Part 11
OSPRAY, os'pra [rfllV^ , ^ozniyah; dXideros,
light 75 Heb ostraca inscribed with ink, 1. Hebrew m the Phoen character, with accounts Ostraca and memoranda relating to private matters and dating probably from the time of Ahab. Their historical contribution, aside from the mention of many names of persons and places, IS slender, but for ancient Heb writing and to a less extent for Heb words and forms they are of value, while the fact that in them we possess documents actually penned in Israel in the 9th cent. BC gives them extraordinary interest. The nature of ostraca tends to their preservation under conditions which would quickly destroy parchment,
halicU'tos; Lat Pandion halinetus) : A large hawk preferring a diet of fish. The word is found in the list of abominations only. See Lev 11 13; Dt 14 12. The ospray was quite similar in appearance to some of the smaller eagles, and by some it is thought that the short-toed eagle is intended. But the eagle and the gier-eagle had been specified, and on account of the os])ray plunging inio water for food and having feet bare to the lower leg-joint and plumage of brighter and more distinctive mark-
ing, it seems very probable that it was recognized
as a distinctive species, and so named separately.
2203 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Oman Ostrich
and again to the owl, with no applicability. The owl at times has a struggle to swallow whole prey
skin or papyrus, and this discovery in Pal encourages the hope of further and more significant finds.
^ Or ostraca in large quantities have been found in Egypt, preserving documents of many kinds, chiefly
it has taken, but the mere fact that it is a night hunter forever shuts it from the class of greedy and promiscuous feeders. The bodies of owls are proverbially lean like eagles. Neither did the owl frequent several places where older versions of Jer and Isa place it; so the tr" are now correctly rendered "ostrich." These birds came into the Bible because of their desert life, the companions they lived among there, and because of their night cries
tax receipts. The texts of some 2,000 2. Greek of these have been published, princiOstraca pally by Wilcken {Griechische Ostraka, 2 vols, 1899), and serve to illustrate in unexpected ways the everyday Gr speech of the
tliat were guttural, terrifying groans, like the roaring of lions. The birds were brought into many pictures of desolation, because people dreaded their
fearful voices. They homed on the trackless deserts that were dreaded by travelers, and when they came feeding on the fringe of the wilderness, they
fell into company with vulture, eagle, lion, jackal and adder, and joined their voices with the night hawks and owls. For these reasons no birds were more suitable for drawing strong comparisons from.
They attained a height ranging from 6 to 8 ft., and weighed from 200 to 300 lbs. The head was small with large eyes having powerful
1. Physical vision, and protected by lashes. The Peculiarities neck was long, covered with down, and
^hf9A^t^
the windpipe showed, while large bites could be seen to slide down the gullet. The legs were bare, long, and the muscles like steel from the long distances covered in desert travel. The foot was much like the cloven hoof of a beast. The inner toe was 7 in. long, with a clawlike hoof, the
Ostracou with Lk 22 70 f.
common people of Egypt through the Ptolemaic, Rom and Byzantine periods. Like the papyri, they help to throw light on NT sjTitax and lexicography, as well as on ancient life in general.
outer, smaller with no claw. With its length and strength of leg and the weight of foot it could strike a blow that saved it from attack by beasts smaller than a leopard. The wings were small, the muscles
It is said that Cleanthes the Stoic, being too poor to buy papjTus, used to write on ostraca, but
soft and flabby. They would not bear the weight
of the bird, but the habit of lifting and beating them proved that this assisted in attaining speed
no remains of classical lit. have been
3. New found on the ostraca thus far disTestament covered. In some instances, however, Ostraca Christian literary texts are preserved upon ostraca. Some years ago Bou-
in running (cf Xen. Anab. i.5.2,3). The body was
riant bought in Upper Egypt 20 ostraca, probably
of the 7th cent., inscribed with the Gr text of parts
of the Gospels. The ostraca are of diiierent sizes, and preserve among others one long continuous passage (Lk 22 40-71), which runs over 10 of the
pieces. The ostraca contain from 2 to 9 verses
each, and cover Mt 27 31.32; Mk 5 40.41 (9 3); 9 17.18.22; 15 21; Lk 12 13-16; 22 40-71; Jn
1 1-9; 1 14-17; 18 19-2.5; 19 1.5-17. The texts
are in 3 different hands, and attest the interest of
the poor in the gospel in the century of the Arab
conquest. Another late ostracon has a rough drawing labeled "St. Peter the evangelist," perhaps
in allusion to the Gospel of Peter.
Coptic ostraca, too, are numerous, esp. from the Byzantine period, and of even more interest for
Christian history than the Greek. A
Ostriclies.
4. Coptic Sa'idic ostracon preserves the pericope
covered with soft flexible feathers, the wings and
Ostraca on the woman taken in adultery
(Jn 7 53—8 11), which is otherwise
tail growing long plumes, for which the bird has been pursued since the beginning of time. These
unattested in the Sa'idic NT. A Christian hymn
to Mary, akin to the canticles of Luke, and some
exquisite feathers were first used to decorate the headdress and shields of desert chieftains, then as decorations for royalty, and later for hat and hair ornaments. The badge of the Prince of Wales is
Christian letters have been found. The work of W E Crum on the Coptic ostraca is of especial
importance. See, further, Deissmann, Light from
three white ostrich plumes. The females are
the Ancient East, 1910; Lyon, Harvard Theol.
smaller, the colors gray and white, the males a
Review, January, 1911. Edgar J. Goodspeed
glossy black, the wing and tail plumes white. The
ostrich has three physical peculiarities that stagger
OSTRICH, os'trich (HJ^^, ya'anah; o-Tpoueos,
scientists. It has eyelashes, developed no doubt
sirouthds: Lat Struthio camelus) : The largest bird now living. The Heb words ya'anah, which means
to protect the eyes from the dust and sand of
desert life. On the wings are two plumeless shafts
-greediness," and hath ha-ya'dnah, "daughter of
like large porcupine quills. These may be used in
sreediness," are made to refer to the indiscrimi-
resisting attack. It also has a bladder like a
nate diet of the ostrich, to which bird they apply;
Ostrich Owl THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2204
mammal, that collects uric acid, the rarest organ ever developed in a feathered creature.
(34 13). "And the wild beasts of the desert shall meet with the wolves, and the wild goat shall cry to his fellow; yea, the night monster shall settle there, and shall find her a place of rest" (34 14). "The beasts of the field shall honor me, the jackals and the ostriches; because I give waters in the wilderness, and rivers in the desert, to give drink to my people, my chosen" (43 20). Here we find the ostrich in its natural location, surrounded by creatures that were its daily companions. The next reference also places the bird at home and in customary company: "Therefore the wild beasts of the desert with the wolves shall dwell there, and the ostriches [AV "owls"] shall dwell therein: and
These birds homed on the deserts of Arabia and at the lower end of the great Salt Sea. Here the ostrich left her eggs on the earth and
2. Eggs warmed them in the sand. That and Care they were not hard baked was duo of Young to the fact that they were covered for protection during the day and brooded through the cooler nights. The eggs average 3 lbs. weight. They have been used for food in the haunts of the ostrich since the records of history began, and their stout shells for drinking-vessels. It is the custom of natives on finding a nest to take a long stick and draw out an egg. If incubation has advanced enough to spoil the eggs for use, the nest is carefully covered and left; if fresh, they are eaten, one egg being sufficient for a small family. No doubt these were the eggs to which Job referred as being tasteless without salt (Job 6
it shall be no more inhabited forever; neither shall
it be dwelt in from generation to generation" (Jer 50 39). "Even the jackals draw out the breast, they give suck
to their young ones: The daughter of my people is become cruel, like the ostriches in the wilderness " (Lam 4 3). This reference is made to the supposed cruelty of the ostrich in not raising its young.
6). The number of eggs in the nest was due to the fact that the birds were polygamous, one male leading from 2 to 7 females, all of which deposited their eggs in a common nest. When several females wanted to use the nest at the same time, the first one to reach it deposited her egg in it, and the others on the sand close beside. This accounts for the careless habits of the ostrich as to her young. In this communal nest, containing from 2 to 3 dozen eggs, it is impossible for the mother bird to know which of the young is hers. So all of them united in laying the eggs and allowing the father to look after the nest and the young. The bird first appears among the abominations in Lev 11 16 RV, AV "owl"; Dt 14 16, RV "little owl," AV "owl." This must have referred to the toughness of grown specimens, since there was nothing offensive in the bird's diet to taint its flesh and the young tender ones were delicious meat. In his agony. Job felt so much an outcast that he cried:
Gene Stratton-Porter OTHNI, oth'nl ("^^ri? ' ''othni, meaning unknown)
A son of Shemaiah, a Korahite Levite (1 Ch 26 7).
OTHNIEL, oth'ni-el (bxippy, 'othni' el): A hero in Israel, son of Kenaz, Caleb's younger brother. He conquered Kiriath-sepher, later known as Debir, in the territory of Judah in the days of Joshua, and was given the daughter of Caleb, Achsah, to wife as a reward (Josh 15 17 || Jgs 1 13). He later smote Cushan-rishathaim, king of Mesopotamia, whom the children of Israel had served 8 years, and thus not only saved the Israelites, but by reviving national sentiment among them (cf Ant, V, iv, 3), and reestablishing government, became the first of those hero-rulers knovm as "
' The elTects of his victory lasted an entire generation (40 years, Jgs 3 9-11). He had a sou named Hathath (1 Ch 4 13) and probably another named Meonothai (cf recensio Luciana of LXX, ad loc). In the days of David we find a family bearing the name of Othniel, from which came Heldai the Metophathite, captain of the twelfth month (1 Ch 27 15). Nathan Isaacs OTHONIAS, oth-g-ni'as ('09ov(asj Olhonlas): One of those who had taken "strange wives" (1 Esd 9 28) = "Mattaniah"of Ezr 10 27.
j udges
. '
"I am a brother to jackals.
And a companion to ostriches' (Job 30 29).
Again he records that the Almighty discoursed to him of the ostrich in the following manner:
"The wings of the ostrich wave proudly;
But are they the pinions and plumage of love ? " etc
(39 13-18). The ostrich history previously given explains all tins passage save the last two verses, the first of
which is a reference to the fact that
OUCHES, ouch'ez, -iz (nisaffia, miskb'goth [Ex 28 11.13.14.25; 39 6.13.16.18); ARV "settings," but m Ex 39 13, "inclosings") : The secondary meaning of this now archaic word is the gold or silver setting of a precious stone. In Ex, where it occurs 8 t, it is clear that the gold settings of the engraved stones forming the breast-plate of the high priest are intended; the onyx stones forming the fibula or brooch for holding together the two sides of the breast-plate being said to be "inclosed in ouches [settings] of gold" (Ex 39 6). Not only were these two onyx or beryl stones so set, but the 12 stones forming the front of the breast-plate were "inclosed in gold in their settings" (Ex 28 20). The same word occurs in Ps 45 13, where the king's daughter is said to have her clothing "inwrought with gold," i.e. embroidered with gold thread or wire. Ex 39 3 tells us how this wire was produced. From this fact it may be inferred that the settings of the breast-plate were not solid pieces of gold, but were formed of woven wire wreathed round the stones, in a sort of filigree. See also Stones, Precious.
3. OT the Arabs thought the ostrich a stupid References bird, because, when it had traveled to exhaustion, it hid its head and thought its body safe, and because some of its eggs were found outside the nest. The second was due to a well-known fact that, given a straight course, the ostrich could outrun a horse. The birds could attain and keep up a speed of 60 miles an hour for the greater part of half a day and even longer, hence
it was possible to take them only by a system of relay riders (Xen.,op. cit.) When Isaiah predicted the fall of Babylon, he used these words: "But wild beasts of the desert shall lie there; and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures; and ostriches shall dwell there, and wild goats shall dance there" (Isa 13 21). Because this was to be the destruction of a great city, located on the Euphrates River and built by the fertiUty and prosperity of the country surrounding it, and the ruins those of homes, the bird indicated by every natural condition would be the owl. The wild goats clambering over the ruins would be natural companions and the sneaking wolves—but not the big bird of daytime travel, desert habitation, accustomed to constant pursuit for its plumage. Exactly the same argument applies to the next reference by the same writer
nnTrAox ^n ^ -r.^' ^"'^^^' Caldrcott _iir J *^^' outkast: Represents some form of nn^
, dahah, or n"13
, nadhah, both meaning "thrust
2205 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Ostrich Owl
OVERSEER, o-ver-se'er, or -ser': One who overlooks, inspects; in the OT from ni3, nagah
out." In Jer 30 17 "outcast" means "thrust out of society," "degraded person"; elsewhere it means "exile" (Ps 147 2; Isa 16 3 f ; Jer 49 36).
(2 Ch 2 18; in 2 Ch 34 13 RV changes' to "set forward"), and IpB
, pakadh (Gen 39 4..5; 2 Ch 34 12.17; RV has this word for AV "officers" in Gen 41 34, and for "rulers" in 1 Ch 26 32); in the NT once for iTrla-Ko-n-os, episkopos, in Acts 20
OUTER, out'er; This adj. is used 12 t by Ezekiel of the outside court of the temple. In Mt we find
it 3t (8 12; 22 13; 25 30) in "outer darkness" (t6 tr/ciTos t6 elciTepor, td skotos 16 exoteron), which typifies the utter darkness of the doom of the
28, where RV has "bishops" (m "overseers"; cf
1 Pet 5 2). See Bishop.
lost.
OWL, oul (niy^jn t^^, bath ha-ya'dn&h; Lat
OUTGOING, out'go-ing: In Ps 65 8, "Thou makest the outgoings of the morning and evening
Ulula) : The name of every nocturnal bird of prey
of the N.O. Slriges. These birds range from the great horned owl of 2 ft. in length, through many subdivisions to the httle screech-owl of 6 in. All are characterized by very large heads, many have
to rejoice," the Heb is ^^^TQ, mo;d'. The word (from ya^a\ "to go forth") refers to the "going forth" of the sun, and so means "east" (as in Ps 75 6). The connection of mo(a' with "evening"
is therefore zeugmatic, but the meaning is clear and there are extra-Bib. parallels (cf "the two Orients"). In Josh 17 18, AV uses "outgoings"
for the Heb mXSin, toga'oth (also from j/aja'), where the meaning is "extremity" (RV "goings out," as in Nu 34 5, etc). "Outwent" occurs in Mk 6 33. Burton Scott Easton
OUTLANDISH, out-land'ish (Neh 13 26, AV "Him did outlandish women cause to sin"): "Outlandish" in modern Eng. is colloquial only and with the sense "utterly extraordinary," but AV uses it
in the lit. meaning "out of the land," "foreign," ERV "strange women," ARV "foreign women," Heb '''1?5
, nokhrl, "foreign."
OUTRAGE, out'raj, OUTRAGEOUS, out-ra'jus: The noun (from the Fr. outre+age, "that which goes beyond") only in the heading to Ps 10 AV; the adj.
in Prov 27 4, AV and ERV, for riUlS , sheteph,
"flood," "Anger is overwhelming" (ARV), is much better.
OUTROADS, out'rodz (eloSeiiu, exodeuo, "to go forth," "to make a mihtary expedition"; AV and RV in 1 Mace 15 41, "horsemen .... that they might make outroads upon the ways of Judah"
Owl (Athene meridionalis).
ear tufts, all have large eyes surrounded by a disk
of tiny, stiff, radiating feathers. The remainder
1 Esd 4 23, RV "goeth forth to make outroads"): "Outroads" is obsolete, but its opposite, "inroads,"
of the plumage has no aftershaft. So these birds make the softest flight of any creature traveling on wing. A volume could be written on the eye
is still good Eng.
of the owl, perhaps its most wonderful feature being in the power of the bird to enlarge the iris
OUTWARD, out'werd, MAN (e|a), exo, "out-
side," "without," "out of doors"): The body, sub-
if it wishes more distinct vision. There is material
ject to decay and death, in distinction from the inner man, the imperishable spiritual life which "is renewed day by day" (2 Cor 4 16); also the body
for another on the prominent and peculiar auditory
parts. With almost all owls the feet are so arranged that two toes can be turned forward and two back, thus reinforcing the grip of the bird by an extra toe and giving it unusual strength of foot.
as the object of worldly thought and pride in exter-
nal dress and adornment (1 Pet 3 3). See Man, Natural; Man, New.
All are night-hunters, taking prey to be found at that time, of size according to the strength. The owl was very numerous in the caves, ruined temples and cities, and even in the fertile valleys of Pal.
OVEN, uv"n. See Bread; P'urnace.
OVERCHARGE, o-ver-charj': Lk 21 34, "lest
It is given place in the Bible because it was considered unfit for food and because people dreaded the cries of every branch of the numerous family.
haply your hearts be overcharged with drunken-
ness" (^apivui, barilno, "burden," here with the
force "be occupied with"); 2 Cor 2 5, AV "that
It appeared often, as most birds, in the early VSS
of the Bible; later translators seem to feel that it was used in several places where the ostrich really was intended (see Ostrich). It would appear to a natural historian that the right bird could be se-
I may not overcharge you" (iiri^apioi, epibareo,
"overload"), RV "that I press not too heavily."
See Charges.
OVERPASS, o-ver-pas' : A special tr of the very common vb. I??', ^abhar, "to pass over," found in EV of Ps 57 1 and Isa 26 20 in the sense "to pass
lected by the location, where the text is confusing.
The ostrich had a voice that was even more terri-
fying, when raised in the night, than that of the
owl. But it was a bird of the desert, of wide range and traveled only by day. This would confine its
by," and in Jer 6 28 with the meaning "to over-
flow."
habitat to the desert and the greenery where it
joined fertile land, but would not bring it in very
OVERPLUS, 6'ver-plus: Lev 25 27, for 3"^,
close touch with civilization. The owl is a bird of
'ddhaph, "excess."
Owl, Great Painfulness THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2206
of prey distinguished by a round head, and extremely large eyes. The little owl is left in RV only in the lists of abominations (see Lev 11 17; Dt 14
ruins, that lay mostly in the heart of rich farming lands, where prosperous cities had been built and then destroyed by enemies. Near these locations the ostrich would be pursued for its plumage, and
16). See Owl.
its nesting conditions did not prevail. The location was strictly the owl's chosen haunt, and it had the voice to fit all the requirements of the text. In the lists of abominations, the original Heb yanshUph, derived from a root meaning twilight, is tr'' "great owl" (see Lev 11 17 and Dt 14 16). It is probable that this was a bird about 2 ft. in length, called the eagle-owl. In the same lists the word kos (wkTiKdpai, nuktikorax) refers to ruins, and the bird indicated is specified as the "little owl," that is, smaller than the great owl—about the size of our barn owl. This bird is referred to as the "mother of ruins," and the tr' that place it in deserted temples and cities are beyond all doubt correct. Kippoz (ix'i^vos, ech'mos) occurs once (Isa 34 15), and is tr'' "great owl" in former versions; lately
OWL, SCREECH. See Night Monster.
OWNER, on'er. See Ships and Boats, III, 2.
OX. See Antelope; Cattle; Wild Ox.
OX, oks ("n^, Ox) : One of the ancestors of Judith (Jth 8 1). The name is not Heb. Perhaps the Itala Ozi and the Syr Uz point to the Heb Vzzi.
OX-GOAD, oks'god. See Goad.
OZEM, o'zem (D2S, 'ogem, meaning unknown):
(1) The 6th sou of David (1 Ch 2 1.5). LXX
(in ARV) it is changed to "dart-snake" (ERV "arrowsnake"). In this same description lilith (ivoKivravpoi, onohentauros) , "a specter of night," was formerly screech-owl, now it reads "night monster," which is more confusing and less suggestive. The owls in the lists of abominations (Lev 11 17.18; Dt 14 16) are the little owl, the great owl and the horned owl. The only other owl of all those that produced such impressions of desolation in the Books of Isa, Jer, Job and Mic is referred toinPs 102 6:
("Ao-o/ti, Asom) and yulg suggest that the name should be pointed D2X, 'dgom.
(2) A "son" of Jerahmeel (1 Ch 2 25).
OZIAS, 6-zi'as
(1) ('Ofe(as, Ozeias, 'Ofi'as, Ozias, B ah): The son of Micah, a Simeonitc, one of the 3 rulers of BethuUa in the days of Judith (Jth 6 15.16; 7 23; 8 9 if; 10 6).
(2) ('Offias, Ozeias, B and Swete; AV Ezias
[1 Esd 8 2], following A, 'Efias, Ezias): An ancestor of Ezra (1 Esd 8 2; 2 Esd 1 2) = "Uzzi" of Ezr 7 4; 1 Ch 6 51.
" I am like a pelican of the wilderiie-ss
I am become as an owl of the waste places." Here it would appear that the bird habitual to the wilderness and the waste places, that certainly would be desert, would be the ostrich—while in any quotation referring to ruins, the owl would be the bird indicated by natural conditions.
(3) Head of a family of temple-servants who returned with Zcrubbabel (1 Esd 5 31) = "Uzza" of Ezr 2 49; Neh 7 51.
(4) Gr form of Uzziah (q.v.) in Mt 1 8.9 AV. A king of Judah. S. Angus
Gene Stratton-Porter OWX, GREAT (Jllljp^ yanshuph; LXX 'ipis,
ibis, or ctpis, eibis) : A member of the Pal species of the family Strigidae. The great owl mentioned in the Bible was no doubt their largest specimen of the family, a bird fully 2 ft. in length, full feathered, with unusually large head and long ear tufts. It was a formidable and noble-appearing bird, with resounding voice. It was abundant among the ruins of temples, the tombs of Carmel, the caves of Gennesaret, and among the ruined cities of Southern Judah. It is included in the abomination lists of Lev 11 17 and Dt 14 16. See Owl. Gene Stratton-Porter OWL, LITTLE (C13, Aio.j; v«KTi,Kdpa|, 7iuktikorax; Lat Athene meridionalis) : A night bird
OZIEL, o'zi-el ('O^eiTiX, Ozeiel) : An ancestor of Judith (Jth 8 1) ; another form of the OT name "Uzziel."
OZNI, oz'ni C?!^, 'ozni, "mv hearing," or "my ear"): A "son" of Gad (Nu 26 16) = "Ezbon" of Gen 46 16 (cf 1 Ch 7 7).
OZNITES, oz'nits (with the art. ':TXn , ha- 'ozni [collective], "the Oznitcs"): Of the clan of Ozni(Nu 26 16). See Ozni.
OZORA, 6-zo'ra. See Ezora.
PAD DAN, pad'an (Gen 48 7; AV Padan, padan). See next article.
PAARAI, pa'a-ri C^iyS , pa^dray, "devotee of Poor"): One of David's' 37 valiant men (2 S 23
35). Doubtless the "Naarai" of 1 Ch 11 37.
PADDAN-ARAM, pad'an-a'ram or p.-ar'am (DHX I^D , paddan 'dram; LXX Meo-oiroTa(i£a Ttis SvpCas, Mesopotamia Its Surias; AV Padan-aram) In Gen 48 7, Paddan stands alone, but as the LXX, Sam, and Pesh read "Aram" also, it must in this verse have dropped out of the MT. In the time of Abraham, padan it occurson the Bab contract-tablets as a land measure, to which we may compare the Arab, fedddn or "ox-gang." In the Assyr syllabaries it is the equivalent of iklu, "a field," so that Paddan-aram would mean "the field of Aram," and with this we may compare Hos 12 12 (Heb 12 13) and the use of the Heb sddJieh in connection with Moab and Edom (Jgs 5 4; Ruth 1 6).
PACATIANA, pa-ka-ti-a'na, pak-a-tl'a-na (IlaKartavTi, Pakatiant): About 295 AD, when the province of Asia was broken up, two new provinces were formed, Phrygia Prima (Paoatiana), of which Laodicea was "the chicfest city" (subscription to
1 Tim AV), and Phrygia Secunda (Salutaris). See Phrygia, and HDB, III, 865.
PACE, pas (~??, Qa'adh): A step in 2 S 6 13, hence about one yard.
PACHON, pa'kon (Ilaxwv, Pachon): The name of a month mentioned in 3 Mace 6 38.
2207 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Owl, Great Painfulness
Furthermore, padanu and harranu are given as synonyms with the meaning of "road."
of these and similar passages several synonyms are used in the one verse to intensify the impression, and are tr'' "pain," "pangs," and "sorrows," as in Isa 13 8. The word most commonly used by the prophets is some form of hul or hll, sometimes with the addition "as of a woman in travail," as in Ps 48 6; Isa 26 18; Jor 6 24; 22 2:3; Mic 4 10. This pain is referred to the heart (Ps 55 4) or to the head (.ler 30 23; cf vs 5.6). In Ezk 30 4, it is the penal affliction of Ethiopia, and in ver 16, AV "Sin [Tanis) shall have great pain" (RV "anguish"); in Isa 23 .5 Egypt is .sorely pained at the news of the fall of Tyro. Before the invading host of locusts the people are much pained (.loel 2 6 AV). Pain in the sense of toil and trouble in Jer 12 13 is the tr of halah, a word more frequently rendered grieving or sickness, as in 1 K 14 1 ; Prov 23 3.5; Cant 2 5; Jer 5 3, Tlie reduplicated form halhnldh is esp. used of a twisting pain usually referred to the loins (Isa 21 3; Ezk 30 4.9; Nah 2 10). Pain in the original meaning of the word (as it has come down to us through the Old Fr. from the Lat poena) as a penalty inflicted for personal sin is expressed by the words kaebh or ke\ihh in Job 14 22; 15 20, and in the questioning complaint of the prophet (Jer 15 18). As a judgment on personal sin pain is also expressed by makh'ohh in Job 33 19; Jer 51 8, but this word is used in the sense of afflictions in Isa 53 3 in the expression "man of sorrows." The Psalmist (Ps 25 18) praying for deliverance from the afflictions which weighed heavily on him in turn uses the word ' dmdl, and this word which primarily means "toil" or "labor," as in Eccl 1 3, or "travail," as in Isa 53 11, is trii "painful" in Ps 73 16, as expressing Asaph's disquiet due to his misunderstanding of the ways of Providence. The "pains of hell" (Ps 116 3 AV) , which got hold of the Psalmist in his sickness, is the rendering of the word m^r;ar; the same word is tr*! "distress" in Ps 118 5. Most of these words have a primary physical meaning of twisting, rubbing or constricting.
Paddan-aram occurs only in the PC, but it corresponds to the "Haran" of the older documents. The versions agree in translating both as Mesopotamia, and identify with the home of the patriarchs and the scene of Jacob's exile the district of Haran to the E. of the Upper Euphrates valley. More in harmony with the length of Jacob's flight, as indicated by the time given (Gen 31 22.23), is Harran-el-'Awamid, an ancient site 10 miles to the E. of Damascus, which satisfies all the demands of history. See Aram. W. M. Christie
yaihedh): Dt 23 13 PADDLE, pad"l ("irT' (Heb 14), RVm "shovel."'
PADON, pa'don (l^ns , pSdhon, "redemption") One of the Nethinim (see Nethinim) who returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2 44; Neh 7 47); the "Phaleas" of 1 Esd 5 29 (m "Padon").
PAGIEL, pa'gi-el, pa'ji-el, pa-gi'el (bsiy??
pagh'l'el, "God's intervention"): Son of Ocran, of the tribe of Asher, among those enrolled by Moses at the numbering of Israel (Nu 1 13; 2 27). When the tabernacle was set up, the heads of the families of Israel "brought their offerings" in rotation, and Pagiel, as prince of his tribe, came on the 11th day (Nu 7 72).^ Nu 7 72-77 describes his offering. In the journeyings of Israel he was "over the host of the tribe of the children of Asher" (Nu 10 26), and possibly standard-bearer (cf Nu 10 14.22.25). Henry Wallace
In the_ NT odin is tr<i "pain" (of death, RV "pang") in Acts 2 24. This word is used to express any severe pain, such as that of travail, or
PAHATH-MOAB, pa'hath-mo'ab (nSTO-nns
(as in Aeschylus, Choephori, 211) the pain of intense apprehension. The vb. from this, V odunomai,
pahath md'ahh, "sheik of Moab"; in 1 Esd 5 11; 8 31, "Phaath Moab"): A Jewish clan probably named after an ancestor of the above title. Part of the clan returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2 6; cf Neh 7 11) under two family names, Jeshua and Joab; and a part came back with Ezra (Ezr 8 4). Hashub, a "son of Pahath-moab," is named among the repairers of both the wall and the "tower of the furnaces" at Jerus (Neh 3 11). It is the name of one of the signatories "sealing" the "sure covenant" of Neh 9 38 (Neh 10 14). Some of the sons of this name had taken "strange wives" (Ezr 10 30). Henry Wallace
is used by the Rich Man in the parable to describe his torment (RV "anguish") (Lk 16 24). The related vb. sunodino is used in Rom 8 22 and is
tr'' "travailing in pain together." In much the same sense the word is used by Euripides ( Helena, 727). In Rev 12 2 the woman clothed with the sun (basanizomene) was in pain to be delivered; the vb. (basanizo) which means "to torture" is used both in Mt 8 6 in the account of the grievously tormented centurion's servant, and in the description
of the laboring of the apostles' boat on the stormy Sea of Galilee (Mt 14 24). The former of these seems to have been a case of spinal meningitis. This vb. occurs in Thucydides vii.86 (viii.92), where it means "being put to torture." In the two passages
PAI, pa'i C^J'S , pa'i; ^oyup, Phogor) : The royal
city of Hadad or Hadar, king of Edom (1 Ch 1 50). The name is given as "Pau" (^73, pa'tt) in Gen 36 39. There is no indication of its position.
in Rev where pain is mentioned the word is ponos, the pain which affected those on whom the fifth
It is not identified.
vial was poured (16 10) , and in the description of the City of God where there is no more pain (21 4). The primary meaning of this word seems to be
PAIN, pan (bin, Ml, b^n, m, bnn, hebhel, nbn, Mlah, rbrhn , halhalah, 2if.^ , ka' Sbh, 3X3,
' 'toil, as in Iliad xxi..525, but it is used by Hippocrates to express disease (Aphorisma iv.44).
Ic'ebh, IS'n, mefar, 3i«D"a, makh'Sbh, bp?, 'amal,
Alex. Macallster PAINFULNESS, pan'fool-nes {\i6xio%, mdchthas): In the summary of his missionary hibors in 2 Cor 11 27 AV, St. Paul uses this word. RV renders
"l"^¥, gir; Pao-avCJw, basanizo, irdvos, ponos, oiStv,
odln): These words signifying various forms of
bodily or mental suffering are generally tr'' "pain"; 28 out of the 34 passages in which the word is used
it "travail," which probably now expresses its meaning more closely, as in modern usage "painfulness" is usually restricted to the condition of actual soreness or suffering, although we still use "painstaking" in the sense of careful labor. The Gr word is used for toil or excessive anxiety, as in Euripides (Medea, 126), where it refers to that care for her children which she had lost in her mad-
are in the poetical or prophetical books and refer
to conditions of mental disquiet or dismay due to
the punishment of personal or national sin. In one instance only is the word used as a historic
record of personal physical pain: the case of the
wife of Phinehas (1 S 4 19), but the same word
Sir is used figuratively in Isa 13 8; 21 3; Dnl 10
16, and tr'' "pangs" or "sorrows." In other pas-
ness. Tindalc uses "painfulness" in 1 Jn 4 18
sages where we have the same comparison of con-
as the tr of (tiXacris, kolasis, which AV renders "torment" and RV "punishment."
sternation in the presence of God's judgments to
the pangs of childbirth, the word used is hebhd, as
Alex. Macalister
in Isa 66 7; Jer 13 21; 22 23; 49 24. In some
Paint Peilestine THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2208
derived from paryanka). The m "car of state" and AV "chariot" are mere guesses.
PAINT, pant (from Old Fr. pmnclre, frequentative of peindre, Lat pingo, "to paint"): (1) From Heb vb. niCTa, mashah, "to smear," "to anoint," "to paint," describing the painting of interiors with vermilion, perhaps resembling lacquer: "ceiled with cedar, and painted with vermilion" (Jer 22
, p'lesheth) : Ex
PALESTINA, pal-es-ti'na (niabS
15 14; Isa 14 29.31 AV; changed in RV to Philistia (q.v.).
14). The shields of the Ninevite soldiers were red, presumably painted (Nah 2 3). (2) From noun ^1S, pukh, "paint," "antimony," "stibium," "black mineral powder," used as a cosmetic, to lend artificial size and fancied beauty to the eye, always spoken of as a meretricious device, indicating light or unworthy character. Jezebel "painted her eyes, and attired her head" (2 K 9 30, lit. "put pukh into her eyes"). To the harlot city Jerus, Jeremiah (4 30) says, "deckest thee . . . . , enlargest thine eyes with paint" (pukh). AV renders "rentest thy face," as if the stain were a cut, or
PALESTINE, pal'es-tin (nipbs, p'lesheth; 4>u-
XnrTi«i(i, Phidistieim, 'A\\6e|)D\ot, Allophuloi; AV
Joel 3 4 [RV "Philistia"), "Palestina"; AV Ex 15
14; Isa 14 29.31; cf Ps 60 8; 83 7; 87 4; 108 9):
I. Physical Conditions
1. General Geographical Features
2. Water-Supply 3. Geological Conditions 4. Fauna and Flora 5. Climate 6. Rainfall 7. Drought and Famine
II. Palestine in the Pentateuch
the enlarging done by violence. (3) From vb. xllS
1. Places Visited by Abraham 2. Places Visited by Isaac 3. Places Visited by Jacob 4. Mentioned in Connection with Judah
kahal, "to smear," "to paint." Ezekiel says to Oliolah-Oholibah (Judah-Israel), "didst wash thy-
self, paint [kahal] thine eyes," as the adulteress prepares herself for her paramour (Ezk 23 40). The antimony, in an extremely fine powder (Arab. kuhl, from kahal), is placed in the eye by means of a very fine rod, bodkin, or probe, drawn between the edges of the eyelids. This distends the eye, and also increases its apparent size, the effect being increased by a line of stain drawn from the corner, and by a similar line prolonging the eyebrow. See Etepaint; Color. Philip Wendell Channell
5. Review of Geography of Genesis 6. Exodus and Leviticus
7. Numbers 8. Deuteronomy
III. Palestine in the Historic Books of the OT
1. Book of Joshua 2. Book of Judges 3. Book of Ruth 4. Books of .Samuel 5. Books of Kings 6. Post-exilic Historical Books IV. Palestine in the Poetic Books of the OT
1. Book of Job 2. Book of Psalms 3. Book of Proverbs 4. Song of Songs V. Palestine in the Prophets
PAINTING, pan'ting. See Crafts, II, 12.
PAIR, pdr: The m of Cant 4 2 (but not of the
1. Isaiah 2. Jeremiah 3. Ezekiel 4. Minor Prophets VI. Palestine in the Apocrypha
11 6 6) reads, "which are all of them in pairs," while the text has, "whereof every one hath twins." The Heb niT2"'Xri^, math'imolh, is from a V ta'am, "be double," and is perhaps susceptible of either meaning. But the description is of sheep, and the m gives no comprehensible figure, while the text points to the exceedingly sleek and healthy appearance. "Pairs" seems to result from confusing the figure with the thing figured—the teeth, where each upper is paired with the corresponding lower.
1. Book of Judith 2. Book of Wisdom 3. 1 Maccabees 4. 2 Maccabees VII. Palestine in the NT 1. Synoptic Gospels 2. Fourth Gospel 3. Book of Acts Literature
Theword properly means "Philistia," but appears to be first used in the extended sense, as meaning all the "Land of Israel" or "Holy Land" (Zee 2 12), by Philo and by Ovid and later Rom authors (Reland, Pallllustr., I, 38-42).
PALACE, pal'fts: In Heb chiefly p12nS, 'armon,
in RVtext tr<' "castle" in 1 K 16 IS; 2 K 15 25; PIT'S , birdh, JDH , hekhal, the same word often rendered "temple"; in Gr auX^, aule, in RV tr'' "court" (Mt 26 3.58.69; Mk 14 54.66; Lk 11 21; Jn 18 15). On the other hand, "palace" takes the place in RV of AV "common hall" or "judgment hall" (praiidrion, Mt 27 27; Jn 18 28.
/. Physical Conditions.—The Bible in general may be said to breathe the air of Pal; and it is here intended to show how important for sound criticism
is the consideration of its geography, and of the numerous incidental allusions to the natural featureSj fauna, flora, cultivation, and climate of the land in which most of the Bible books were written. With the later history and topography of Pal, after 70 AD, we are not here concerned, but a short account of its present physical and geological conditions is needed for our purpose.
33; 19 9; Acts 23 35). See Judgment, Hall of. A description of Solomon's palace is given in 1 K 7 1-12 (see Temple). Archaeology has brought
to light the remains of great palaces in Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria (Sargon, Sennacherib, Assurbanipal, etc), Susa, etc. See House.
Pal W. of the Jordan, between Dan and Beersheba, has an area of about 6,000 sq. miles, the length from
James Ohr PALAESTRA, PALESTRA, pa-les'tra. See Games, II, 3, (i).
Hermon southward being nearly 150
1. General miles, and the width gradually inGeocreasing from 20 miles on the N. to 60 graphical miles on the S. It is thuB about the Features size of Wales, and the height of the Palestinian mountains is about the same as that of the Welsh. E. of the Jordan an area of about 4,000 sq. miles was included in the land of Israel. The general geographical features are familiar to all.
PALAL, pa'lal (5pB
, paldl, "judge"): Son of
Uzai, and one of the repairers of the wall (Neh 3
25).
PALANQUIN, pal-an-ken': In Cant 3 9 occurs ^TinSX, 'appiryon, a word that has no Scm cog-
nates and is of dubious meaning. In form, however,
it resembles the Sanskrit paryanka, and still more
(1) The land is divided by the deep chasm of the Jordan valley—an ancient geological , fault continuing in the Dead Sea, where its depth (at the
closely the Gr rpoptlop, phoreion, both of which mean
"litter bed." Hence RV "palanqviin" (ultimately
2209 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Paint Palestine
bottom of the lake) is 2,600 ft. below the Mediterranean.
S. almost to the foot of Hermon. Further upheaval, accompanied by volcanic outbreaks which covered the plateaus of Golan, Bashan, and Lower Galilee with lava, cut off the Jordan valley from the Red Sea, and formed a long lake, the bottom of which continued to sink on the S. to its present level during the Pleiocene and Pluvial periods, after which—its peculiar fauna having developed meanwhile—the lake gradually dried up, till it was represented only, as it now is, by the swampy H-Uleh, the pear-shaped Sea of Galilee, and the Dead Sea. These changes all occurred long ages before the appearance of man. The beds upheaved include: (1) the Nubian Sandstone (of the Greensand period), which was sheared along the line of the Jordan fault E. of the river, and which only appears on the western slopes of Hermon, Gilead, and Moab; (2) the limestones ot the Cretaceous age, including the hard dolomite, and softer beds full of characteristic fossils; (13) the soft Eocene limestone, which appears chiefly on the western spurs and in the foothills, the angle of upheaval being less steep than that of the older main formation. On the shores of the Mediterranean a yet later sandy limestone forms the low cliffs of Sharon. See Geology of Palestine.
(2) W. of the valley the mountain ridge, which is a continuation of Lebanon, has very steep slopes on the E. and long spurs on the W., on which side the foothills (Heb sh'pheldh or "lowland") form a distinct district, widening gradually southward, while between this region and the sea the plains of Sharon and Philistia stretch to the sandhills and low cliffs of a harborless coast.
(3) In Upper Galilee, on the N., the mountain ridge rises to 4,000 ft. above the Mediterranean. Lower Galilee, to the S., includes rounded hills less than 1,000 ft. above the sea, and the triangular plain of Esdraelon drained by the River Kishon between the Gilboa watershed on the E. and the long spur of Carmel on the W.
(4) In Samaria the mountains are extremely rugged, but a small plain near Dothan adjoins that of Esdraelon, and another stretches E. of Shechem, 2,500 ft. above the level of the Jordan valley. In Judaea the main ridge rises toward Hebron and then sinks to the level of the Beersheba plains about 1,000 ft. above the sea. The desert of Judah forms a plateau (500 ft. above sea-level), between this ridge and the Dead Sea, and is throughout barren and waterless; but the mountains—which average about 3,000 ft. above the sea—are full of good springs and suitable for the cultivation of the vine,
As regards fauna, flora and cultivation, it is suffi-
cient here to say that they are still practically the
same as described throughout the
4. Fauna Bible. The lion and the wild bull and Flora {Bos primigenius) were exterminated within historic times, but have left
their bones in the Jordan gravels, and in caves. The bear has gradually retreated to Hermon and Lebanon. The buffalo has been introduced since the Moslem conquest. Among trees the apple has
fallen out of cultivation since the Middle Ages, and the cactus has been introduced; but Pal is still a land of corn, wine and oil, and famous for its fruits.
fig and ohve. The richest lands are found in the sh'pheldh region—esp. in Judaea—and in the corn plains of Esdraelon, Sharon, and Philistia.
Its trees, shrubs and plants are those noticed in the
Bible. Its woods have been thinned in Lower Galilee and Northern Sharon, but on the other hand the copse has often grown over the site of former vineyards and villages, and there is no reason to think that any general desiccation has occurred within the last 40 centuries, such as would affect the rainfall.
(5) E. of the Jordan the plateau of Bashan (averaging 1,500 ft. above the sea) is also a fine corn country. S. of this, Gilead presents amountain region rising to 3,600 ft. above sea-level at Jebel Osha', and sloping gently on the E. to the desert. The steep western slopes are watered by the Jabbok River, and by many perennial brooks. In North Gilead esp. the wooded hills present some of the most picturesque scenery of the Holy Land. S. of Gilead, the Moab plateau (about 2,700 ft. above
The climate of Pal is similar to that of other Mediterranean lands, such as Cyprus, Sicily or Southern Italy; and, in spite of the
sea-level) is now a desert, but is fitted for corn
5. Climate fevers of mosquito districts in the
culture, and in places for the vine. A lower shelf or plateau (about 500 to 1,000 ft. above sea-level) intervenes between the main plateau and the Dead Sea cliffs, and answers to the Desert of Judah W. of the lake.
plains, it is much better than that of the Delta in Egypt, or of Mesopotamia. The summer heat is oppressive only for a few days at a time, when (esp. in May) the dry wind—deficient
in ozone—blows from the eastern desert. For most of the season a moisture-laden sea breeze,
The water-supply of Pal is abundant, except in the desert regions above noticed, which include only a small part of its area. The
rising about 10 AM, blows till the evening, and
fertilizes all the western slopes of the mountains. In the bare deserts the difference between 90° F. by day and 40° F. by night gives a refreshing cold. With the east wind the temperature rises to 105°
2. WaterJordan runs into the Dead Sea, which Supply has no outlet and which maintains
its level solely by evaporation, being consequently very salt; the surface is nearly 1,300
F., and the nights are oppressive. In the Jordan
valley, in autumn, the shade temperature reaches
ft. below the Mediterranean, whereas the Sea of
120° F. In this season mists cover the mountains and swell the grapes. In winter the snow sometimes lies for several days on the watershed ridge and on the Edomite mountains, but in summer even Hermon is sometimes quite snowlcss at 9,000
Galilee (680 ft. below sea-level) is sweet and full
of fish. The Jordan is fed, not only by the snows
of Hermon, but by many affluent streams from both
sides. There are several streams also in Sharon, including the Crocodile River under Carmel. In the mountains, where the hard dolomite limestone
ft. above the sea. There is perhaps no country in which such a range of climate can be found, from the Alpine to the tropical, and none in which the range of fauna and flora is consequently so large, from the European to the African.
is on the surface, perennial springs are numerous. In the lower hills, where this limestone is covered by a softer chalky stone, the supply depends on
wells and cisterns. In the Beersheba plains the
The rainfall of Pal is between 20 and 30 in. an-
water, running under the surface, is reached by scooping shallow pits—esp. those near Gerar, to be
nually, and the rainy season is the same as in other
Mediterranean countries. The "form-
noticed later.
6. Rainfall er rains" begin with the thunderstorms of November, and the "latter
The fertility and cultivation ot any country depends mainly on its geological conditions. These are comparatively simple in Pal, and have under-
rains" cease with April showers. From December
to February—except in years of drought—the rains
? frpo gone no change since the age when man
, . , flrst appeared, or since the days ol the logical Heb patriarchs. The country was flrst upConditions heaved from the ocean in the Eocene age;
are heavy. In most years the supply is quite suffi-
cient for purposes of cultivation. The ploughmg
and, in the subsequent Miocene age, the
begins in autumn, and the corn is rarely spoiled by storms in summer. The fruits ripen in autumn
great crack in the earth's surface occurred, which formed
a narrow gull stretching from that ot the 'Akabah on the
Palestine THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2210
was the garden of Mamre (13 18; 18 1; 23 19), with the cave-tomb which tradition still points out under the floor of the Hebron mosque. His tent was spread under the "oaks of Mamre" (18 1), where his mysterious guests rested "under the tree"
and suffer only from the occasional appearance of locust swarms. There appears to be no reason to suppose that climate or rainfall have undergone any change since the times of the Bible; and a consideration of Bible allusions confirms this view.
(ver 8). One aged oak still survives in the flat ground W. of the city, but this tree is very unconimon in the mountains of Judah. In all these incidental touches we have evidence of the exact knowledge of Pal which distinguishes the story of the patriarchs.
Thus the occurrence of drought, and of consequent famine, is mentioned in the OT as occasional in all times (Gen 12 10; 26 2; 41 50;
7. Drought Lev 26 20; 2 S 21 1; 1 K 8 35; and Isa 5 6; Jer 14 1; Joel 1 10-12; Hag Famine 1 11; Zee 14 17), and droughts are also noticed in the Mish (Ta'dnith, i. 4-7) as occurring in autumn, and even lasting throughout the rainy season till spring. Good rains were a blessing from God, and drought was a sign of His displeasure, in Heb belief (Dt 11 14; Jer 5 24; Joel 2 23). A thunderstorm in harvest time (Maj') was most unusual (1 S 12 17.18), yet such a storm does still occur as a very exceptional phenomenon. By "snow in harvest" (Prov 25 13) we are not to understand a snowstorm, for it is likened to a "faithful messenger," and the reference
(3) Campaign of Amraphel.—Pal appears to have been an outlying province of the empire of Hammurabi, king of Babylon in Abraham's time; and the campaign of Amraphel resembled those of
later Assyr overlords exacting tribute of petty kings. The route (14 5-S) lay through Bashan, Gilead and Moab to Kadesh (probably at Petra), and the return through the desert of Judah to the plains
of Jericho. Thus Hebron was not attacked (see ver 13), and the pursuit by Abraham and his Amorite allies led up the Jordan valley to Dan, and thence N. of Damascus (ver 15). The Salem whose king blessed Abraham on his return was thought by the Samaritans, and by Jerome, to be the city near the Jordan valley afterward visited by Jacob (14 18; 33 IS); but see Jerusalem.
is to the use of snow for cooling wine, which is still usual at Damascus. The notice of fever on the shores of the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8 14) shows that
this region was as unhealthy as it still is in summer. The decay of irrigation in Sharon may have rendered the plain more malarious than of old, but the identity of the Palestinian flora with that of the Bible indicates that the climate, generally speaking,
(4) Gerar.—Abraham returned to the southern
plains, and "sojourned in Gerar" (20 1), now Umm Jerrdr, 7 miles S. of Gaza. The wells which he dug in this valley (26 15) were no doubt shallow excavations like those from which the Arabs still obtain the water flowing under the surface in the same vicinity {SWP, III, 390), though that at Beersheba (21 25-32), to which Isaac added another (26 23-25), may have been more permanent. Three masonry wells now exist at Btr es iSefta', but the masonry is modern. The planting of a "tamarisk" at this place (21 33) is an interesting touch, since the tree is distinctive of the dry lowlands. From Beersheba Abraham journeyed to "the land of Moriah" (LXX "the high land") to sacrifice Isaac (22 2); and the mountain, according to Heb tradition (2 Ch 3 1), was at Jerus, but according to the Samaritans was Gerizim near the Elon Moreh—a summit which could certainly have been seen "afar off" (ver 4) on "the third day."
is unchanged.
//. Palestine in the Pentateuch.—The Book of Gen is full of allusions to sites sacred to the memory
of the Heb patriarchs. In the time of
1. Places Abraham the population consisted of Visited by tribes, mainly Sem, who came origiAbraham nally from Babylonia, including Canaanites ("lowlanders") between Sidon and Gaza, and in the Jordan valley, and Amorites ("highlanders") in the mountains (Gen 10 15-19; Nu 13 29). Their language was akin
to Heb, and it is only in Egj^pt that we read of an interpreter being needed (Gen 42 23), while excavated remains of seal-cylinders, and other objects, show that the civilization of Pal was similar to that of Babjdonia.
(1) Skechem.—The first place noticed is the shrine or "station" (makdm) of Shechem, with the Elon Moreh (LXX "high oak"), where Jacob afterward buried the idols of his wives, and where Joshua set up a stone by the "holj' place" (Gen 12 6; 35
Isaac, living in the same pastoral wilderness, at the western Kadesh (25 11) and at Gerar (26 2), suffered like his father in a year of
2. Places drought, and had similar difficulties Visited by with the Philis. At Gerar he sowed Isaac corn (26 12), and the vicinity is stiff capable of such cultivation. Thence he retreated S.E. to Rehoboth (Rukeibeh), N. of Kadesh, where ancient wells like those at Beersheba still exist (26 22). To Beersheba he finally returned (ver 23).
4; Josh 24 26). Sam tradition showed the site near Baldta ("the oak") at the foot of Mt. Gerizim. The "Canaanite was then in the land" (in Abraham's time), but was exterminated (Gen 34 25) by Jacob's sons. From Shechem Abraham journeyed southward and raised an altar between Bethel
(Beitin) and Hai (Haydn), E. of the to^\Ti of Luz, the name of which still survives hard-by at the spring of Luzeh (Gen 12 8; 13 3; 28 11.19; 35 2).
When Jacob fled to Haran from Beersheba (28 10) he slept at the "place" (or shrine) consecrated by Abraham's altar near Bethel, and 3. Places like any modern Arab visitor to a Visited by shrine—erected a memorial stone (ver Jacob 18), which he renewed twenty years later (35 14) when God appeared to him "again" (ver 9).
(2) The Negcb.—But, on his return from Egypt with large flocks (12 16), he settled in the pastoral region, between Boersheba and the western Kadesh
(13 1; 20 1), called in Heb the neghebh, "dry" country, on the etlge of the cultivated lands. From E. of Bethel there is a fine view of the lower Jordan valley, and here Lot "lifted up his eyes" (13 10), and chose the rich grass lands of that valley for his
(1) Haran to Succolh.—His return journey from Haran to Gilead raises an interesting question. The distance is about 350 miles from Haran to the Galeed or "witness heap" (31 48) at Mizpah probably SiXf in North Gilead. This distance Laban is said to have covered in 7 days (31 23), which would be possible for a force mounted on riding camels. But the news of Jacob's flight reached Laban on the 3d day (ver 22), and some time would elapse before he could gather his "brethren." Jacob with his flocks and herds must
flocks. The "cities of the Plain" (kikkdr) were
clearly in this valley, and Sodom must have been near the river, since Lot's journey to Zoar (19 22) occupied only an hour or two (vs 15.23) through the plain to the foot of the Moab mountains. These
cities are not said to have been visible from near Hebron; but, from the hilltop E. of the city, Abraham could have seen "the smoke of the land"
(19 28) rising up. The first land owned by him
2211 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Palestine
Ex is concerned with Egypt and the Sinaitic
have needed 3 weeks for the journey. It is remarkable that the vicinity of Mizpah still presents ancient monuments like the "pillar" (ver 45) round which the "memorial cairn" {yghar-sahadhulha) was formed. From this place Jacob journeyed to Mahanaim (probably Mahmah), S. of the Jabbok river—a place which afterward became the capital of South Gilead (Gen 32 1 f; 1 K 4 14); but, on hearing of the advance of Esau from Edom, he retreated across the river (Gen 32 22) and then reached Succoth (33 17), believed to be Tell Der'ala, N. of the stream.
desert, thougli it may be observed that its simple agricultural laws (chs 21-23), which
6. Exodus so often recall those of Hammurabi, and would have been needed at once on Leviticus the conquest of Gilead and Bashan, before crossing the Jordan. In Lev (ch 11) we have a list of animals most of which belong to the desert—as for instance the "coney" or hyrax (Lev 11 5; Ps 104 18; Prov 30 26), but others—such as the swine (Lev 11 7), the stork and the heron (ver 19)—to the 'Arahah and the Jordan valley, while the hoopoe (AV "lapwing," ver 19) lives in Gilead and in Western Pal. In Dt (ch 14) the fallow deer and the roe (ver 5) are now inhabitants of Tabor and Gilead, but the "wild goat" (ibex), "wild ox" (buball), "pygarg" (addax) and "chamois" (wild sheep), are found in the 'Arabali, and in the deserts.
(2) From the Jordan to Hebron.—Crossing the Jordan by one of several fords in this vicinity, Jacob approached Shechem by the perennial stream of Wddy Fdr'ah, and camped at Shalem {S&lim) on the east side of the fertile plain which stretches thence to Shechem, and here he bought land of the Hivitcs (33 18-20). We are not told that he dug a well, but the necessity for digging one in a region full of springs can only be explained by Hivite jealousy of water rights, and the well
In Nu the conquest of Eastern Pal is described, and most of the towns mentioned are known (21 18-33) ; the notice of vineyards in
7. Numbers Moab (ver 22) agrees with the discovery of ancient rock-cut wine presses near Heshbon {SEP, I, 221). The view of Israel, in camp at Shittim by Balaam (22 41), standing on the top of Pisgah or Mt. Nebo, has been shown to be possible by the discovery of Jebel Neba, where also rude dolmens recalling Balak's altars have been found {SEP, I, 202). The plateau of Moab (32 3) is described as a "land for cattle," and still supports Arab fiocks. The camps in which Israel left their cattle, women and children during the wars, for 6 months, stretched (33 49) from Beth-jeshimoth {Suweimeh), near the northeastern corner of the Dead Sea over Abel-shittim ("the acacia meadow"—a name it still bears) in a plain watered by several brooks, and having good herbage in spring.
still exists E. of Shechem (cf Jn 4 5f), not far from the Elon Moreh where were buried the t'raphlm (Gen 35 4) or "spirits" (Assyr tarpu) from Haran (31 30) under the oak of Abraham. These no doubt were small images, such as are so often unearthed in Pal. The further progress of Jacob led by Bethel and Bethlehem to Hebron (35 6.19.27), but some of his elder sons seem to have remained at Shechem. Thus Joseph was sent later from Hebron (37 14) to visit his brethren there, but found them at Dothan.
(3) Dothan (37 17) lay in a plain on the main trade route from Egypt to Damascus, which crossed the low watershed at this point and led down the valley to Jezreel and over Jordan to Bashan. The "well of the pit" {SWP, II, 169) is still shown at
(1) Physical allusions.—The description of the "good land" in Dt (8 7) applies in some details with special force to Mt. Gilead, which
Tell Dothan, and the Ishmaelites, from Midian and Gilead, chose this easy caravan route (37 2.5.28) for camels laden with the Gilead balm and spices. The plain was fitted for feeding Jacob's flocks. The products of Pal then included also honey, pistachio nuts, and almonds (43 11); and a few centuries
8. Deuterpossesses more perennial streams than onomy Western Pal throughout—"a land of brooks of water, of fountains and springs, flowing forth in valleys and hills"; a land also "of wheat and barley, and vines and fig-trees and pomegranates, a land of olive-trees and honey"
later we find notice in a text of Thothmes III of honey and balsam, with oil, wine, wheat, spelt, barley and fruits, as rations of the Egyptian troops
in Canaan (Brugsch, Hist Egypt, I, 332).
is found in Gilead and Bashan. Pal itself is not a mining country, but the words (ver 9), "a land whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou mayest dig copper," may be explained by the facts that iron mines existed near Beirut in the 10th cent. AD, and copper mines at Punon N. of Petra in the 4th cent. AD, as described by Jerome {Onom,
The episode of Judah and Tamar is connected with a region in the Sh'phelah, or low hills of Judaea.
AduUam {'Aid-el-ma), Chezib {'Ain
4. MenKezheh), and Timnath {Tihneh) are tioned in not far apart (Gen 38 1.5.12), the Connection latter being in a pastoral valley where with Judah Judah met his "sheep shearers." Tamar sat at "the entrance of Enaim"
s.v. "Phinon"). In Dt also (11 29; cf 27 4; Josh 8 30) Ebal and Gerizim are first noticed, as beside the "oaks of Moreh." Ebal the mountain of curses (3,077 ft. above sea-level) and Gerizim the mountain of blessings (2,850 ft.) are the two highest tops in Samaria, and Shechem lies in a rich valley between them. The first sacred center of Israel was thus established at the place where Abraham built his first altar and Jacob dug his well, where Joseph was buried and where Joshua recognized a holy place at the foot of Gerizim (Josh 24 26). The last chapters of Dt record the famous Pisgah view from Mt. Nebo (34 1-3), which answers in all respects to that from Jebel Neba, except as to Dan, and the utmost (or "western") sea, neither of which
(cf vs 14.22 ERV) or Enam (Josh 15 34), perhaps
at Kejr 'Ana, 6 miles N.W. of Timnath. She was mistaken for a k'dheshah, or votary of Ashtoreth (Gen 38 15.21),' and we know from Hammurabi's laws that such votaries were already recognized. The mention of Judah's signet and stafi' (ver 18)
also reminds us of Bab customs as described by Herodotus (i.l95), and signet-cylinders of Bab
style, and of early date, have been unearthed in
Pal at Gezer and elsewhere (cf the "Bab garment,"
Josh 7 21).
Generally speaking, the geography of Gen presents no difaculties, and shows an intimate knowledge ot the
country, while the allusions to natural K Rovipwnf products and to customs are in accord with o. rtevicw ui t-^^
is visible. Here we should probably read "toward" rather than "to," and there is no other hill above the plains of Shittim whence a better view can be obtained of the Jordan valley, from Zoar to Jericho, of the watershed mountains as far N. as Gilbca and Tabor, and of the slopes of Gilead.
results of scientific discovery. Only Geograpny Qjje difficulty needs notice, where Atad of Genesis (50 lO) on the way from Egypt to Hebron
is described as "beyond the Jordan." In
this case the Assyr language perhaps helps us, for in that tongue Yaur-danu means "the great river, and the
(2) Archaeology.—But besides these physical
reference may be to the Nile itself, which is called Yaur
in Heb (!/«'or) and Assyr alike.
Palestine THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2212
writer asserts that a similar stoppage occurred^in the 13th cent. AD, near the same point. (See Jordan River.) The first camp was established
allusions, the progress of exploration serves to illustrate the archaeology of Dt. Israel was commanded (12 3) to overthrow the Can. altars, to break the standing stones which were emblems of superstition, to burn the 'asherdh poles (or artificial trees), and to hew down the graven images. That these commands were obeyed is clear. The rude altars and standing stones are now found only in Moab, and in remote parts of Gilead, Bashan, and Galilee, not reached by the power of reforming kings of Judah. The 'dsherdh poles have disappeared, the images are found, only deep under the surface. The carved tablets which remain at Damascus, and in Phoenicia and Syria, representing the gods of Canaan or of the Hittites, have no counterpart in the Holy Land. Again when we read of ancient "landmarks" (Dt 19 14; Prov 22 28; 23 10), we are not to understand a mere boundary stone, but rather one of those monuments common in Babylonia—as early at least as the 12th cent. BC—on which the boundaries of a field are minutely described, the history of its grant by the king detailed, and a curse (cf Dt 27 17) pronounced against the man who should dare to remove the stone. (See illustration under Nebuchadnezzar.)
at Gilgal {Jilgillieh) , 3 miles E. of Jericho, and a
"circle" of 12 stones was erected. Jericho was not
at the mediaeval site (er liiha) S. of Gilgal, or at the Herodian site farther W., but at the great spring 'Ain es Sultdn, close to the mountains to which the
spies escaped (2 16). The great mounds were found by Sir C. Warren to consist of sun-dried
bricks, and further excavations (see Mitieil. der deuischen Orient-Gesell., December, 1909, No. 41) have revealed little but the remains of houses of various dates.
(3) Joshua's first campaign.—The first city in the mountains attacked by Israel was Ai, near Haydn, 2 miles S. E. of Bethel. It has a deep valley to the N., as described (Josh 8 22). The fall of Ai and Bethel (ver 17) seems to have resulted in the peaceful occupation of the region between Gibeon and Shechem (8 30—9 27) ; but while the Hivites submitted, the Amorites of Jerus and of the S. attacked Gibeon {el Jib) and were driven down the steep pass of Beth-horon (Beit 'AiXr) to the plains (10 1-11). Joshua's great raid, after this victory, proceeded through the plain to Makkedah, now called el Mughdr, from the "cave" (cf 10 17), and by Libnah to Lachish (Tell el Hesy), whence he went up to Hebron, and "turned" S. to Debir (edh Dhdheriyeh), thus subduing the sh'pheldh of Judah and the southern mountains, though the capital at Jerus was not taken. It is now very generally admitted that the six letters of the Amor-
///. Palestine in the Historic Boobs of the OT.—
Josh is the great geographical book of the OT; and the large majority of the 600
1. Book names of places, rivers and mountains
of Joshua in Pal mentioned in the Bible are to be found in this book.
(1) Topographical accuracy.—About half of this total of names were known, or were fixed by Dr. Robinson, between 1838 and 1852, and about 150 new sites were discovered (1872-78, 1881-82) in consequence of the 1-in. trigonometrical survey of the country, and were identified by the present writer during this period; a few interesting sites have been added by M. Clermont-Ganneau (Adul1am and Gezer), by Rev A. Henderson (Kiriathjearim), by Rev. W. F. Birch (Zoar at Tell esh Shdghir), and by others. Thus more than threequarters of the sites have been fixed with more or less certainty, most of them preserving their ancient names. It is impossible to study this topography without seeing that the Bible writers had personal knowledge of the country; and it is incredible that a Heb priest, writing in Baby-
ite king of Jerus included in Am Tab may refer to this war. The 'Abiri or Habiri are therein noticed as a fierce people from Seir, who "destroyed all the rulers," and who attacked Ajalon, Lachish, Ashkelon, Keilah (on the main road to Hebron) and other places (see Exodus, The).
(4) The second campaign (11 1-14) was against the nations of Galilee; and the Heb victory was gained at "the waters of Merom" (ver 5). There
is no sound reason for placing these at iihe FMleh lake; and the swampy Jordan valley was a very unlikely field of battle for the Can. chariots (ver 6). The kings noticed are those of Madon (Madin), Shimron (Semmunieh), Dor (possibly Tell Thorah), "on the west," and of Hazor (Hazzilr), all in Lower Galilee. The pursuit was along the coast toward Sidon (ver 8); and Merom may be identical with Shimron-meron (12 20), now Semmunieh, in which case the "waters" were those of the perennial stream in Wddy el Melek, 3 miles to the N., which flow W. to join the lower part of the Kishon. Shimron-meron was one of the 31 royal cities of Pal W. of the Jordan (12 9-24).
lonia, could have possessed that intimate acquaintance with all parts of the land which is manifest
in the geographical chapters of Josh. The towns are enumerated in due order by districts; the
tribal boundaries follow natural lines—valleys and mountain ridges—and the character of various regions is correctly indicated. Nor can we suppose that this topography refers to conditions subsequent to the return from captivity, for these were quite different. Simeon had ceased to inhabit the south by the time of David (1 Ch 4 24), and the lot of Dan was colonized by men of Benjamin after the captivity (8 12.13; Neh 11 34.35). Tirzah is mentioned (Josh 12 24) in Samaria, whereas the future capital of Omri is not. Ai is said to have been made "a heap for ever" (8 28), but was inhabited apparently in Isaiah's time (10 28 = Aiath) and certainly after the captivity (Ezr 2 28; Neh 7 32; 11 31=Aija). At latest, the topography seems to be that of Solomon's age, though it is remarkable that very few places in Samaria are noticed in the Book of Josh.
The regions left unconquered by Joshua (13 2-6) were those afterward conquered by David and Solomon, including the Phili plains, and the Sidonian coast from Mearah (el Mogheirtyeh) northward to Aphek (Afka) in Lebanon, on the border of the Amorite country which lay S. of the "land of the Hittites" (1 4). Southern Lebanon, from Gebal (Jube.il) and the "entering into Hamath" (the Eleutherus Valley) on the W., to Baal-gad (probably at ''Ain Judeideh on the northwestern slope of Hermon) was also included in the "land" by David