Part 8
exilic prophets and psalmists speak in bitter denunciation of the unbrotherly conduct of Edom (Lam 4 21.22; Ezk 25 12-14; 35 1-15; Ps 137 7; Mai I 1-5; cf also Isa 34 and 63 1-6); but it is also true that the earliest Heb literature bears witness to the keen rivalry between Esau and Jacob (Gen 25 22 f; 27 41; Nu 20 14-21), and one of the earliest of the writing prophets denounces Edom for unnatural cruelty toward his brother (Am 1 II f; cf Joel 3 19 [Heb 4 19]).
(4) The style of Ob.—Most early critics praise the style. Some of the more recent critics argue for different authors on the basis of a marked difference in style within the compass of the twentyone verses in the little roll. Thus Selbie writes in HDB: "There is a difference in style between the two halves of the book, the first being terse, animated, and full of striking figures, while the second
(2) Relation of Ob and Joel.—There seems to be in Joel 2 32 (Hcb 3 5) a direct allusion to Ob ver 17. If Joel prophesied during the minority of the boy king Joash (c 830 BC), Obadiah would be, on this hypothesis, the earliest of the writing prophets.
is diffuse and marked by poverty of ideas and trite figures." The criticism of the latter part of the book is somewhat exaggerated, though it may be freely granted that the first half is more original and vigorous. The Heb of the book is classic, with scarcely any admixture of Aram, words or constructions. The author may well have lived in the golden age of the Heb language and literature.
(3) What capture of Jerus is described in Ob vs 1014 ?—The disaster seems to have been great enough to be called "destruction" (Ob ver 12). Hence most scholars identify the calamity described by Ob with the capture and destruction of Jerus by the Chaldaeans in 587 BC. But it is remarkable, on this hypothesis, that no allusion is made either in Ob or Jer 49 7-22 to the Chaldaeans or to the destruction of the temple or to the wholesale transportation of the inhabitants of Jerus to Babylonia. We know, however, from Ezk 35 1-15 and Ps 137 7 that Edom rejoiced over the final destruction of Jerus by the Chaldaeans in 587 BC, and that they encouraged the destroyers to blot out the holy city. Certain it is that the events of 587 accord remarkably with the language of Ob vs 1014. Pusey indeed argues from the use of the form of the direct prohibition in Ob vs 12-14 that Edom had not yet committed the sins against which the prophet warns him, and so Jerus was not yet destroyed, when Obadiah wrote. But almost all modern scholars interpret the language of vs 12-14 as referring to what was already past; the prophet "speaks of what the Edomites had actually done as of what they ought not to do." The scholars who regard Obadiah as the first of the writing prophets locate his ministry in Judah during the reign of Jehoram (c 845 BC). Both 2 K and 2 Ch tell of the war of rebellion in the days of Jehoram when Edom, after a fierce struggle, threw off the yoke of Judah (2 K 8 20-22; 2 Ch 21 8-10). Shortly aftertherevoltof Edom, according to 2 Ch 21 16 f, the Philis and Arabians broke into Judah, "and carried away all the substance that was found in the king's house, and his sons also, and his wives; so that there was never a son left him, save Jchoahaz, the youngest of his sons." Evidently the capital city fell into the hands of the invaders. It was a calamity of no mean projiortions.
(5) Geographical and historical allusions.—The references to the different sections and cities in the land of Israel and in the land of Edom are quite intelligible. As to Sepharad (ver 20) there is considerable difference of opinion. Schrader and some others identify it with a Shaparda in Media, mentioned in the annals of Sargon (722-705 BC). Many think of Asia Minor, or a region in Asia Minor mentioned in Pers inscriptions, perhaps Bithynia or Galatia (Sayce). Some think that the mention of "the captives of this host of the children of Israel" and "the captives of Jerus" (ver 20) proves that both the Assyr captivity and the Bab exile were already past. This argument has considerable force; but it is well to remember that Amos, in the first half of the 8th cent., describes wholesale deportations from the land of Israel by men engaged in the slave trade (Am 1 6-10). The problem of the date of Ob has not been solved to the satisfaction of Bib. students. Our choice must be between a very early date (c 845) and a date shortly after 587, with the scales almost 4. Interpreevenly balanced. tation of Ob is to be interpreted as prediction the Book rather than history. In vs 11-14 there are elements of historic description, but vs 1-10 and 1.5-21 are predictive. LiTERATtiKE.—Comms.: Caspari, Der Prophet Obadiah ausoelegl, 1842; Pusey, The Minor Prophets I860Ewald, Comm. nn the Prophets of the OT (ET) II 277 ff' 1875; Keil (ET). 1880; T. T. Perowne {in Cambridge BMe). 1889; von Orelli (ET), The Minor Prophets, 1893Wellhausen, Die klemen Propheten. 1808; G. A. Smith' The Book of the Twelve Prophets, II, 163 £t, 1898Nowack' ?nnJ'^'V'"\ ^''°^t'"Vi- ^^°'^' Marti. Dodekapropheton. J^9?' ?¥.'''®'!; ^'"' ^»"<"- Prophets, 1907; Bewer, ICC l?^^-i Miscellaneous: Kirkpatrick. Doctrine of the Prophets, 33 «'Intros of Driver, Wildeboer, etc; Selbie " ^n^Vr^'iJJJ"®"' Bartonin JE, IX, 369-70; Cheyne
The advocates of a late date call attention to three points that weaken the case for an early date for Ob : (a) The silence of 2 K as to the invasion of the Philis and Arabians. But what motive could the author of Ch have had for inventing the story?
n;,^io',n"T>'^*i^'^o^2.' Peckham, An Intro to the .Study of Ob, 1910; Kent, Students' OT, III, 1910.
John Richaed Sampey OBAL, 6'bal. See Ebal, 1.
(6) The absence of any mention of the destruction of the city by the Phihs and Arabians. It must be acknowledged that the events of 587 BC accord more fully with the description in Ob vs 10-14,
OjBDIA, ob-di'a (A, 'OpSCa, Obdla, B, 'Oppnd, Hobbeia): One of the families of usurping priests (1 Esd 5 38) = "Habaiah"of Ezr 2 61; "Hobaiah" of Neh 7 63.
2175 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA S?^^!^'"' ^°°^ °* Obedience of Christ
OBED.o'bedOniy, iy$;obhedh, "worshipper"; in the NT 'lo>pifi, lohU)
It was the one important relationship which must not be broken. While sometimes this relation may have been formal and cold, it neverthe2. The OT less was the one strong tie which held Conception the people close to God. The significant spiritual relation is expressed by Samuel when he asks the question, "Hath Jeh as great delight in burnt-offerings and sacrifices, as in obeying the voice of Jeh? Behold, to obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken than the fat of rams"
(1) Son of Boaz and Ruth and grandfather of David (Ruth 4 17.21.22: 1 Ch 2 12; Mt 1 5; Lk 3 32).
(2) Son of Ephlal and descendant of Sheshan, the Jeralimeehte, through his daughter who was married to Jarha, an Egyp servant of her father's (1 Ch 2 37.38).
(3) One of David's mighty men (1 Ch 11 47). (4) A Korahite doorlceeper, son of Shemaiah, and grandson of Obed-edom (1 Ch 26 7).
(1 S 15 22). It was the condition without which no right relation might be sustained to Jeh. This is most clearly stated in the relation between Abraham and Jeh when he is assured "In thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed; because thou hast obeyed my voice" (Gen 22 18). In prophetic utterances, future blessing and prosperity weie conditioned upon obedience: "If ye be willing and obedient, ye shall eat the good of the land" (Isa 1 19). After surveying the glories of the Messianic kingdom, the prophet assures the people that "this shall come to pass, if ye will diligently obey the voice of Jeh your God" (Zee 6 15). On the other hand misfortune, calamity, distress and famine are due to their disobedience and distrust of Jeh. See Disobedience. This obedience or disobedience was usually related to the specific commands of Jeh as contained in the law, yet they conceived of God as giving commands by other means. Note esp. the rebuke of Samuel to Saul: "Because thou obeyedst not the voice of Jeh, .... therefore hath Jeh done this thing unto thee this day" (1 S 28 18). In the NT a higher spiritual and moral relation IS sustained than in the OT. The importance of obedience is just as greatly empha3. The NT sized. Christ Himself is its one great Conception illustration of obedience. He "humbled himself, becoming obedient even unto death, yea, the death of the cross" (Phil 2 8). By obedience to Him we are through Him made partakers of His salvation (He 6 9). This act is a supreme test of faith in Christ. Indeed, it is so vitally related that they are in some cases almost synonymous. "Obedience of faith" is a combination used by Paul to express this idea (Rom 1 5). Peter designates believers in Christ as "children of obedience" (1 Pet 1 14). Thus it is seen that the test of fellowship with Jeh in the OT is obedience. The bond of union with Christ in the NT is obedience through faith, by which they become identified and the believer becomes a disciple.
(5) Father of Azariah, one of the centurions who took part with Jehoiada in deposing Queen AthaUah and crowning Joash (2 Ch 23 1; of 2 K 11 1-16). David Francis Roberts OBED-EDOM, o'bed-e'dom (DinX-nnb [2 Ch 25 24], DhS-nnis> [2 S 6 10; 1 Ch 13 13.14; 15
25], but elsewhere without hyphen, 'obhedh-'Sdhmn, "servant of [god] Edom"; so W. R. Smith, Religion of Semites', 42, and H. P. Smith, Samuel, 294 f, though others explain it as = "servant of man"): In 2 S 6 10.11.12; 1 Ch 13 13.14 a Philistine of Gath and servant of David, who received the Ark of Jeh into his house when David brought it into Jerus from Kiriath-jearim. Because of the sudden death of Uzzah, David was unwiUing to proceed with the Ark to his citadel, and it remained three months in the house of Obed-edom, "and Jeh blessed Obed-edom, and all his house" (2 S 6 11). According to 1 Ch 13 14 the Ark had a special "house" of its own while there. He is probably the same as the Levite of 1 Ch 15 25. In 1 Ch 15 16-21 Obed-edom is a "singer," and in 1 Ch 15 24 a "doorkeeper," while according to 1 Ch 26 4-8.15 he is a Korahite doorkeeper, to whose house
fell the overseership of the storehouse (ver 15), while 1 Ch 16 5.38 names him as a "minister before the ark," a member of the house or perhaps guild of Jeduthun (see 2 Ch 25 24).
Obed-edom is an illustration of the service rendered to Heb religion by foreigners, reminding one of the Simon of Cyrene who bore the cross of Jesus (Mt 27 32, etc). The Chronicler naturally desired to think that only Levites could discharge such duties as Obed-edom performed, and hence the references to him as a Levite.
David Francis Roberts . OBEDIENCE, S-be'di-ens, OBEY, 5-ba' (ypiB
shmna^; iiraKo^, hupakoe) : In its simpler OT meaning the word signifies "to hear," "to
1. Meaning listen." It carries with it, however, of Terms the ethical significance of hearing with reverence and obedient assent. In the NT a different origin is suggestive of "hearing under" or of subordinating one's self to the person or thing heard, hence, "to obey." There is another NT usage, however, indicating persuasion from,
Walter G. Clippinger OBEDIENCE OF CHRIST: The "obedience" (uiraKori, hupakoe) of Christ is directly mentioned but 3 t in the NT, although many other passages describe or allude to it: "Through the obedience of the one shall the many be made righteous" (Rom
5 19); "He humbled himself,, becoming obedient even unto death, yea, the death of the cross" (PhU 2 8); "Though he was a Son, yet learned obedience by the things which he suffered" (He 5 8). In 2 Cor 10 5, the phrase signifies an attitude toward Christ: "every thought into captivity to the obedience of Christ."
TreWo/iai, pelthomai.
The relation expressed is twofold: first, human, as between master and servant, and particularly between parents and children. "If a man have a stubborn and rebellious son, that will not obey the voice of his father, or the voice of his mother, and, though they chasten him, will not hearken unto them; then shall his father and his mother lay hold on him, and bring him out unto the elders of his city, and unto the gate of his place" (Dt 21 18.19; cf Prov 15 20); or between sovereign and subjects, "The foreigners shall submit themselves unto me: as soon as they hear of me, they shall obey me"
His subjection to His parents (Lk 2 61) was a necessary manifestation of His loving and sinless character, and of His disposition and
1. As an power to do the right in any situation. Element of His obedience to the moral law in Conduct every particular is asserted by the and NT writers: "without sin" (He 4 15); Character "who knew no sin" (2 Cor 5 21); "holy, guileless, undefiled, separated from sinners" (He 7 26), etc; and is affirmed by Himself: "Which of you convicteth me of sin?" (Jn 8 46); and implicitly conceded by His ene-
(2 S 22 45; 1 Ch 29 23). The highest significance of its usage, however, is that of the relation of man to God. Obedience is the supreme test of faith in God and reverence for Him. The OT conception of obedience was vital.
Obedience of Christ Observe THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2176
sion in human forms according to human demands and processes of development. As true man, obedient disposition on His part must meet the test of voluntary choice under all representative conditions, culminating in that which was supremely hard, and at the limit which should reveal its perfection of extent and strength. It must become hardened, as it were, and confirmed, through a definite obedient act, into obedient human character. The patriot must become the veteran. The Son, obedient on the throne, must exercise the practical virtue of obedience on earth. Gethsemane was the culmination of this process, when in full view of the awful, shameful, horrifying meaning of Calvary, the obedient disposition was crowned, and the obedient Divine-human life reached its highest manifestation, in the great ratification: "Nevertheless, not my will, but thine, be done." But just as Jesus' growth in knowledge was not from error to truth, but from partial knowledge to completer, so His "learning obedience" led Him not from disobedience or debate to submission, but from obedience at the present stage to an obedience at ever deeper and deeper cost. The process was necessary for His complete humanity, in which sense He was "made perfect," complete, by suffering. It was also necessary for His perfection as example and sympathetic High Priest. He must fight the human battles under the human conditions. Having translated obedient aspiration and disposition into obedient action in the face of, and in suffering unto, death, even the death of the cross. He is able to lead the procession of obedient sons of God through every possible trial and surrender. Without this testing of His obedience He could have had the sympathy of clear and accurate knowledge, for He "knew what was in man," but He would have lacked the sympathy of a kindred experience. Lacking
mies, since no shadow of accusation against His character appears. Of His ready, loving, joyful, exact and eager obedience to the Father, mention will be made later, but it was His central and most outstanding characteristic, the filial at its highest reach, limitless, "unto death." His usually submissive and law-abiding attitude toward the authorities and the great movements and religious requirements of His day was a part of His loyalty to God, and of the strategy of His campaign, the action of the one who wo^ild set an example and wield an influence, as at His baptism: "Thus it becometh us to fulfil all righteousness" (Mt 3 15); the synagogue worship (Lk 4 16, "as his custom was"); the incident of the tribute money: "Therefore the sons are free. But, lest we cause them to stumble," etc (Mt 17 24-27). Early, however, the necessities of His mission as Son of God and institutor of the new dispensation obliged Him frequently to display a judicial antagonism to current prescription and an authoritative superiority to the rulers, and even to important details of the Law, that would in most eyes mark Him as insurgent, and did culminate in the cross, but was the sublimest obedience to the Father, whose authority alone He, as full-grown man, and Son of man, could recognize.
Two Scriptural statements raise an important question as to the inner experience of Jesus. He 5 8 states that "though he was a Son, 2. Its yet learned [he] obedience by the Christologithings which he suffered" {emathen cal Bearing aph' hon epathen ten hupakoen); Phil 2 6.8: "Existing in the form of God .... he humbled himself, becoming obedient, even unto death." As Son of God, His will was never out of accord with the Father's will. How then was it necessary to, or could He, learn obedience, or become obedient? The same question in another form arises from another part of the passage in He 5 9: "And having been made perfect, he became unto all them that obey him the author
this. He would have been for us, and perhaps also in Himself, but an imperfect "captain of our salvation," certainly no "file leader" going before us in the very paths we have to tread, and tempted in all points like as we are, yet without sin. It may be worth noting that He "learned obedience" and was "made perfect" by suffering, not the results of His own sins, as we do largely, but altogether the results of the sins of others.
[cause] of eternal salvation"; also He 2 10: "It became him [God] .... to make the author [captain] of their salvation perfect through sufferings." How and why should the perfect be made perfect? Gethsemane, with which, indeed. He 5 8 is directly related, presents the same problem. It finds its solution in the conditions of the Redeemer's work and life on earth in the light of His true humanity. Both in His eternal essence and in His human existence, obedience to His Father was His dominant principle, so declared through the prophet-psalmist before His birth: He 10 7 (Ps 40 7), "Lo, I am come (in the roll of the book
In Rom 5 19, in the series of contrasts between sin and salvation ("Not as the trespass, so also is
the free gift"), we are told: "For as 3. In Its through the one man's disobedience Soteriothe many were made sinners, even so logical through the obedience of the one shall Bearings the many be made righteous." Interpreters and theologians, esp. the latter, differ as to whether "obedience" here refers to the specific and supreme act of obedience on the cross, or to the sum total of Christ's incarnate obedience through His whole life; and they have made the distinction between His "passive obedience," yielded on the cross, and His "active obedience" in carrying out without a flaw the Father's will at all times. This distinction is hardly tenable, as the whole Scriptural representation, esp. His own, is that He was never more intensely active than in His death: "I have a baptism to be baptized with; and how am I straitened till it be accomplished" (Lk 12 50); "I lay down my life, that I may take it again. No one takcth it away from me, but I lay it down of myself. I have power to lay it down, and I have power to talce it again" (Jn 10 17.18). "Who through the eternal Spirit offered himself without blemish unto God" (He 9 14), indicates the active obedience of one who was both priest and sacrifice. As to the question whether it was the total obedience of Christ, or His death on the cross, that constituted the atonement, and
it is written of me) to do thy will, O God." It was His law of life: "I do always the things that are pleasing to him. I do nothing of myself, but as the Father taught me, I speak these things" (Jn 8 29.28); "I can of myself do nothing I seek not mine own will, but the will of him that sent me" (5 30). It was the indispensable process of His activity as the "image of the invisible God," the expression of the Deity in terms of the phenomenal and the human. He could be a perfect revelation only by the perfect correspondence in every detail, of will, word and work with the Father's will (Jn 5 19). Obedience was also His
life nourishment and satisfaction (Jn 4 34). It was the guiding principle which dircctefl the details of His work: "I have power to lay it [life] down, and I have power to take it again. This commandment received I from my Father" (Jn 10 IS); "The Father that sent me, he hath given me a commandment, what I should say, and what I should speak"
(Jn 12 49; cf 14 31, etc). But in the Incarnation this essential and filial obedience must find expres-
2177 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Obedience of Christ Observe
the kindred question whether it was not the spirit of obedience in the act of death, rather than the act itself, that furnished the value of His redemptive work, it might conceivably, though improbably, be said that "the one act of righteousness" through which "the free gift came" was His whole life considered as one act. But these ideas are out of line with the unmistakable trend of Scripture, which everywhere lays principal stress on the death of Christ itself; it is the center and soul of the two ordinances, baptism and the Lord's Supper; it holds first place in the Gospels, not as obedience, but as redemptive suffering and death; it is unmistakably put forth in this light by Christ Himself in His few references to His death: "ransom," "my blood," etc. Paul's teaching everywhere emphasizes the death, and in but two places the obedience; Peter indeed speaks of Christ as an ensample, but leaves as his characteristic thought that Christ "suffered for sins once .... put to death in the flesh" (1 Pet 3 18). In He the center and significance of Christ's whole work is that He "put away sin by the sacrifice of himself" (9 26) ; while John in many places emphasizes the death as atonement: "Unto him that .... loosed us from our sins by his blood" (Rev 1 6), and elsewhere. The Scripture teaching is that "God set [him] forth to be a propitiation, through faith, in his blood" (Rom 3 25). His lifelong obedience enters in chiefly as making and marking Him the "Lamb without blemish and without spot," who alone could be the atoning sacrifice. If it enters further, it is as the preparation and anticipation of that death, His life so dominated and suffused with the consciousness of the coming sacrifice that it becomes really a part of the death. His obedience at the time of His death could not have been atonement, for it had always existed and had not atoned; but it was the obedience that turned the possibility of atonement into the fact of atonement. He obediently offered up, not His obedience, but Himself. He is set forth as propitiation, not in His obedience, but in His blood, His death, borne as the penalty of sin,
worship" in AV. In all probability this was the original significance of the word (Gen 24 26, etc). Obeisance ( = obedience) originally signified the vow of obedience made by a vassal to his lord or a slave to his master, but in time denoted the act of bowing as a token of respect. T. Lewis
OBELISK, ob's-lisk, ob'el-isk: A sacred stone or maisebhdh. For ma(;i;ebhah RV has used "pillar" in the text, with "obelisk" in the m in many instances
(Ex 23 24; Lev 26 1; Dt 12 3; IK 14 23; Hos 3 4; 10 1.2, etc), but not consistently (e.g. Gen 28 18). See Pillar.
OBETH, o'beth ('fip^ie, Ohm, B, Oiip<)v, OuMn): One of those who went up with Ezra (1 Esd 8 32) = "Ebed" of Ezr 8 6.
OBIL, o'bil (biniS , 'obhil, "camel driver"): An Ishmaelite who was "over the camels" in David's palace (1 Ch 27 30).
OBJECT, ob-jekt': Now used only in the sense "to make opposition," but formerly in a variety of meanings derived from the literal sense "to throw against." So with the meaning "to charge with" in Wisd 2 12, AV "He objecteth to our infamy the transgressing of our education" (RV "layeth to our charge sins against our disciphne"), or "to make charges against" in Acts 24 19, AV "who ought to have been here before thee, and object, if they had ought against me" (RV "and to make accusation").
OBLATION, ob-la'shun: In Lev and Nu, AV occasionally uses "oblation," but generally "offering," as a rendering of "^l]?
, korban—a general term for all kinds of offering, but used only in Ezk, Lev and Nu. RV renders consistently "oblation." In Ezk (also Isa 40 20), "oblation" renders np^ip,
t'rumah, generally tr'' "heave offering." In some cases (e.g. Isa 1 13; Dnl 9 21) "oblation" in AV corresponds to nrtJ'Q , minhah, the ordinary word
in His own body on the tree. The distinction is not one of mere academic theological interest. It involves the whole question of the substitutionary and propitiatory in Christ's redemptive work, which
for "gift," in P "grain offering." See Sacrifice.
OBOTH, o'both, o'both (nhX, 'obhoth, "waterbags") : A desert camp of the Israelites, the 3d after leaving Mt. Hor and close to the borders of Moab
is central, vital and formative, shaping the entire conception of Christianity. The blessed and help-
(Nu 21 10.11; 33 43.44). See Wanderings of Israel.
ful part which Our Lord's complete and loving obedience plays in the working out of Christian
character, by His example and inspiration, must not be underestimated, nor its meaning as indicating the quality of the life which is imparted to the soul which accepts for itself His mediatorial death. These bring the consummation and crown of sal-
OBSCURITY, ob-sku'ri-ti: In modern Eng. generally denotes a state of very faint but still perceptible illumination, and only when preceded by some such adj. as "total" does it imply the absence
of all light. In Bib. Eng., however, only the latter meaning is found. So in Isa 29 18 ( jE'S , 'ophel, "darkness"); 58 10; 59 9 (^llJn , hdshekh, "dark-
vation; they are not its channel, or instrument, or
price. See also Atonement.
LiTEBATUBE. DCG, art. "Obedience of Christ"; Denney, Death of Christ, esp. pp. 231-33; Cliampion, Living Atonement; Forsytlie. Crucialiti/ of the Cross, etc; worlis on the Atonement; Conuu-s.. in loc.
ness"); Ad Est 11 8 (7^4005, gnophos, "darkness"). Cf Prov 20 20, AV "in obscure darkness," ERV "in the blackest darkness," ARV "in blackness of darkness."
Philip Wendell Crannell OBEISANCE, 5-ba'sans: Is used 9 t in AV in the phrase "made [or did] obeisance" as a rendering of
OBSERVE, ob-zilrv' (representing various words, but chiefly ipip , shamar, "to keep," "to watch,"
the reflexive form of HnilJ (shdhdh), and denotes the bow or curtsey indicative of deference and respect. The same form of the vb. is sometimes tr'' "to bow one's self" when it expresses the deferential
etc): Properly means "to take heed to," as in Isa 42 20, "Thou seest many things, but thou observest not," and from this sense all the usages of the word
attitude of one person to another (Gen 33 6.7, etc).
in EV can be understood. Most of them, indeed, are quite good modern usage (as "observe a feast," Ex 12 17, etc; "observe a law," Lev 19 37, etc), but a few are archaic. So Gen 37 11, AV "His father observed the saying" (RV "kept the saying
Occasionally the vow of homage or fealty to a king on the part of a subject is suggested. In Joseph^s dream his brother's sheaves made obeisance to his
sheaf (Gen 43 28; cf also 2 S 15 5; 2 Ch 24 17). But in a large number of instances the vb. denotes
in mind"); Hos 13 7, "As a leopard .... will
the prostrate posture of the worshipper in the
I observe them" (RV "watch"); Jon 2 8, "ob-
presence of Deity, and is generally rendered, "*" to
Observer of Times Offence, Offend THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2178
OCIDELUS, os-i-de'lus, ok-i-de'lus (A,_ 'IiK«£8ii-
serve lying vanities" (RV "regard," but "give heed to" would be clearer; of Ps 107 43). Still farther from modern usage is Hos 14 8, "I have heard him, and observed him" (RV "will regard"; the meaning is "care for"); and Mk 6 20, "For Herod feared John .... and observed him" (RV "kept him safe"). In the last case, the AV editors seem to have used "to observe" as meaning "to give reverence to."
Xos, Okeidelos, B and Swete, 'flKatX.T)8os, Okailedos,
Fritzsche, 'flKoS-qXcs, Okodelos; AV and Fritzsche Ocodelus): One of the priests who had married a "strange wife" (1 Esd 9 22); it stands in the place of "Jozabad" in Ezr 10 22 of which it is probably a corruption.
OCINA, 6-si'na, os'i-na, ok'i-na ('Ok(iv6., Okeind) : A town on the Phoen coast S. of Tyre, mentioned only in Jth 2 28, in the account of the campaign of Holofernes in Syria. The site is unknown, but from the mention of Sidon and Tyre immediately preceding and Jemnaan, Azotus and Ascalon following, it must have been S. of Tyre. One might conjecture that it was Sandalium (Iskanderuna) or Utnm ul-'Awamid, but there is nothing in the name to suggest such an identification.
Observation is found in Lk 17 20, "The kingdom of God Cometh not with observation" (neTo. -wapa-
TTjpT^a-eus, meld paratereseos) . The meaning of the Eng. is, "so that it can be observed," but the exact force of the underlying Gr ("visibly"? "so that it can be computed in advance"?) is a matter of extraordinary dispute at the present time. See Kingdom of God. Burton Scott Easton
OBSERVER, ob-ztrr'ver, OF TIMES. See Divination.
OCRAN, ok'ran. See Ochran.
OBSTINACY, ob'sti-na-si. See Habdening.
ODED, o'ded (~liy [2 Ch 15], Tiy [elsewhere],
OCCASION, o-ka'zhun: The uses in EV are all modern, but in Jer 2 24 "occasion" is employed (both in Heb and Eng.) as a euphemism for "time of conception of offspring."
^odhedh, "restorer"):
(1) According to 2 Ch 15 1, he was the father of Azariah who prophesied in the reign of Asa of Judah (c 918-877), but ver 8 makes Oded himself the prophet. The two verses should agree, so we should probably read in ver 8, "the prophecy of Azariah, the son of Oded, the prophet," or else "the prophecy of Azariah the prophet." See Azariah.
OCCUPY, ok'n-pl: Is in AV the tr of 7 different words: (1) "nS , naihan; (2) "ino
, ^ahar; (3) Sny , "-drabh; (4) HTEy , 'asdh, either with or without
(2) A prophet of Samaria (2 Ch 28 9) who lived in the reigns of Pekah, king of the Northern Kingdom, and Ahaz, king of Judah. According to 2 Ch 28, Oded protested against the enslavement of the captives which Pekah had brought from Judah and Jerus on his return from the Syro-Ephraimitic attack on the Southern Kingdom (735 BC). In this protest he was joined by some of the chiefs of Ephraim, and the captives were well treated. After those wdio were naked (i.e. those who had scanty clothing; cf the meaning of the word "naked" in Mk 14 51) had been supplied with clothing from the spoil, and the bruised anointed with oil, the prisoners were escorted to Jericho.
the added word, riDSbn , m'la'khdh; (5) avairXr]-
poOv, atiapleroun; (6) irepiiraTetv, peripateln; (7) n-pa-y|jiaTeii«iv, pragmateuein. In almost every case the meanings of "to occupy" as used in AV in harmony with the common usage of the time have become obsolete. (1) In Ezk 27 16.19.22, naihan meant "to trade," and RV reads "traded." (2) From ^ahar, "to go about," was derived a designation of "merchants" (RV) (Ezk 27 21). (3) 'Arabh (Ezk 27 9) signifies "to exchange" (ERV and ARVm, but ARV "deal in"). (4) 'asa/i (Ex 38 24) means simply "to use" (RV), and the same word in Jgs 16 11, with m'ld'khah ("work") added, signifies that work had been done (RV).
(5) In 1 Cor 14 16, "occupy," the AV rendering of anapUroun, would still be as intelligible to most as RV "fill." (6) "Occupy" in He 13 9, in the sense of "being taken up with a thing," is the tr (both AV and RV) of peripalein, lit. "to walk." Finally (7) pragmaleuein (Lk 19 13) is rendered in AV "occupy" in its obsolete sense of "trade" (RV).
The narrative of ch 28 as a whole does not agree with that of 2 K 15 37; 16 5 f , where the allied armies of Rezin of Damascus and Pekah besieged Jerus, but failed to capture it (cf Isa 7 1-17; 8 5-8a). As Curtis points out [Chron, 459, where he compares Ex 21 2ff; Lev 25 29-43; Dt 15 12-18), wholesale enslavement of their fellowcountrymen was not allowed to the Hebrews, and this fact the passage illustrates. It seems to be a fulfilment in spirit of Isa 61 1-2, a portion which Our Lord read in the synagogue at Nazareth (Lk 4 16-20). David Francis Roberts
David Foster Estes OCCURRENT, o-kur'ent (AV, ERV, 1 K 5 4): An obsolete form of "occurrence" (so ARV).
OCHIELUS, 6-ki-c'lus ('Ox£tiX.os, Ochielos, B,
'0^i.fi\os, Ozitlos; AV Ochiel): One of the "captains over thousands" who furnished the Levites with much cattle for .losiah's Passover (1 Esd 1 9) = "Jeiel"of 2 Ch 35 9.
ODES, odz, OF SOLOMON. See Apocalyptic Literature.
ODOLLAM, 6-dol'am ('08o\\d|i, OdolUin): The Gr form of Adullam (q.v.), found only in 2 Mace 12 38.
OCHRAN, ok'ran (T}?^, 'okhrdn, from 'dkhar, "trouble"; AV Ocran): The father of Pagiel, the prince of the tribe of Asher (Nu 1 13; 2 27; 7 72. 77; 10 26). OCHRE, o'ker, RED (Isa 44 13, "He marketh
ODOMERA, od-6-me'ra ('08o|xiipa, Odomerd, B, '08oaappif|s, Odoaarres, Itala Odare?t; AV Odonarkes, m Odomarra) : It is not certain whether Odomera was an independent Bedouin chief, perhaps an ally of the Syrians, or an officer of Bacchides. He was defeated by Jonathan in his campaign against Bacchides (1 Mace 9 66) in 156 BC.
it put with a pencil," m "red ochre," AV "line";
Till) , seredh, a word found only here, and of unknown etymology): Designates the implement used by the carpenter to mark the wood after measuring and before cutting. "Red ochre" supposes this to have been a crayon (as does "pencil"), but a scratch-awl is quite as likely. Ochre is a clay colored by an iron compound.
ODOR, o'der: In the OT the rendering of DTBa
, besem, "fragrance" (2 Ch 16 14; Est 2 12; "in Jer 34 5,RV "burnings"), and of one or two other
2179 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Observer of Times Offence, Offend
words; in the NT of icrii-fi, osme (Jn 12 3; Phil 4 18; Eph 5 2RV); in Rev 5 8; 18 13, of evfj.la,j.a, thwnlama, where RV (with AVm in former passage) has "incense." See also Savor.
So in Mt 19 12, "which were made eunuchs of men," the "of men" is at first sight possessive (RV "by men"). Similarly, 2 Esd 16 30, "There are
left some clusters of them that diligently seek through the vineyard" (RV "by them"). So 1 Cor 14 24, "He is convinced of all, he is judged of all,"
OF, ov: (1) In Anglo-Saxon, had the meaning "from," "away from" (as the strengthened form "off" has still), and was not used for genitive or possessive relations, these being expressed by special case-forms. In the Norman period, however, "of" was taken to represent the French de (a use well developed by the time of Chaucer), and in the Elizabethan period both senses of "of were in common use. But after about 1600 the later force of the word became predominant, and in the earlier sense
is quite misleading (RV "by all" in both cases). Phil 3 12, AV "I am apprehended of Christ Jesus," seems almost meaningless (RV "by"). (5) In some cases the usage of the older Eng. is not suflBcient to explain "of" in AV. So Mt 18 23, "take account of his servants," is a very poor rendition of "make a reckoning with his servants" (so RV). In Acts 27 5, the "sea of Cilicia" may have been felt to be the "sea which is off Cilicia" (cf RV), but there are no other instances of this use. In 2 Cor 2 12, "A door was opened unto me of the Lord" should be "in the Lord" (so RV). 2 S 21 4, "We will have no silver nor gold of Saul, nor of his house," is very loose, and RV rewrites the verse entirely. In all these cases, AV seems to have looked solely for smooth Eng., without caring much for exactness. In 1 Pet 1 11, however, "sufferings of Christ" probably yields a correct sense for a difficult phrase in the Gr (so RV, with "unto" in the m), but a paraphrase is needed to give the precise meaning. And, finally, in He 11 18, the Gr itself is ambiguous and there is no way of deciding whether the prep, employed (^piSs, pr6s) means "to" (so RV) or "of"
(which is now practically obsolete) it was replaced by other prepositions. In consequence AV (and in some cases RV) contains many uses of "of" that are no longer familiar—most of them, to be sure, causing no difficulty, but there still being a few responsible for real obscurities. (2) Of the uses where "of" signifies "from," the most common obscure passages are those where "of" follows a vb. of hearing. In modern Eng. "hear of" signifies "to gain information about," as it does frequently in AV (Mk 7 2.5; Rom 10 14, etc). But more commonly this use of "of" in AV denotes the source from which the information is derived. So Jn 15
15, "all things that I have heard of my Father"; Acts 10 22, "to hear words of thee"; 28 22, "We desire to hear of thee"; cf 1 Thess 2 13; 2 Tim 1 13; 2 2, etc (similarly Mt 11 29, "and learn of me"; cf Jn 6 45). All of these are ambiguous and in modern Eng. give a wrong meaning, so that in most cases (but not Mt 11 29 or Acts 28 22) RV substitutes "from." A different example of the same use of "of" is 2 Cor 6 1, "a building of God" (RV "from"). So Mk 9 21, "of a child," means "from childhood" ("from a child," RV, is dubious Eng.). A still more obscure passage is Mt 23 25, "full of extortion and excess." "Full of" elsewhere in AV (and even in the immediate context, Mt 23 27.28) refers to the contents, but here the "of" represents the Gr ^«:, ek, "out of," and denotes the source—"The contents of your cup and platter have been purchased from the gains of extortion and excess." RV again substitutes "from," with rather awkward results, but the Gr itself is unduly compressed. In Mk 11 8, one of the changes made after AV was printed has relieved an obscurity,
(so AV, RVm; cf He 1 7, where "of" is necessary). BuHTON Scott Easton OFFENCE, o-fens', OFFEND, o-fond' (blTCSTa
, mikhshol, DTIJN , 'dsham, i5Un , hats'; o-KdvSaXov, skdndalon, o-Kav8a\tJa), skandalizo) : "Offend" is either trans or intrans. As trans it is primarily "to strike against," hence "to displease," "to make angry," "to do harm to," "to affront," in Scripture, "to cause to sin"; intrans it is "to sin," "to cause anger," in Scripture, "to be caused to sin." "Offence" is either the cause of anger, displeasure, etc, or a sin. In Scripture we have the special significance of a stumbling-block, or cause of falling, sin,
etc.
In the OT it is frequently the tr of 'asham, "to be guilty," "to transgress": Jer 2 3, RV "shall be held guilty"; 50 7, RV "not guilty";
I. OT Ezk 25 12, "hath greatly offended"; Usage Hos 4 15, RVm "become guilty"; 5 15, "till they acknowledge theii offence," RVm "have borne their guilt"; 13 1, "He offended in Baal," RVm "became guilty" ; Hab 1 II, "He shall pass over, and offend, [imputing] this his power unto his god," RV "Then shall he sweep by [as] a wind, and shall pass over [m "transgress"], ancl be guilty, [even] he whose might is his god."
for where the ed of 1611 read "cut down branches
of the trees," the modern edd have "off" (RV "from"). For clear examples of this use of "of," without the obscurities, cf Jth 2 21, "they went
forth of Nineveh"; 2 Mace 4 34, "forth of the sanctuary"; and, esp., Mt 21 25, "The baptisrn
In 2 Ch 28 13, we have 'ashmath 'al, lit. "tlie oflence against," RV " a trespass [m "or guilt"] against Jeh" ; we have also hatd\ "to miss tlie niarlv," "to sin," "to err"
of John, whence was it? from heaven, or of men?" Here "from" and "of" represent exactly the same Gr prep., and the change in Eng. is arbitrary (RV
(Gen 20 9' liV "sinned against thee"; 40 1, "offended their lord"; 2 K 18 14; Jer 37 18, RV "sinned against thee"); bdohadh, "to deal treacherously" (Ps 73 15, "offend against the generation of thy children," RV "dealt treacherously with"}; hdbhal, "to act wickedly" (Job 34 31); mikhshol, " a stumbling block " (Lev 19 14: tr<iinlsa 8 14, " a rock of oflence " ; cf Ezk 14 3; 1 S 2o 31: Ps 119 165, "nothing shall offend, " RV" no occasion of stumljling " ; cf Isa 57 14; Jer 6 21, etc); pasha', "to be fractious," "to transgress" (Prov 18 19, "a brother offended," RVm "injured"). "Offenco"is mikhshol (see above, 1 S 25 31; Isa 8 14); hef, "sin," etc (Eccl 10 4, "Yielding pacifleth great offences," ARV "Gentleness [ERV "yielding"] allayeth," ARVm "Calmness [ERV "gentleness"! leaveth great sins undone"). "Offender" is hatta' (1 K 1 21, m " Heb sinners"; Isa 29 21, "that malre'a man an offender for a word," ARV "that make a man an offender in his cause," m "make men to offend by ]their] words," or, "for a word," ERV "in a cause," m
writes "from" in both cases). (3) In a weakened
sense this use of "of" as "from" was employed
rather loosely to connect an act with its source or motive. Such uses are generally clear enough, but
the Eng. today seems sometimes rather curious: Mt 18 13, "rejoiceth more of that sheep" (RV "over"); Ps 99 8, "vengeance of their inventions"
(so AV); 1 Cor 7 4, "hath not power of her own body" (RV "over"), etc. (4) A very common use
of "of" in AV is to designate the agent—a use com-
plicated by the fact that "by" is also employed for
the same purpose and the two interchanged freely. So in Lk 9 7, "all that was done by him .... it was said of some ....," the two words are used
' make men tooffend by [their] Avords"). The NT usage of these words deserves special attention. The word most frequently tr'' "offend" in AV is skandalizO (skandalon, "offence"), very
side by side for the same Gr prep. (RV replaces "of" by "by," but follows a different text in the
first part of the verse) . Again, most of the examples
are clear enough, but there are some obscurities.
Offer, Offering OU THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2180
frequent in the Gospels (Mt 5 29, "if thy right eye offend thee"; 5 30; 11 6; 18 6, "whoso shall offend one of these little ones"; 13 41,
give birth (Ex 1 16). But the word is also used as a rendering of different Heb words, e.g. "jS , ken, "pedestal," "place" (Gen 40 13, AV "place"; 41 13); nnny, 'dbhodhah, "labor," "work" (1 Ch 6 32); n'l]5S
2. NT ; 'all things that offend"; Lk 17 1, "It Usage is impossible but that offences will come," etc; Rom 14 21; 16 17, "Mark them which cause .... offences"; 1 Cor 8 13
, p'kuddah, "oversight," "charge" (Ps 109 8) ;
' "ip?T3 , ma'amadk, lit. "standing,"
e.g. waiting at table (1 Ch 23 28); 1^T|JP, mishmdr, "charge," observance or service of the temple
bis, "if meat make my brother to offend," etc). Skandalon is primarily "a trap-stick," "a bentstick on which the bait is fastened which the animal strikes against and so springs the trap," hence it came to denote a "snare," or anything which one strikes against injuriously (it is LXX for mohesh, a "noose" or "snare," .losh 23 13; 1 S 18 21); "a stumbling-block" (LXX for mikhshol [see above], Lev 19 14). For skandalizo, skandalon, tr"" in AV, "offend," "offence," RV gives "cause to stumble," "stumbling-block," etc; thus, Mt 5 29, "if thy right eye causeth thee to stumble," i.e. "is an occasionfor thy falhng into sin"; Mt 16 23, "Thou art a stumbling-block unto me," an occasion of turning aside from the right path; in Mt 26 31.33
(Neh 13 14 AV).
Similarly in the NT the word is used in periphrastic renderings, e.g. priest's office (Lk 1 8.9); office of a deacon (SiaKOfla, diakonla, 1 Tim 3 10); office of a bishop {iiTiaKOTr-fi, episkope, 1 Tim 3 1). RV uses other renderings, e.g. "ministry" (Rom 11 13); "serve as deacons" (1 Tim 3 10). In Acts 1 20, RV has "office" (m "overseership") for AV "bishoprick." T. Lewis
OFFICER, ot'i-ser: In AV the term is employed to render different words denoting various officials, domestic, civil and military, such as D'''1D , .sarij, "eunuch," "minister of state" (Gen 37 36)'; "I^pS, pakldh, "person in charge," "overseer" (Gen 41 34); 3"'3i5, n'gibh, "stationed," "garrison," "prefect"
bis, "offended" is retained, m 33 bis, "Gr caused to stumble" (same word in ver 31); Mk 9 42, "whosoever shall cause one of these little ones that believe on me to stumble," to fall away from the faith, or fall into sin ; Lk 17 1, "It is impossible but that occasions of stumbling should come; but woe unto him, through whom they come"; in Rom 14 21; 16 17; in 1 Cor 8, Paul's language has the s.ame meaning, and we see how truly he had laid to heart the Saviour's earnest admonitions—"weak brethren" with him answering to the master's "little ones who beUeve"; Rom 14 21, "It is good not to eat flesh, nor to drink wine, nor to do anything whereby thy brother stumbleth," i.e. "is led by your example to do that which he cannot do with a good conscience"; ver 20, "It is evil for that man who eateth with offence [did proskummatos]," so as to place a stumbling-block before his brother, or, rather, 'without the confidence that he is doing right'; cf ver 23, "He that doubteth is condemned if he eat, because he eateth not of faith; and whatsoever is not of faith is-sin"; so 1 Cor 8 13; Rom 16 17, "Mark them that are causing the divisions and occasions of stumbling, contrary to the doctrine, [m "teaching"] which ye learned" (Is not the "teaching" of Christ Himself implied here?) . Everything that would embolden another to do that which would be wTong for him, or that would turn anyone away from the faith, must be carefully avoided, seeking to please, not ourselves, but to care for our brother, "for whom Christ died," "giving no occasion of stumbling [proskope] in anything" (2 Cor 6 3).
(1 K 4 19); "ItiTlJ, sholer, "scribe" or "secretary" (perhaps arranger or organizer), then any official or overseer. In Est 9 3 for AV "officers of the king" RV has (more literal) "they that did the king's business."
In the NT "officer" generally corresponds to the Gr word vTnjpirris, huperetes, "servant," or any person in the employ of another. In Mt 5 25 the terni evidently means "bailiff" or exactor of the fine imposed by the magistrate, and corresponds to irp6.KTuip, prdktor, used in Lk 12 58. T. Lewis
OFFICES OF CHRIST. OF.
See Christ, Offices
OFFSCOURING, of'skour-ing : This strong and expressive word occurs only once in the OT and once in the NT. The weeping prophet uses it as he looks upon his erstwhile fair and holy city, despoiled, defiled, derided by the profane, the enemies of God and of His people (Lam 3 45, TIO , s'hl). The favored people, whose city lies in heaps and is patrolled by the heathen, are hailed and held up as the scrapings, the offscouring, the offal of the earth. They are humbled to earth, crushed into the dust, carried away to be the slaves of licentious idolaters. The haughty, cruel, cutting boastfulness of the victors covered Israel with contumely.
In 1 Cor 4 13 the greatest of the apostles reminds the prosperous and self-satisfied Corinthians that they, the apostles, were "made as the filth of the world, the offscouring of all things." In such contempt were they held by the unbelieving world and by false apostles. The strange, strong word {weplyl/r,p.a, peri.psema) should remind us what it cost in former times to be a true servant of Christ.
Aprdskopos. "not causing to stumble." is tr<i "void of offence" (Acts 24 16, "a conscience void of offence"- 1 Cor 10 32, RV "occasion of stumbling"; Pliil i lo! "void of offence"); hamartdno, "to miss the mark," "to sin." "to err," is tr<i "offended" (Acts 25 8, KV"sinned")- hamartia, "sin," "error" (2 Cor H 7, RV "Did I commit a sin?"); ptalu. "to stumble." "fall" (Jas 2 103 2 his, "offend," RV "stumble," "stumbleth"); pnrdptoma. "a falling aside or away." is trJ "offence" (Rom 4 25; 5 1.5t,is.l0.17.1S.2O. in each case RV "trespass")- adikeo, " to be unrighteous" (Acts 25 11, RV "wrongdoer," AV "offender").
G. H. Gerberdinq OFFSPRING, of'spring. See Children.
OFTEN, of'n (irojKvis, puknos, "thick," "close"): An archaic usage for "frequent": "Thine often infirmities" (1 Tim 5 23); cf "by oSien rumination (Shakespeare, As You Like It, IV, i, 18)- "The often round" (Ben Jonson, The Forest^ III); "Of wrench'd or broken limb—an often chance" (Tennyson, Gareth ajid Lynette). OG {TlV
In Apoc we have "offence" (skandalon, .Tth 18 2). RV
' I will not cat thereof, lest there be an occasion of stumbling"; "offend" (hamartano. Ecclus 7 7) RV'sin"- "greatly offended" (prosochlhtzd, 25 2); "offended" (s/tandaKzo, 32 1.5), RV "stumble." W. L Walker OFFER, of'er, OFFERING, of'er-ing. See Sacrifice.
OFFICE, of 'is: In the OT the word is often used in periphrastic renderings, e.g. "minister .... in the priest's office," lit. act as prie.st (Ex 28 1, etc); "do the office of a midwife," lit. cause or help to
, 'ogh; "Qy, 6g) : King of Bash.an, whose territory, embracing 60 cities, was conquered by Moses and the Israelites immediately after the conquest of Sihon, king of the Amorites (Nu 21
2181 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Offer, Offering Oil
33-35; Dt 3 1-12). The defeat took place at Edrei, one of the chief of these cities (Nu 21 33; Josh 12 4), and Og and his people were "utterly destroyed" (Dt 3 6). Og is described as the last of the Rephaim (q.v.), or giant-race of that district, and his giant stature is borne out by what is told in Dt 3 11 of the dimensions of his "bedstead of iron" Qeres harzel), 9 cubits long and 4 broad (13|
OIL, oil (1^ip> shemen; eXaiov, elaion):
1. Terms
2. Production and Storage
3. tJses (1) As a Commodity of Excliango
(2) As a Cosmetic (3) As a Medicine (4) As a Food (5) As an lUuminant
(6) In Religious Ritus (a) Consecration
ft. by 6 ft.), said to be still preserved at Rabbath of Amnaon when the verse describing it was written.
(6) Offerings
(c) Burials 4. Figurative Uses
It is not, of course, necessary to conclude that Og's own height, though immense, was as great as this. Some, however, prefer to suppose that what is intended is "a sarcophagus of black basalt," which iron-like substance abounds in the Hauran. The conquered territory was subsequently bestowed on the Reubenites, Gadites, and the half-tribe of Manasseh (Nu 32 33; Dt 3 12.13). Other references to Og are Dt 1 4; 4 47; 31 4; Josh 2 10; 9 10; 13 12.30). The memory of this great conquest lingered all through the national history (Ps 135 11; 136 20). On the conquest, cf Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, I, 185-87, and see Akgob; Bashan. Jambs Orr
Shemen, lit. "fat," corresponds to the common Arab, senin of similar meaning, although now applied to boiled butter fat. Another
1. Terms Heb word, zayith (zelh), "olive," occurs with shemen in several passages (Ex 27 20; 30 24; Lev 24 2). The corresponding Arab.
zeit, a contraction of zeitun, which is the name for the
olive tree as well as the fruit, is now applied to oils
in general, to distinguish them from solid fats. Zeit usually means olive oil, unless some qualifying name indicates another oil. A corresponding use was made of shemen, and the oil referred to so many times in the Bible was olive oil (except Est 2 12). Compare this with the Gr eXaioK, elaion, "oil," a neuter noun from i\ala, elaia, "olive," the origin of the Eng. word "oil." 1I7¥"'-> Vi-shar, lit. "glisten-
OHAD, o'had ("o'', 'ohadh, meaning unknown): A son of Simeon, mentioned as third in order (Gen 46 10; Ex 6 15). The name is not found in the
ing," which occurs less frequently, is used possibly because of the light-giving quality of olive oil, or it may have been used to indicate fresh oil, as the
list of Nu 26 12-14.
OHEL, o'hel (bni? , 'ohel, "tent"): A son of Zerubbabel (1 Ch 3 20).
clean, newly pressed oil is bright. HTCp , m'shah, a Chald word, occurs twice: Ezr 6 9; 7 22. eXaiov,
elaion, is the NT term.
OHOLAH, 5-ho'la (nbnx , 'ohdldh; AV Aholah)
Olive oil has been obtained, from the earliest times, by pressing the fruit in such a way as to
The exact meaning is a matter of dispute. As written, it seems to mean a tent-woman, or the woman living in a tent. With a mappik in the last consonant it could mean "her tent." The term is used symbolically by Ezekiel to designate Samaria or the kingdom of Israel (Ezk 23 4.5.36.44). See Oholibah.
filter out the oil and other liquids from
2. Prothe residue. The Scriptural references duction correspond so nearly to the methods practised in Syria up to the present time, and the presses uncovered by excavators at such sites as Gezer substantiate so well the similarity of these methods, that a description of the
OHOLIAB, 6-ho'li-ab (31SibnN , 'ohdll'abh,
oil presses and modes of expression still being employed in Syria will be equally true of those in use in early Israelitish times.
"father's tent"; AV AhoUab): A Danite artificer, who assisted Bezalel in the construction of the tabernacle and its furniture (Ex 31 6; 35 34; 35 If; 38 23).
The olives to yield the greatest amount of oil are allowed to ripen, although some oil is expressed from the green fruit. As the olive ripens it turns black. The fruit begins to fall from the trees in September, but the main crop is gathered after the
OHOLIBAH, 6-hol'i-ba, 6-h6'li-ba (nn^briN,
'ohdlibhah, "tent in her," or "my tent is in her"): An opprobrious and symbolical name given by Ezekiel to Jerus, representing the kingdom of Judah, because of her intrigues and base alliances with Eg}T)t, Assyria and Babylonia, just as the name Oholah (q.v.) was given to Samaria or the Northern Kingdom, because of her alliances with Egypt and Assyria. There is a play upon the words
first rains in November. The olives which have not fallen naturally or have not been blown off by the storms are beaten from the trees with long poles
(cf Dt 24 20). The fruit is gathered from the ground into baskets and carried on the heads of the women, or on donkeys to the houses or oil presses. Those carried to the houses are preserved for eating. Those carried to the presses are piled in heaps until fermentation begins. This breaks down the oil
in the Heb which cannot be reproduced in Eng. Both Oholah and Oholibah, or Samaria and Jerus,
are the daughters of one mother, and wives of Jeh, and both are guilty of religious and political al-
cells and causes a more abundant flow of oil. The fruit thus softened may be trod out with the feet
(Mic 6 15)—which is now seldom practised—or crushed in a handmill. Such a mill was uncovered at Gezer beside an oil press. Stone mortars with wooden pestles are also used. Any of these methods crushes the fruit, leaving only the stone unbroken, and yields a purer oil (Ex 27 20). The method now generally practised of crushing the fruit and kernels with an edgerunner mill probably dates from Rom times. These mills are of crude construction. The stones are cut from native limestone and are turned by horses or mules. Remains
liance with heathen nations. Idolatry is constantly compared by the Heb prophets to marital unfaith-
fulness or adultery. W. W. Da VIES
OHOLIBAMAH, 6-hol-i-ba'ma, o-hol-i-ba'ma (npiibnN , 'ohmbhamah, "tent of the high place")
(1) One of Esau's wives, and a daughter of Anah
the Hivite (Gen 36 2.5). It is strange that she is not named along with Esau's other wives in either Gen 28 9 or 26 30. Various explanations have been given, but none of them is satisfactory. There
of huge stones of this type are found near the old Rom presses in Mt. Lebanon and other districts.
is probably some error in the text.
(2) An Edomite chief (Gen 36 41; 1 Ch
The second step in the preparation of the oil is
1 52).
ou Old Prophet THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2182
replaced olive oil to some extent for this purpose. Homer, Pliny and other early writers mention its use for external application. Pliny claimed it was used to protect the body against the cold. Many Bib. references indicate the use of oil as a cosmetic (Ex 25 6; Dt 28 40; Ruth 3 3; 2 S 12 20; 14 2; Est 2 12; Ps 23 5; 92 10; 104 15; 141 5; Ezk 16 9; Mic 6 15; Lk 7 46).
the expression. In districts where the olives are plentiful and there is no commercial demand for the
oil, the householders crush the fruit in a mortar, mix the crushed mass with water, and after the solid portions have had time to settle, the pure sweet oil is skimmed from the surface of the water.
(3) As a medicine.—From early Egyp literature down to late Arab, medical works, oil is mentioned as a valuable remedy. Man}' queer prescriptions contain olive oil as one of their ingredients. The good Samaritan used oil mingled with wine to dress the wounds of the man who fell among robbers (Mk 6 13; Lk 10 34.)
(4) ^.s a food.—Olive oil replaces butter to a large extent in the diet of the people of the Mediterranean countries. In Bible lands food is fried in
it, it is added to stews, and is poured over boiled vegetables, such as beans, peas and lentils, and over
salads, sour milk, cheese and other foods as a dress-
ing. A cake is prepared from ordinary bread dough which is smeared with oil and sprinkled with herbs before baking (Lev 2 4). At times of fasting oriental Christians use only vegetable oils, usually olive oil, for cooking. For Bib. references to the use of oil as food see Nu 11 8; Dt 7 13; 14 23; 32 13; 1 K 17 12.14.16; 2 K 4 2.6.7; 1 Ch 12 40; 2 Ch 2 10.15; Ezr 3 7; Prov 21 17; Ezk 16 13.18; Hos 2 5.8.22; Hag 2 12; Rev 6 6.
Ancient Oil Presses (Land and the Book).
This method gives a delicious oil, but is wasteful. This is no doubt the beaten oil referred to in connection with religious ceremonials (Ex 27 20). Usually the crushed fruit is spread in portions on mats of reeds or goats' hair, the corners of which are folded over the mass, and the packets thus formed are piled one upon another between upright supports. These supports were formerly two stone columns or the two sections of a split stone cylinder hollowed out within to receive the mats. Large hollow tree trunks are still similarly used in Syria. A flat stone is next jilaced on top, and then a heavy log is placed on the pile in such a manner that one end can be fitted into a socket made in a wall or rock in close proximity to the pile. This socket becomes the fulcrum of a large lever of the second
(5) As an illuminant.—Olive oil until recent years was universally used for lighting purposes
(see Lamp). In Pal are many homes where a most primitive form of lamp similar to those employed by the Israelites is still in use. The prejudice in favor of the exclusive use of olive oil for lighting holy places is disappearing. Formerly any other illuminant was forbidden (cf Ex 25 6; 27 20; 35 8.14.2S; 39 37; Mt 25 3.4.8).
(6) In religious riles.— (a) Consecration of offi-
cials or sacred things (Gen 28 18; 35 14; Ex 29 7.21 ff; Lev 2 Iff; Nu 4 9 ff; 1 S 10 1; 16 1.13; 2 S 1 21; 1 K 1 39; 2 K 9 1.3.6; Ps 89 20): This was adopted by the early Christians in their ceremonies (Jas 5 14), and is still used in the consecration of crowned rulers and church dignitaries.
class. The lever is worked in the same manner as that used in the wine presses (see Wine Press). These presses are now being almost wholly superseded by hydraulic presses. The juice which runs from the press, consisting of oil, extractive matter and water, is conducted to vats or run into jars and allowed to stand until the oil separates. The oil
(5) Offerings, votive and otherwise; The custom of making offerings of oil to holy places still survives
is then drawn off from the surface, or the watery
in oriental religions. One may see burning before the shrines along a Syrian roadside or in the churches, small lamps whose supply of oil is kept renewed by pious adherents. In Israelitish times oil was u.sed in the meal offering, in the consecration offerings offerings of purification from leprosy, etc (Ex 29 2 409 ff; Lev 2 2ff; Nu 4 9ff; Dt 18 4; 1 Ch 9 29 2 Ch 31 5; Neh 10 37.-39; 13 5.12; Ezk 16 18.19. 45; 46; Mic 6 7). (c) In connection with the burial of the dead: Egyp papyri mention this use. In the OT no direct mention is made of the custom. Jesus referred to it in connection with His own burial (Mt 26 12; Mk 14 3-8; Lk 23 56; Jn 12 3-8; 19 40). Abundant oil was a figure of general prosperity (Dt 32 13; 33 24; 2 K 18 .32; Job 29 6; Joel 2 19.24). Langutshing of the oil in4. Figurdicated general famine (Joel 1 10; ative Hag 1 11). Joy is described as the oil of joy (isa 6i 3), or the oil of gladness (Ps 45 7; He 1 9). Ezekiel prophesies that the rivers shall run like oil, i.e. become viscous (Ezk 32 14). Words of deceit are softer than oil (Ps 55 21; Prov 5 3). Cursing becomes a habit with the wicked as readily as oil soaks into bones (Ps 109 18). Excessive u.se of oil indicates wastefulne.ss (Prov 21 17), while the saving of it is a charactertstic of the wise (Prov 21 20). Oil was
fluid and sediment is drawn away through a hole near the bottom of the jar, leaving the oil in the container. (For the construction of the ancient oil presses, see The Excavations of Gczer, bj' Macalister.) The oil, after standing for some time to allow further sediment to settle, is stored either in huge earthenware jars holding 100 to 200 gallons, or in underground cisterns (cf 1 Ch 27 28) holding a much larger quantity. Some of these cisterns in Beirut hold several tons of oil each (2 Ch 11 11; 32 28; Neh 13 5.12; Prov 21 20). In the homes the
oil is kept in small earthen jars of various shapes, usually having spouts by which the oil can be easily poured (1 K 17 12; '2 K 4 2). In 1 S 16 13;
1 K 1 39, horns of oil are mentioned.
(1) As a commodity of exchange.—Olive oil when properly made and stored will keep sweet for years,
hence was a good form of merchandise
3. Uses to hold. Oil is still sometimes given in payment (1 K 5 11; Ezk 27 17; Hos 12 1; Lk 16 6; Rev 18 13).
(2) As a cosmetic.—From earliest times oil was used as a cosmetic, esp. for oiling the limbs and head. Oil used in this way was usually scented
(see Ointment). Oil is still used in this manner by the Arabs, principally to keep the skin and scalp
soft when traveling in dry de.sert regions where there is no opportunity to bathe. Sesam6 oil has
2183 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Oil Old Prophet
carried into Egypt, i.e. a treaty was made with that country (Hos 12 1). James A. Patch
jars or vials (not boxes) made of alabaster. These jars are frequently found as part of the equipment of ancient tombs.
OIL, ANOINTING (nnipTSn Taip , shemen hamishhah): This holy oil, the composition of which
The word tr'' "ointment" in the NT is /j-vpoii, muron, "myrrh." This would indicate that myrrh, an aromatic gum resin, was the substance commonly added to the oil to give it odor, la Lk 7 40 both kinds of oil are mentioned, and the verse might be paraphrased thus: My head with common oil thou didst not anoint; but she hath anointed my feet with costly scented oil.
is described in Ex 30 22-33, was designed for use in the anointing of the tabernacle, its furniture and vessels, the altar and laver, and the priest, that being thus consecrated, they might be "most holy." It was to be "a holy anointing oil" unto Jeh throughout all generations (ver 31). On its uses, cf Ex 37 29; Lev 8 12; 10 7; 21 10. The care of this holy oil was subsequently entrusted to Eleazar (Nu 4 16) ; in later times it seems to have been prepared by the sons of the priests (1 Ch 9 30). There is a figurative allusion to the oil on Aaron's head in Ps 133 2. See Oil; Anointing. James Orr OIL, BEATEN (Ex 27 20; Lev 24 2; Nu 28 5). See Oil; Golden Candlestick.
For the uses of scented oils or ointments see Anointing; Oil. James A. Patch
OLAMUS, ol'a-mus ('HXaiios, Olamds): One of the Israelites who had taken a "strange wife" (1 Esd 9 30) = "Meshullam" of Ezr 10 29.
OLD, old. See Age, Old.
OLD GATE. See Jerusalem.
OIL, HOLY. See Oil; Anointing.
OLD MAN (iraXaios, palaids, "old," "ancient"): A term thrice used by Paul (Rom 6 6; Eph 4 22; Col 3 9) to signify the unrenewed man, the natural man in the corruption of sin, i.e. sinful human nature before conversion and regeneration. It is theologically synonymous with "flesh" (Rom 8 3-9), which stands, not for bodily organism, but for the whole nature of man (body and soul) turned away from God and devoted to self and earthly things.
OIL, OLIVE. See Oil; Olive Tree.
OIL PRESS. See Oil; Wine Press.
OIL-MAKING. See Cr.^fts, II, 11.
OLL TREE, oil tre (jPip y?, "ff sheme7i [Isa 41
19], m "oleaster," in Neh 8 15, tr"* "wild olive," AV "pine";lpTlJ ""2^, 'dfe shemen, in 1 K 6 23.31.32,
The old man is "in the flesh"; the new man "in the Spirit." In the former "the works of the flesh" (Gal 5 19-21) are manifest; in the latter "the fruit of the Spirit" (vs 22.23). One is "corrupt according to the deceitful lusts"; the other "created in righteousness and true holiness" (Eph 4 22-24 AV). See also Man, Natural; Man, New.
tr'' "olive wood"): The name "oleaster" used to be applied to the wild olive, but now belongs to quite another plant, the silver-berry, Eleagnus horlensis (N.O. Elaeagnaceae) , known in Arab, as Zeizafdn. It is a pretty shrub with sweet-smelling white flowers and silver-grey-green leaves. It is difficult to see how all the three references can apply to this tree; it will suit the first two, but this small shrub would never supply wood for carpentry work such as that mentioned in 1 K, hence the tr "olive wood." On the other hand, in the reference in Neh 8 15, olive branches are mentioned just before, so the tr "wild olive" (the difference being too slight) is improbable. Post suggests the tr of 'ef shemen by Pine (q.v.), which if accepted would suit all the requirements. E. W. G. Masterman
DwiGHT M. Pratt OLD PROPHET, THE CJpJT nns XinS, ndbhl' 'ehddh zdlfen, "an old prophet" '[1 K 13 11], ^?^5^^
IpJO, ha-ndbhl' ha-zaken, "the old
1. The prophet" ]ver 29]): The narrative of Narrative 1 K 13 11-32, in which the old prophet is mentioned, is part of a larger account telling of a visit paid to Bethel by "a man of God" from Judah. The Judaean prophet uttered a curse upon the altar erected there by Jeroboam
OINTMENT, oint'ment: The present use of the word "ointment" is to designate a thick unguent of buttery or tallow-like consistency. AV in frequent instances translates shemen or m'shah (see Ex 30 25) "ointment" where a perfumed oil seemed to be indicated. ARV has consequently substituted the word "oil" in most of the passages. Merkdhah is rendered "ointment" once in the OT (.lob 41 31 [Heb 41 23]). The well-known power of oils and
I. When the king attempted to use force against him, the prophet was saved by Divine intervention; the king then invited him to receive royal hospitality, but he refused because of a command of God to him not to eat or drink there. The Judaean then departed (vs 1-10). An old prophet who lived in Bethel heard of the stranger's words, and went after him and offered him hospitality. This offer too was refused. But when the old prophet resorted to falsehood and pleaded a Divine command on the subject, the Judaean returned with him. While at table the old prophet is given a message to declare that death will follow the southerner's disobedience to the first command. A lion kills him on his way home. The old prophet hears of the death and explains it as due to disobedience to God; he then buries the dead body in his own grave and expresses a wish that he also at death should be buried in the same sepulcher.