizing the tree of life; the table of the presence, on which 12 loaves of bread were placed; and the gold-plated incense altar. Moving outside the tent itself, the courtyard was considered to be less holy; ordinary Israelites were granted limited access to it, but not to the tent itself. Here stood the laver or basin for washing and the large altar where sacrifices were made; both objects were made of bronze, reflecting the lesser holiness of this area. The location of the laver and altar between the entrance to the courtyard and the tent reinforced the idea that anyone who wished to approach God must first atone for sin and be cleansed.
The divine tent is also frequently called the "tabernacle" (hammishkan), underscoring the concept of "dwelling." Like the Israelites themselves, God would dwell in a tent during the journey to the promised land. The tent indicated God's commitment to be continually present among his people, a presence symbolized through the burning of the lamps and the placing of bread on the table within the holy place.
The third term, "tent of meeting," highlights its role as the interface between God and humanity. Here God addressed the people through Moses and the priesthood. Before the completion of the tabernacle, a temporary "tent of meeting" was created outside the Israelite camp, where God spoke on a regular basis with Moses (Exod. 33:7-11). This temporary arrangement ceased when the tabernacle was built.
The theological significance of God's presence among the Israelites cannot be overstated. In this event we witness a remarkable advance following Adam and Eve's expulsion from the garden of Eden. Where previously God had exiled humanity from his presence, he now deigns to live in their midst.
To highlight this point, subtle links are made between the garden of Eden and the tabernacle; for example, the menorah has features reminiscent of the tree of life.
Yet, while the significance of God's presence among the Israelites should not be underestimated, this was no complete return to the conditions that existed at the dawn of creation. God was living closer to the people, but access into his immediate presence was still severely restricted; no one but the high priest was permitted to enter the holy of holies, and even this was limited to once per year, on the Day of Atonement.
While the construction of the tabernacle enabled God's redemptive plan to take an important step forward, this was not the goal in itself. Later, when the land of Canaan was secured under the reigns of David and Solomon, the tabernacle was replaced by the Jerusalem temple. Although both tabernacle and temple formed an important bridge between God and the people of Israel, with the coming of Jesus Christ the physical temple gave way to a spiritual temple. Significantly, Jesus Christ
himself prepared for this development, for the Word became flesh and dwelt [lit. 'tabernacled] among us, and we have seen his glory, glory as of the only Son from the Father, full of grace and truth" (John 1:14). With good reason Jesus saw his body as a new temple; when people encountered Jesus, they encountered God.
Following Christ's ascension and the coming of the Holy Spirit upon believers, the church became the dwelling place or temple of God (Eph. 2:19-22). Drawing on imagery associated with the construction of the tabernacle, Paul describes how, like Bezalel and Oholiab, he was gifted by God to be a "skilled master builder," laying a foundation upon which others were to build (1 Cor. 3:10). Christians continue to be gifted by God for the task of building his temple. While the church, like the tabernacle, is to be filled with God's glory in this age, Revelation 21-22 anticipates a future age when God and humanity will live together in harmony on a recreated earth without a temple.
T. DESMOND ALEXANDER
Model of the tabernacle at Timna Park, Israel. (Wikimedia Commons)
24:10-23 Penalties Restated
For the ancient Israelites, blasphemy - a breach of the third commandment (Exod. 20:7) - represents an utter rejection of the God who redeemed them. To drive home the seriousness of this offense and to purge the nation of those who threaten to corrupt its devotion to God (whether Israelite or resident alien), the congregation as a whole must take responsibility in administering the death penalty by stoning the blasphemer.
The instructions concerning the specific incident of blasphemy addressed here provide an occasion to restate penalties for several other offenses. The principle for administering justice consists in the lex talionis, which curbs individual revenge and ongoing feuding by insisting on punishments that take offenses seriously enough but also limit the extent of retribution and prohibit overpunishment (in contrast to other ancient Near Eastern law codes). The lex talionis represented a great advance in legal history by taking vengeance out of the hands of private individuals and fixing sentences in a judicial system. In certain instances the Israelites may have substituted monetary fines for prescribed punishments-in-kind (cf. Exod. 21:18-19; Num. 35:31ff.).
25 Sabbatical and Jubilee Years
Chapter 25 anticipates Israel's future occupation of Canaan. God's command to allow the land a sabbatical every seventh year expands the instruction in Exod. 23:10-11 to sow for six years and let the land lie fallow during the seventh. The Israelites must afford the land an additional sabbatical every 5oth year - the Year of jubilee, during which property sold over the previous five decades reverts back to its original owner. The Year of jubilee, which begins on the Day of Atonement, also occasions the forgiving of unpaid debts and the freeing of impoverished Israelites forced to sell themselves into bondage. Thus restoration and regained liberty emerge as the central themes of the Sabbatical and jubilee years.
The rules governing the Year of Jubilee keep community relationships in check by making overlending unwise, by preventing an unlimited increase in the gap between rich and poor, by preserving the equitable distribution of land among the tribes, by protecting families and clans from geographic poverty and alienation, and by reminding the Israelites that they "possess" the land only to the degree that God, the true owner, "loans" it to them. Neither do the Israelites own their countrymen who sell themselves as workers; the Israelites must treat the unfortunate not as slaves but as hired hands, for they also belong to God (vv. 39-43). But because God is the true owner both of the land and of his people (cf. Ps. 24:1), the Israelites - both rich and poor to an equal degree - can expect God's blessing, protection, and provision as long as they fulfill their covenantal responsibilities (vv 18-22; cf. 26:3-12).
26 Blessings, Curses, and Repentance
Faithfulness to the covenant carries for the Israelites the blessings of agricultural prosperity, peace, population growth, and God's presence - a symbolic return to Eden, where God walks among his creation (26:12; cf. Gen. 3:8). The consequences of breaking the covenant reverse those blessings by bringing fear, disease, famine, violence, death, oppression by enemies, and exile. Although God pledges to inflict severe punishment on the Israelites if they disobey his commands, he also promises to restore the covenantal blessings in response to their true repentance.
27 Vows and Dedications
Mosaic law mandates giving to God the regular tithe, the firstfruits from the field, the firstborn of domestic animals, and the consecration of firstborn sons. At times, individuals might also make voluntary vows or dedicate additional items or persons to God to reflect special thankfulness or specific commitments.
To dedicate someone or something to God means to give it over to the service of the priests and the tabernacle. A person dedicated to God might assist the priests in ritually permissible ways (cf. 1 Samuel 1-2). Crops gleaned from a dedicated field might provide food for the priests. Money acquired through the sale of a dedicated house might serve as income for the priests or otherwise fund necessary expenditures for the service of the tabernacle.
An individual may take back a vow by "redeeming" the item or the individual through a payment of money, sometimes at a price exceeding the original value of the goods or services. But emphasis falls on the need to honor God fully by taking vows seriously and by fulfilling them with honesty and integrity.