Part 34
Rock Tombs at Amasia.
country included a beautiful but narrow, riparian margin, backed by a noble range of mountains parallel to the coast, while these in turn were broken by the streams that forced their way from the interior plains down to the sea ; the valleys, narrower or wider, were fertile and productive, as were the wide plains of the interior such as the Chiliokomon and Phanaroea. The mountain slopes were originally clothed with heavy forests of beech, pine and oak of different species, and when the country was well afforested, the rainfall must have been better adequate than now to the needs of a luxuriant vegetation.
Whether the pomegranate tree in Migron under which Saul is said (1 S 14 2) to have abode with his 600 men was really a tree or a place, Rimmon, is doubtful. See Rimmon. A large number of references to the pomegranate are to the use of the form of the fruit in ornamenta-
tion, in which respect it appears among
3. The the Hebrews to have something of the Pomegranposition of the lotus bud as a decoraate in Art five motive in Egypt. It was embroidered in many colors on the skirts of Aaron's garments, together with golden bells (Ex 28 33 f; 39 24-26; cf Ecclus 45 9). Hiram of Tyre introduced the pomegranate into his brass work ornamentation in thfe temple: "So he made the pillars; and there were two rows round about upon the one network, to cover the capitals that were upon the top of the pillars" (m "So the Syr. The Heb has 'pomegranates'") (1 K 7 18). "And the pomegranates were two hundred, in rows round about upon the other capital" (ver 20; cf also ver 42; 2 K 25 17; 2 Ch 3 16; 4 13). E. W. G. Mastbrman POMMEL, pum'el (2 Ch 4 12.13): RV reads "bowl" (q.v.).
The first points in the earliest history of Pontus emerge from obscurity, much as the mountain peaks of its own noble ranges lift their heads above a fog bank. Thus we catch glimpses of Assyr culture at Sinope and Amisus, probably as far back as the 3d millennium BC. The period of Hittite domination in Asia Minor followed hard after, and there
is increasing reason to suppose that the Hittites occupied certain leading city sites in Pontus, constructed the artificial mounds or tumuli that frequently meet the eyes of modern travelers, hewed out the rock tombs, and stamped their character upon the early conditions. The home of the Amazons, those warrior priestesses of the Hittites, was located on the banks of the Thermodon, ancl the mountains rising behind Terme are still called the "Amazon Range"; and the old legends live still in stories about the superior prowess of the modern women living there. See Archaeology of Asia Minor.
POND. See Cistern; Pool.
PONDER, pon'der: Occurs in AV 5 t in the Book of Prov and nowhere else in the OT. In each case it means "to consider carefully," "to weigh mentally." In Prov 4 26 and 5 21, RV substitutes "make level." In Prov 5 6, it drops out entirely in RV. In Prov 21 2 and 24 12, "weigh" is substituted for "ponder." The one NT passage is Lk 2 19; here RV has "pondering" where AV has "and pondered."
As the Hittite power shrunk in extent and force, by the year 1000 BC bands of hardy Or adventurers appeared from the W. sailing along the Euxine main in quest of lands to exploit and conquer and colonize. Cape Jason, which divides the modern mission fields of Trebizond and Marsovan, preserves the memory of the Argonauts and the Golden Fleece. Miletus, "greatest of the Ionic towns," sent out its colonists, swarm after swarm, up through the Bosphorus, and along the southern shore of the Black Sea. They occupied Sinope, the northernmost point of the peninsula with the best harbor and the most commanding situation. Sinope was in Paphlagonia, but politically as well as commercially enjoyed intimate relations with the Pontic cities. Settlers from Sinope, reinforced by others from Athens du-ect, pressed on and founded Amisus, the modern Samsoun, always an important commercial
PONTIUS, pon'shi-us, pon'ti-us. See Pilate.
PONTUS, pon'tus (Hovtos, Pordos): Was an important province in the northeastern part of Asia Minor, lying along the south shore of the Black Sea. The name was geographical, not ethnical, in origin, and was first used to designate that part of Cappadocia which bordered on the "Pontus," as
2419 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Pommel Pool, Pond
city. Another colony from Sinope founded Trebizond, near which Xenophon and the Ten Thousand reached the sea again after they had sounded the power of Persia and found it hollow at Cunaxa. Among the cities of the interior, picturesque Amasia in the gorge of the Iris River witnessed the birth of Strabo in the 1st cent. EC, and to the geographer Strabo, more than to any other man, is due our knowledge of Pontus in its early days. Zille, "built upon the mound of Semiramis," contained the sanctuary of Anaitis, where sacrifices were performed with more pomp than in any other place. Comana, near the modern Tokat, was a city famous for the worship of the great god Ma. Gr culture by degrees took root along the coast; it mixed with, and in turn was modified by, the character of the older native inhabitants.
ditions connect the apostles Andrew and Thaddeus with evangelistic labors in this region. They are said to have followed the great artery of travel leading from Caesarea Mazaca to Sinope. Pliny, governor of Bithynia and Pontus 111-13 AD, found Christians under his authority in great numbers (see Bithynia), and Professor Ramsay argues that Pliny's famous letters, Nos. 96 and 97, written to the emperor Trajan on the subject of the treatment of Christians under his government (see Persecution), were composed in view of conditions in Amisus {Church in Rom Empire, 224, 22.5).
The Rom empire in the East was gradually merged into the Byzantine, which is still known to the local inhabitants as the empire of "Roum," i.e. Rome. Pontus shared the vicissitudes of this rather unfortunate government until, in 1204, a branch of the Byzantine imperial family established in Pontus a separate small state with its capital at Trebizond. Here the house of the Grand Comneni, sheltered between the sea and the mountain ranges, maintained its tinsel sovereignty to and beyond the fall of Constantinople. In 1461 Trebizond was taken by Mohammed the Conqueror, since which date Pontus, with its conglomerate population of Turks, Armenians, Greeks and fragments of other races, has been a part of the Ottoman empire. G. E. White
When the Persians established their supremacy in Asia Minor with the overthrow of Lydia, 546 BC, Pontus was loosely joined to the great empire and was ruled by Pers satraps. Ariobarzanes, Mithradates and Pharnaces are the recurring names in this dynasty of satraps which acquired independence about 363 and maintained it during the Macedonian period. The man that first made Pontus famous in history was Mithradates VI, surnamed Eupator. Mithradates was a typical oriental despot, gifted, unscrupulous, commanding. Born at Sinope 136 BC and king at Amasia at the age of twelve, Mithradates was regarded by the Romans as "the most formidable enemy the Repub-
POOL, pool, POND, pond, RESERVOIR, rez'er-
vwar, rez'er-vwar ([1] n3"l5 , b'rekhah, "pool"; cf
lic ever had to contend with." By conquest or alliance he widely extended his power, his chief ally being his son-in-law Dikran, or Tigranes, of Armenia, and then prepared for the impending struggle with Rome. The republic had acquired Pergamus
Arab. s5lj , birkat, "pool"; cf "^P^S, h'rOkhah,
"blessing," and Arab, iit^, barakat, "blessing";
[2] DJS, 'dgham, "pool," "marsh," "reeds"; cf
in 133 BC and assumed control of Western Asia Minor. There were three Rom armies in different parts of the peninsula when war broke out, 88 BC. Mithradates attacked them separately and overthrew them all. He then planned and executed a general massacre of all the Romans in Asia Minor, and 80,000 persons were cut down. Sulla by patient
Arab, iv^lj 'ajajn, "thicket," "jungle"; [3]
T^'\^^)'12, mikwah, "reservoir," AV "ditch" [Isa 22
11];' [4] nipa, mikweh, "pond," AV "pool" [Ex 7
19]; D^'Sri nlfpP, mikweh ha-mayim, EV "gather-
ing together of the waters" [Gen 1 10]; DTa"nnp^, mikweh-mayim, "a gathering of water," AV "plenty of water" [Lev 11 36]; [5] Ko\v\i.pTfipa, kolumbeihra, "pool," lit. "a place of diving," from Ko\«(ipdo), kolumbdo,'"to dive"): Lakes (q.v.) are very rare in Syria and Pal, but the dry climate, which is one reason for the fewness of lakes, impels the inhabitants to make artificial pools or reservoirs to collect the water of the rain or of springs for irrigation and also for drinking. The largest of these are made by damming water courses, in which water flows during the winter or at least after showers of rain. These may be enlarged or deepened by excavation. Good examples of this are found at Dibdn and MAdeba in Moab. Smaller pools of rectangular shape and usually much wider than deep, having no connection with water courses, are built in towns to receive rain from the roofs or from the surface of the ground. These may be for common use like several large ones in Jerus, or may belong to par-
effort restored the fortunes of Rome, and the first war ended in a drawn game; each party had taken the measure of its antagonist, but neither had been
able to oust the other. The second war began in the year 74, with Lucullus as the Rom general. LucuUus took Amisus by siege, chased Mithradates
to Cabira, modern Niksar, scattered his army and drove the oriental sultan out of his country. Subsequently on his return to Rome, Lucullus carried from Kerasoun the first cherries known to the west-
ern world. In the third war the hero on the Rom
side was the masterful Pompey, appointed in 66 BC. As a result of this war, Mithradates was completely vanquished . His dominions were finally and permanently incorporated in the territories
of the Rom republic. The aged king, breathing out wrath and forming impossible plans against his
lifelong enemies, died in exile in the Crimea from
poison administered by his own hand.
Most of Pontus was for administrative purposes
ticular houses. These are commonly excavated to some depth in the soil or rock, though the walls are likely to rise above the surface. Between these and cylindrical pits or cisterns no sharp line can be drawn.
united by the Romans with the province of Bithynia, though the eastern part subsisted as a separate kingdom under Polemon and his house, 36 BC to 63 AD, and the southwestern portion was incorporated with the province of Galatia.
The water of springs may be collected in large or small pools of masonry, as the pool of Siloam (Jn 9 7). This is commonly done for irrigation when the spring is so small that the water would be lost by absorption or evaporation if it were attempted to convey it continuously to the fields. The pool
It was during the Rom period that Christianity
entered this province. There were Jews dwelling
in Pontus, devout representatives of whom were in
Jerus on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2 9). Paul's
associates, Aquila and Priscilla, were originally from here (Acts 18 2). The sojourners of the Dis-
(Arab, birkal) receives the trickle of water until it
persion are included in the address of the first Ep.
is full. The water is then let out in a large stream and conducted where it is needed. (In this way by
of Peter together with the people of four other
provinces in Asia Minor (1 Pet 1 1). Local tra-
Pools of Solomon Porcupine THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2420
in field or vineyard during the Sabbatic year (Ex
patient labor a small trickling spring may support much vegetation.)
23 10 f; Lev 25 5.6); (c) each year the gleanings of
the fields and vineyards should belong to the poor,
'Agham does not seem to be used of artificial
the corners of fields were to be left for them, and if
pools, but rather of natural or accidental depressions containing water, as pools by the Nile (Ex 7 19; 8 5), or in the wilderness (Ps 107 35; 114 8; Isa 14 23; 35 7; 41 18; 42 15). In Isa 19 10 the rendering of AV, "all that make sluices and ponds
a sheaf was forgotten it should remain (Lev 19 9.
10; 23 22; Dt 24 19); (rf) fruit and ripe grain m a
field might be eaten by any hungry person, but none
should be carried away (Dt 23 24.25); (e) m the
Feast of Weeks the poor were to participate (Dt 16
for fish," would be an exception to this statement, but RV has "all they that work for hire shall be grieved in soul." Mikweh occurs with 'agham in Ex 7 19 of the ponds and pools by the Nile. B'rekhah is used of "the pool of Gibeon" (2 S 2 13), "the pool in Hebron" (2 S 4 12), "the pool of Samaria" (1 K 22 38), "the pools in Heshbon" (Cant 7 4), "the pool of Shelah," AV "Shiloah" (Neh 3 15); cf "the waters of Shiloah" (Isa 8 6). We read in Eccl 2 6, "I made me pools of water, to water therefrom the forest where trees were reared." There is mention of "the upper pool" (2 K 18 17; Isa 7 3; 36 2), "the lower pool" (Isa 22 9), "the
9-12); (J) every seventh year there should be a
"release" of debts (Dt 15 If); in the seventh year
of servitude the Heb bond-servant should go free
(Ex 21 2), or in the Jubilee, if that came first, on which occasion—the fiftieth year—property that had been sold returned to its owner or his family
(Lev 25 8-17) ; (<?) they were to lend readily to the
poor, and no interest or increase was to be taken from their brethren (Ex 22 25; Lev 25 35-37; Dt 15 7 f) ; in Lev 25 39, no poor Hebrew was to be made a bond-servant, and, if a hired servant, he was not to be ruled with rigor (ver 43); his
hire was to be given him daily (Lev 19 13; Dt 24 15); no widow's raiment was to be taken in pledge (Dt 24 17), nor the handmill, nor the upper millstone so essential for daily life (ver 6), a man's garment should be returned to him before sundown, and no house should be entered to seize
king's pool" (Neh 2 14). Isa 22 11 has, "Ye made
also a reservoir [mikwah] between the two walls for the water of the old pool [h'rekhah]." Kolum-
bethra is used of the pool of Bethesda (Jn 5 2.4.7) and of the pool of Siloam (Jn 9 7.1l). See also Cistern; Natural Features; BJ, V, iv, 2. Alfred Ely Dat POOLS, pdolz, OF SOLOMON. See Cistern; Pool.
or fetch any pledge (vs 10-13) ; breach of these laws should be sin and their observance righteousness (Dt 24 13.15, etc; see Alms, Almsgiving); (h)
justice was to be done to the poor (Ex 23 6; Dt 27 19, "Cursed be he that wresteth the justice due to the sojourner, fatherless, and widow");
POOR, poor (li^^S, 'ebhyon, vT, dal, '''i'S , 'am,
/. In the OT.—The poor have great prominence
(i) offerings were graduated according to means (Lev 5 7; 12 8).
in the Bible; it is said, indeed, that there should be no poor among the Hebrews because Jeh should so greatly bless them (Dt 15 4 RV and AVm); but
(4) Definite penalties were not always attached
to those laws, and the prophets and psalmists have many complaints of the unjust treatment and oppression of the poor, contrary to the will of God, and frequent exhortations to justice and a due regard
this was only to be realized on certain conditions
of obedience (ver 5), and in ver 11 it is said, "The poor will never cease out of the land"; but they were to see to it that none was left in destitution. The very foundation of the Heb religion was God's pity on a poor and oppressed people.
for them (Ps 10 2.9; 12 5; 14 6, etc; Isa 3 14.15; Jer 2 34; Ezk 16 49, "the iniquity of ... . Sodom"; 18 12.17; 22 29; Am 2 7; 4 1; Hab 3
14; cf Job 20 19; 24 9.14, etc; Prov 14 31).
The words for "poor" are chiefly 'ebhyon, "desirous," "needy," "poor" (Ex 23 6, etc); dal, "moving," "swaying," hence, weak, poor, lowly
(5) The duty of caring for the poor is frequently and strongly set forth and Divine promises attached to its fuffiiment (Ps 41 1; 72 12 ff; Prov 17 5; 22 9; 28 3.27; Isa 58 7; Jer 22 16; Ezk 18 17; Dnl 4 27; Zee 7 10, etc; cf Job 29 12.16; 30 25; 31 19; Ps 112 9).
1 The (E.X 23 .3, etc): daHa*. "poverty," "weakTormc ness" (2 K 25 12, etc); rush, perhaps lerms .-^q shake," "tremble," "to be poor." Employed "impoverished" (1 S 18 23. etc); ' anl, also 'anaio, "poor," "oppressed," from 'anah, "to bend" or "bow down" (Ex 22 2.5, etc); 'inch, Aram. (Dnl 4 27). hel'khah, " \Tretchedness (Ps 10 8.14 AV); ydrash, "to make poor" (1 S 2 7)
(6) The day of the Divine manifestation, the times
of the Messiah, should bring dehverance and rejoicing to the poor (Ps 72 12-15; Isa 11 4, "With righteousness shaU he judge the poor," etc; 14 30; 29 19; 61 1 RVm).
mahsor, "want" (Prov 21 17); misken, " a needy One (Eccl 4 13; 9 156is.l6).
(1) Generally.—God (Jeh and 'Slohlm) is represented as having a special care for "the poor," which was illustrated in the deliver-
(7) The equality of rich and poor before God and the superiority of the righteous poor to the ungodly
2. Repreance of the nation from Egyp poverty sentations and bondage and was never to be forgotten by them (Dt 24 22); as punishing the oppressors of the poor and rewarding those who were kind to them; God Himself was the Protector and Saviour of the poor (Ex 22 23): "If thou afflict them at all, and they cry at all unto me,
rich, etc, are maintained (Prov 19 1.22; 22 1.2; Eccl 4 13).
(8) Ways in which men can wilfully make themselves poor are mentioned (Prov 6 11; 10 4; 12 24; 13 4.18; 14 23; 20 13; 21 5.17; 23 21; 28 19). The chief words given above all mean poor,
literally, but 'Cini (rendered also "afflicted") may also denote Israel as a nation in its
I will surely hear their cry; and my wrath shall wax hot," etc (Dt 15 9; 24 15; 1 S 2 8; Job 31 16; Ps 9 18; 12 5; Prov 19 17; Isa 25 4; Eccl 5 8, "one higher than the high regardeth," etc).
3. The afflictions and low estate, e.g. Ps 68 Godly Poor 10; Isa 41 17; 49 13; 51 21; 54 11; in Zeph 3 12, it is "the ideal Israel
of the future." Dr. Driver remarks (art. "Poor," HDB) that such passages show that 'dnl (as also
(2) Liberality to the poor is specially enjoined (Dt 15 7 1), and they were to beware of selfdeception and grudging in this (vs 9.10).
its frequent parallel 'ebhyon, and, though somewhat less distinctly, dal) came gradually "to denote the godly poor, the suffering righteous, the persons who, whether 'bowed down' or 'needy' or 'reduced,' were the godly servants of Jeh." The humble poor became in fact distinguished as the line in which faithfulness to Jeh was maintained and spiritual
(3) Special provisions were made on behalf of the poor: (a) Every third year a tithe was to be given "unto the Levite, to the sojourner, to the
fatherless and to the widow" that Jeh might bless them (Dt 14 28.29; 26 12 f); (5) the poor were
to have the free use of all that grew spontaneously
2421 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Pools of Solomon Porcupine
POPLAR, pop'lar (HDlb , lihhneh, "whiteness"; o-TupdKivos, sturdkinos, "storax" [Gon 30 37], XtvKii,
religion developed. The less frequent word 'dnaw, often tH "meek," "humble," is regarded (see Driver in loc.) as having from the first a moral and religious significance. It is used of Moses (Nu 12 3) and occurs in Ps 10 12.17; 22 26; 25 9, etc; Prov 3 34; 16 19; Isa 29 19; 32 7; 61 1; Am 2 7; Zeph 2 3.
leiike, "poplar" [Hos 4 13] [ZiM/ie/i is so similar to the Arab, libna, the storax, that the latter certainly has the first claim to be the true tr]): "Jacob took him rods of fresh poplar," m "storax tree" (Gen 30 37).
"They .... burn incense upon the hills, under oaks and poplars and terebinths, because the shadow thereof is good" (Hos 4 13). In the latter reference the conjunction of the shrub, storax, with two great trees like the oak and terebinth—even though they all grow in the mountains—is strange. The storax cannot give a shade comparable with these trees. Had we other evidence of the storax being a sacred tree among the Hebrews, it might explain the difficulty.
//. In the NT.—In the NT plochos, "trembling," "poor," "beggar," is almost exclusively the word
tr'' "poor." It does not occur very frequently, but we see the same regard for the poor maintained as we have in the OT; besides, the new principle of love and the example of Him who "though he was rich, yet for your sakes .... became poor" {plocheuo, 2 Cor 8 9) necessarily carry in them this regard even more fully than in the OT. Jesus announced His mission (Lk 4 18) by quoting Isa 61 1, "to preach good tidings [AV "the gospel"] to the poor" (or meek or humble); He gave as a proof of His Messiahship the fact that "the poor have the gospel
The storax, Slyrax officinalis (N.O. Siyraceae), is a very common shrub in Pal which occasionally attains the height of 20 feet. The under surfaces of its oval leaves are covered with whitish hairs, and
[or good news of the Kingdom] preached to them" (Mt 11 5; Lk 7 22); according to Lk 6 20, He pronounced a beatitude on the pious "poor" because the kingdom of God was theirs; in Mt 5 3 it is "the poor in spirit" (the humble); we have the injunction to "give to the poor" (Mt 19 21; Mk 10 21; Lk 18 22) who are "always with you" (Mt 26 11; Mk 14 7; Jn 12 8), which does not mean that there must always be "the poor," but that, in con-
it has many beautiful pure-white flowers like orange blossoms—hence its name "whiteness."
The poplar, the traditional tr in Hos 4 13, flourishes in many parts of Pal. The white poplar, Populus alba, Arab. Haur, is common everywhere; Euphratica occurs esp. in the Jordan valley; the black poplar, P. nigra, and the Lombardy poplar, P. pyramidalis—probably an importation—are both plentiful in the plain of Coele-Syria, around Damascus and along the river banks of Syria.
trast with Himself who was soon to leave them, the poor should remain and kindness could be shown to them at any time, which was His own practice
E. W. G. Masterman PORATHA, p5-ra'tha, por'a-tha (Nnn'lS
, poror-
(Jn 13 29); we are enjoined to call not the rich
tha'): One of the sons of Haman (Est 9 8). The etymology is uncertain; perhaps from the Pers purdala, "given by fate."
or well-to-do to our entertainments, but the poor
(Lk 14 13; cf ver21); Zacchaeus cited in his favor the fact that he gave 'half of his goods to the poor'
(Lk 19 8) ; special notice was taken by Jesus of the poor widow's contribution (Lk 21 3). The first church showed its regard for the poor in the distribution of goods "according as any man had need"
PORCH, porch: Chiefly in the OT OblK, 'ulam, used of the temples of Solomon and Ezekiel (see Temple) ; once misd'ron, a "vestibule," in Jgs 3 23. In the NT, the word occurs in connection with the high priest's palace (Mt 26 11, pidon; Mk 14 68, proaulion) , and as the rendering of (rroii, stod, a "portico," in Jn 5 2 (pool of Bethesda); and Jn 10 23; Acts 3 11; 5 12. See Porch, Portico, Solomon's.
(Acts 2 4.5; 4 32; 6 1); when the council at Jerus freed the Gentiles from the yoke of Judaism, they made it a condition, Paul says, "that we should remember the poor; which very thing I was
also zealous to do" (Gal 2 10); contributions were
accordingly made "for the poor among the saints
that are at Jerus" (Rom 15 26), and it was in conveying such contributions that Paul got into
PORCH, PORTICO, por'ti-ko, SOLOMON'S
(t) o-Tod T) Ka\o\)(i^vn So\o(i(i5vTos, he stod he kaloumene Solomontos) : This important element of Herod's temple, preserving in its name a traditional connection with Solomon, is thrice referred to in the NT, viz. in Jn 10 23; Acts 3 11, "the porch that
the circumstances that led to his arrest. God's
ability and will to provide for those who give to the poor is quoted from Ps 112 9 (2 Cor 9 9); James
specially rebukes certain Christians of his day for
their partiality for the rich and their dishonor of the poor (Jas 2 5-9), and John asks how, in the man who "hath the world's goods, and beholdeth his
is called Solomon's"; and Acts 5 12. In these passages the Gr word stoa is tr'' "porch," but in RVm of Acts 3 11 more correctly "portico." In architecture a "porch" is strictly an exterior structure forming a covered approach to the entrance of a
brother in need, and shutteth up his compassion from him," the love of God can dwell (1 Jn 3 17.
18) Plochos is tr-i "beggar" (Lk 16 20.22) and "beg-
lauilding; a "portico" is an ambulatory, consisting
of a roof supported by columns placed at regular
garly" (Gal 4 9); penes, "one who works for his
intervals—a roofed colonnade. The portico bearing Solomon's name was that running along the eastern wall in the Court of the Gentiles of Herod's temple. It had double columns, while that on the
daily bread," "a poor man," is the word in 2 Cor
9 9; the poor widow of Mk 12 42 is described m Lk 21 2 as penichros, "very poor."
/// In the Apocrypha.—In the Apoc the poor are
S. known as the Royal Portico had four rows (cf
often mentioned ; God's regard lor them (Ecclus 21 .5
Jos, Ant, XV, xi, 3; BJ, V, v, and see Temple, Herod's). The portico was the scene of Christ's teaching at the Feast of the Dedication (.In 10 23), and was flocked to by the multitude after the heal-
\nl6chos]- 35 12.1.3); their oppression and wrongs (Wisd
2 10 [p;"^--.^; Ecclus 133.19:2.3 Iptocho.U Bar 6 28);
the duty of care for and of giving to the POor (Tob 4 7
[ptochos]; Ecclus 29 8 [(ap«no.s].9 [penes]; 3i 20-22) of
justice and kindness to such (Ecclus 4 1;.5.8, 7 32, 10 23
[ptochos]): "poor" in the sense of pitiable occurs in 2 Mace 4 47 (talalporos). RV "hapless. ,,,. ,t„=. IV. /JV CAan»e».-For "the poor of this word GTas 2 6) RV has "them that are poor as to the world , lor "The poor .... shall trust in it" (Isa 14 32), "In her
ing of the lame man (Acts 3 11). There the apos-
tles preached and wrought other miracles (Acts 5
12). W. Shaw Caldecott
shall the afOicted .... take refuge' ; instead of "Whereas also he that is bom in his kingdom becometh poor" (Eccl 4 14). "Yea, even in his kingdom he '"'as born poor"; "poor" for "humble (Ps 9 12, 10 12, m "meek"), for "lowly" (Prov 16 19, m "meek ). W. L. Walker
PORCIUS, por'shus (FESTUS). See Festus.
PORCUPINE, por'kii-pin (lEp , kippodk [Isa 14
23; 34 11; Zeph 2 14], AV "bittern," RV "porcu-
Porphyry Potter, Pottery THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2422
pine"; LXX Ix^vos, cchi.nos, "hedgehog"; TlEp, kippoz [Isa 34 15], AV "great owl," ERV "arrowsnake," ARV "dart-snake"; LXX echinos; cf Arab.
them, relating that their duties were settled as far back as the time of David (1 Ch 26 1-19), and
that the office extended further to the first settlement of Pal and even to Moses' day (1 Ch 9 17-
(\sJ3 , hiinfud, or i^JiXi , kimfudh, "hedgehog" or
26). The office was evidently one of some dignity, and the "chief-porters" (1 Ch 9 26) were impor-
"porcupine." nSp , kippodh, is referred to V ~S|5
tant persons. For some inscrutable reason RV
, kaphadh, "to draw one's self together" or "to roll
renders sTio'er by "doorkeeper" in 1 Ch 15-26, but not elsewhere. See Doorkeeper.
one's self up," while TlEp is referred to V TSp
kaphaz, and V fSJJ , kaphas, "to draw together
Burton Scott Easton PORTION, por'shun, PART: As far as a dis-
in order to spring." The resemblance between all
tinction between these words is possible in Eng., it
these words, including the Arab. (XsJci , is obvious, and it is to be noted that LXX has echinos in all the places cited)
lies in the fact that a "portion" is a "part" about whose destiny something is implied (Ps 142 5, etc). The Heb has no two synonyms similarly related, and in consequence the use of the words in EV is
The Gr echinos is the hedgehog. The Arab, kunfudk is used in some localities for the hedgehog and in others for the porcupine, which is also caUed nis. The hedgehog is also called kihbdhat-ush-.shauk. or "ball of spines." These two animals are both found in SjTia and Pal, and, while both have spines, they are very different animals, though often confounded. The hedgehog. Erinaceus europeus. is one of the Insectivora. It eats not only insects but also snakes and other small animals, as well as fruits and roots. It is about 10 in. long, covered with short spines, and roUs itself into a ball when attacked. It inhabits the countries bordering the Mediterranean. The porcupine, Hystrix cristata, is a rodent, about 26 in. long, having long spines. It is herbivorous. It backs rapidly at its foes, thrusting its sharp spines into their fiesh, not shooting its spines, as is often stated. It inhabits most of Europe and Asia. It is very different from the Canadian porcupine. Erethizon dorsatus, as well as from the tree porcupines of Mexico and Central and South America.
settled either by rather arbitrary considerations
(n:)3, 7n'ndh, is always "portion" in RV, but ia
"part" in AV, Ex 29 26; Lev 7 33; 8 29) or by the context, irrespective of the Heb word used. So "part" and "portion" both represent 13'^,
ddbhar, 1 K 6 38; Neh 12 47; ns, peh, Zee 13
8; Dt 21 17; bin, hebhel, Josh 17 5 (RV); Ezk
47 13; /x^/jos, meros, Lk 11 36; 12 46. And in the
vast majority of cases in the OT both words
represent simply some derivative of p?n , halak,
normally the noun p ?n , helek. Burton Scott Easton POSIDONTUS, pos-i-do'ni-us (IIoxrtSMvios, Posi-
As to the rendering "bittern" for kippodh (Isa 14 23; 34 1.5; Zeph 2 14), while the etymology favors "hedgehog," the context favors a bird, esp. in Isa 34 11, though it cannot be said that in any of the passages the context makes "hedgehog" an impossible rendering.
donios, al. noeruSdvios, Posidonios and XIoo-ciSmv,
Poseiddn): One of the three envoys sent by the Syrian general Nicanor to treat with the Jews under Judas during his invasion of Judaea, 161 BC (2 Mace 14 19). In 1 Mace 7 27 ff, proposals are sent by Nicanor to Judas, but no envoys are named, and it is there asserted in contradiction to 2 Mace that Judas broke off the negotiation because of the treacherous designs of Nicanor.
In Isa 34 15, for kippoz, most modern authorities
(cf RV) have some sort of serpent, referring to the Arab. V kafaz, "to spring." (See notes above on kaphaz and kapha:;.) In this passage also the context is not unfavorable to a bird (cf AV "great owl"). See Bittern; Owl; Serpent.
POSSESS, po-zes', POSSESSION, po-zesh'un: "Possess" in modern Eng. means normally only "keep in one's possession." But in Elizabethan Eng. it means also "take into possession," and, in
Alfred Ely Day PORPHYRY, p6r'fi-ri (in Est 1 6, RVm has "porphyry" [AVm "porphyre"] for TiHS, bahat, EV "red [marble]"; LXX has <r|iapa7S(Ttis, smarag-
fact, the word in the OT always represents Heb
vbs. with the latter as their primary meaning
d'USs, which was a green stone): Porphyry is an igneous rock containing distinct crystals of feldspar in a feldspathic matrix. It may be purple or of other colors, as green. "Porphyry" is from irop-
(125^^ , ydrash, in nearly all cases, otherwise bni
ndhal, Hjp, kdnah, TnS, 'ahaz; Aistm. 'jpri, /losan). Consequently, in almost every case "take possession of" could be substituted advantageously for "pos-
(pipeos, porphureos, "purple."
sess," but RV has not thought the change worth carrying through. In the Apoc and NT, however, the distinction has been made, AV's "possess" being retained for Karix^^, katecho, in 1 Cor 7 30; 2 Cor 6 10, but the same tr for KrAofiai, ktdomai, ia changed into "take us for a possession" (Jth 8 22), "get" (Lk 18 12), "win" (Lk 21 19), and "pos-
PORPOISE, por'pus (RVm has "porpoise-skin"
for Tlinn -IW, 'or tahash, RV "sealskin," AV "badgers' skins" [Ex 25 5; 26 14; 35 7.2.3; 36 19; 39 31; Nu 4 6.8.10.11.12.14.25; Ezk 16 10]): The word denotes leather used in the furnishings of the tabernacle (for shoes in Ezk 16 10), and was probably the skin of the dugong, Halichore dugong,
sess himself of" (1 Thess 4 4, a very obscure pas-
sage). In the noun possession, on the other hand, no such ambiguity exists, and attention need be called only to the following passages. In Dt 11 6, AV has, "all the substance that was in their possession," Heb "all that subsisted at their feet," RV "every living thing that followed them." AV uses "possession" loosely in Acts 28 7 for x^p'oi/, chorion, RV "lands." wepm-ol-qa-ts, peripoiesis, from peripoieo, "cause to remain over," "gain," is rendered "God's own pcssession" in Eph 1 14 RV (AV "possession") and 1 Pet 2 9 (AV "peculiar," AVm "purchased"). "God's own" is a gloss but
Arab, iw*^ , t-ukhas, which is found in the Red
Sea. See Badger.
PORT, port, PORTER, por'ter: "Port" in the sense of "gate" (of a city or building) is obsolete
in modern Eng., and even in the AV is found only
in Neh 2 13. "Porter," as "gate-keeper," however, is still in some use, but "porter" now (but never in EV) generally means a burden-carrier. In the OT, except in 2 S 18 26; 2 K 7 10.11, the
is imphed in the context.
porter ("1?"!©, sAo'er) is a sacred officer of the temple
Burton Scott Easton POSSESSION, DEMONIACAL, de-mo-ni'a-kal (Mt 4 24; 8 16, etc). See Demon, Demoniac, Demonology.
or tabernacle, belonging to a particular family of the Levites, with a share in the sacred dues (Neh 13 5; 12 47). The "porters" are mentioned only in Ch, Ezr and Neh, and Ch has an especial interest in
2423 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Porphyry Potter, Pottery
POST, post (7^-1, rj(f, "to run," DiST , raglm, . "runners"): The "runners" formed the royal guard (1 S 22 17; 1 K 14 27; 2 K 11 4.13; see Guard). From them were chosen the couriers who carried royal letters and dispatches throughout the kingdom (2 Ch 30 6.10; Est 3 13.15; Jer 51 31). In the Pers service they were mounted on the swiftest horses (Est 8 10.14; cf Xenophon, Cyrop. viii.6.17; Herodotus viii.98). They had the right to command the service of either men or animals in order to expedite their progress (cf Mt 5 41; Mk 15 21, "compel," "impress"). Used in Job 9 25 and AV Wisd 5 9 {dyyeXia., aggelia, RV "message") of the swift passage of time. See also House, II, 1, (4), (7). M. O. Evans
times that the absence of such names is really no evidence on the subject. The fact that this name has not been discovered earlier than 950 BC does not give any warrant for the claim that the narrative is of a late date. M. G. Kyle
POTSHERD, pot'shtlrd (tHy) , heres): A piece
of earthenware (Job 2 8; Ps"22 15; Isa 45 9). RV renders the word in Prov 26 23, "an earthen vessel," and in Job 41 30 substitutes "sharp potsherds" for "sharp stones." Sir 22 7 refers to the art of "gluing a potsherd [AaTpamv, dstrakon] together." See Harsith; 0.straca.
POTSHERD GATE (Jer 19 2). See Harsith Gate.
POT, pot: A term used as the tr of a number of Heb and Gr words whose fundamental meaning seems to describe them as intended for the most part to hold liquid or semi-liquid substances, but the pots of Ex 27 3 are intended to hold ashes.
POTTAGE, pot'aj. See Food, III.
POTTER, pot'er, POTTERY, pot'er-i
1. Historical Development 2. Forms 3. Methods of Production 4. Uses 5. Biblical Terms 6. Archaeological Significance Literature
(1) ^P, jir, the most common word for "pot." It designates most frequently some household utensil, probably a pot or kettle for boiling. So 2 K 4 38 ff; Ex 16 3; Jer 1 13 AV; Ezk 11 3.7.11, "caldron"; 24 3.6 AV; Mic 3 3; Zee 14 21, etc. It
(1) Prehistoric.—The making of pottery ranks among the very oldest of the crafts. On the rocky plateaus of Upper Egypt, overlooking
is also used as the name of some vessel of the sanctuary. So Ex 27 3, where the context shows
it was intended to hold ashes; 1 K 7 45; 2 Ch 4 16; 2 K 25 14. In Ps 60 8; 108 9, it is a pot forwashing. (2) "iniS
1. Historithe Nile vaUey, are found the pohshed cal Dered earthenware pots of the prevelopment historic Egyptians. These are buried in shallow oval graves along with the cramped-up bodies of the dead and their chipped
, poriZr (Nu 11 8; 1 S 2 14), a vessel for boiling; in Jgs 6 19, a vessel for holding broth. (3) 1^1, dudh, rendered "pot" in Ps 81 6 in AV, "basket" in RV; "pot" both AV and RV in Job 41 20. (4) riDSTpS, Qingeneth (Ex 16 33), the jar in which the manna was placed. This jar or pot is mentioned in He 9 4 under the name
flint weapons and tools. These jars are the oldest examples of the potter's art. It is inconceivable that in the country of Babel, Egypt's great rival in civilization, the ceramic arts were less developed at the same period, but the difference in the nature of the country where the first Mesopotamian settlement probably existed makes it unlikely that relics of the prehistoric dwellers of that country will ever be recovered from under the debris of demolished
a-Td/xiios, stdmnos. (5) TIC^, 'oj^on (2 K 4 2), some kind of jar for holding oil. (6) J^trTTjs, xestes (Mk 7 4), some kind of household utensil. Mention may also be made of the word rendered "pot" in Lev 6 28 AV, where RV renders more correctly by the general term "vessel"; for AV "pots" (Ps 68 13) RV substitutes "sheepfolds." The root
cities and the underlying deposits of clay and silt.
(2) Babylonia.—The oldest examples of Bab ceramics date from the historical period, and consist of baked clay record tablets, bricks, drainage pipes, household shrines, as well as vessels for holding liquids, fruits and other stores. (See Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Chaldaea and Assyria,
is uncertain. Those who render "sheepfolds" connect with the related root in Gen 49 14; Jgs 5 16. Others render "fireplaces" or "ash heaps." See
also "range for pots" in Lev 11 35; "pots," Jer 36 5 AV, correctly "bowls" RV; "refining pots"
in Prov 17 3; 27 21. See also Food. Walter R. Betteridgb POTENTATE, po'ten-tat (8uvao-TT]s, dimdstes, "mighty one," from 8vva|j.ai, dunamai, "to be able"): A person who possesses great power and authority. Only in 1 Tim 6 15, "the blessed and only Potentate" ( = God). The same Gr word is used of Zeus in Sophocles (Ant. 608), and of God in Apoc (e.g. Sir 46 5; 2 Mace 15 3.23). It is used
I, figs. 1.59, 160, II, figs. 163, 168.) Examples of pottery of this early period are shown in the accompanying figures. By the 9th to the 7th cent. BC the shaping of vessels of clay had become well developed. Fragments of pottery bearing the name of Esarhaddon establish the above dates.
(3) Egypt.—With the close of the neolithic period
in Egypt and the beginning of the historical or dynastic period (4500-4000 BC) there was a decline in the pottery art. The workmanship and forms both became bad, and not until the IVth Dynasty was there any improvement. In the meantime the process of glazing had been discovered and the art of making beautiful glazed faience became one of the most noted of the ancient Egyp crafts. The potter's wheel too was probably an invention of
of men in Lk 1 52 (AV "the mighty," RV "princes") and Acts 8 27 ("of great authority").
POTIPHAR, pot'i-far (ISitl'lS, potlphar; cf Egyp Potiphera [Gen 39 If]): A high Egyp offi-
cial who became the master of Joseph. It is par-
ticularly mentioned that he was an Egyptian, i.e. one of the native Egyp officials at the Hyksos court.
this date.
(4) Palestine.—The making of pottery in the land which later became the home of the children of
POTI-PHERA, po-tif 'e-ra (J?"]? itsis, poti phera'; Egyp Padipara, "the [one] given of the sun-god";
cf Heb Nathaniel, "the gift of God," Gen 41 45.50; 46 20): There is no certain evidence from Egypt
Israel began long before this people possessed the land and even before the Phoenicians of the coast
that this name was in existence until the XXIId Dynasty, about 950 BC. But names of the Hyksos
cities had extended their trade inland and brought the earthenware vessels of the Tyrian or Sidonian
potters. As in Egypt and Babylonia, the first examples were hand-made without the aid of the wheel.
period, and, indeed, any kind of Hyksos inscrip-
tions, are so scarce on account of the destruction
of Hyksos monuments by the Egyptians of later
Potter, Pottery THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2424
the water until all have disintegrated and a thin slimy mud or "slip" has been formed. In coast
It is probable that Jewish potters learned their art from the Phoenicians. They at least copied Phoen and IVIycenaean forms. During their wanderings the children of Israel were not Ukely to make much use of earthenware vessels, any more than the Arabs do today. Skins, gourds, wooden and metal vessels were less easily broken.
cities the potteries are all near the sea, as the seawater is considered better for the "slipping" process. The sUp is drawn off into settling tanks. AU stones and lumps remain behind. When the clay has settled, the water is drawn off and the plastic material is worked by treading with the feet (cf Isa 41 25; Wisd 15 7). The clay used on the Syrian coast is usually a mixture of several earths, which the potters have learned by experience gives the right consistency. The prepared clay is finally packed away and allowed to stand another six months before using, during which time the quality, esp. the plasticity, is believed to improve. Before the invention of the potter's wheel the clay was shaped into vessels by hand. In all of the countries previously mentioned the specimens rep-
To illustrate this, a party, of which the writer was a member, toolt on a desert trip the earthenware water jars specially made tor travel, preferring them to the skin bottles such as the Arab guides carried, for tlie bottles taint the water. At the end of si.x days only one out of eight earthenware jars was left. One accident or another had broken all the others.
When the Israelites became settled in their new surroundings they were probably not slow in adopting earthenware vessels, because of their advantages, and their pottery gradually developed distinctive though decadent types known as Jewish.
Toward the close of the Heb monarchy the pottery of the land again showed the effect of out-
side influences. The red and black figured ware of the Greeks was introduced, and still later the
less artistic Rom types, and following these by several centuries came the crude glazed vessels of the Arab, or Saracenic period —forms which still per-
sist.
It Is not within the limits of this article to describe in detail the characteristics of the pottery of the various periods. The accompanying illustrations taken from photographs of pottery in the Archaeological Museum of the Syrian Protestant College, Beirut, give a general Idea of the forms. Any at-' tempt at classification of Palestinian pottery must be
2. Forms
Potters at Work (Egyptian).
considered more or less provisional, due to the uncertainty of origin of many forms. The classification of pre-Rom pottery here used is that adopted by Bliss and IVIacalistor and based upon Dr. Petrie's studies.
resenting the oldest work are Chopped straw was usually added to early specimens. This material is
all hand-made, the clay of these
omitted in the
(1) Early pre-Israelite, culled also "Amorite" (before leoo DC).—Most of the vessels of this period are handmade and often irregular in shape. A coarse clay, turning red or l)lack when burned, characterizes many specimens. Some are brick red. Specimens with a poUshed or burnished siu^ace are also found.
(2) Late pre-Israelite or Phoenician (1500-1000 BC).— From this period on, tlie pottery is all wheel-turned. Tlie clay is of a finer quality and burned to a brown or red. The ware is thin and light. Water jars witii pointed instead of flat bases appear. Some are decorated with bands or lines of different colored meslies. Cypriote ware with its incised decorations was a like development of the period.
(3) Jewish (1000-300 BC).—Foreign influence is lost. The types which survive degenerate. New forms are introduced. Ordinary coarse clay burning red is used. Cooking pots are most characteristic. Many examples bear Heb stamps, the exact meaning of which is \mcertain.
(4) Seleucidan.—Foreign influence again appears. Gr and other types are imported and copied. Ribbed surfaces are introduced. The old type of burnishing disappears.
(5) Roman and Saracenic.—Degenerate forms persisting till tlie present time.
(6) Present-dau poUery.
The clay as found in the ground is not suitable for use. It is dug out and brought to the vicinity of
Potter's Wheel Still Used in Palestine and Syria.
(I. table; h, footreal; c, Bockft for pivot uf wheel: d, slanting seat against which potter "sits" ; e, upper wheel on which jar is shaped; /; lower wheei "Iticked" by potter.
the pottery (the "potter's field," Mt 3. Methods 27 7) and allowed to weather for of Proweeks. The dry material is then duction dumped into a cement-lined tank or wooden trough and covered with water. When the lumps have softened they are stirred in
wheel-shaped objects. In a Mt. Lebanon village which is noted for its pottery the jars are still made by hand. Throughout the country the clay stoves are shaped by hand out of clay mixed with straw.
ANCIENT POTTERY
Ji'wish Period
Seloticidan Period, 300 BC
Blackoning mi 3 due to use over fin
Koto appearand; of "combing"
Grt'co-Roiiian Period
1, n.'d and black figured, l>eforc HOO UC
Prc-Israelite Period
2 and Z, Cyprian of 300 BC
Cypriote Pottery
1, liand-made throughout
4, O and ft, Roman pottery from Beiriit
2 and 3, incist^d ware of pro-bronzt
1, 2 and .1, of early period or Amoril
period before 2000 BC
Knte cliaracteristic "combin,-"
t, :>, Cand 7, of late period or Plioenic
4 and 5, of Phoenician Period,
1500 BC
4, 6 and 7 are hnrnislv^d
2425 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Potter, Pottery
The shaping of vessek is now done on wheels, the use of which dates back to earhest history. Probably the Egyptians were the first to use such a machine (IVth Dynasty). In thek original form they were stone disks arranged to be turned by hand on a vertical axis. The wheel stood only a few inches above the ground, and the potter sat or squatted down on the ground before it as he shaped his object (see Wilkinson, Ancient Egypt, II, fig. 397). The wheels used in Pal and Syria today probably differ in no respect from those used in the potter's house visited by Jeremiah (Jer 18 1-6). The wheel or, to be more exact, wheels (cf Jer 18 3) are fitted on a square wooden or iron shaft about 3_ ft. long. The lower disk is about 20 in. in diameter, and the upper one 8 in. or 12 in. The
dross, which comes from the parting of silver, for glazing their jars (cf Prov 26 23). In firing pottery there are always some jars which come out imperfect. In unpacking the kiln and storing the product others get broken. As a consequence the ground in the vicinity of a pottery
is always strewn with potsherds (see also separate article). The ancient potteries can frequently be located by these sherds. The potter's field mentioned in Mt 27 7.10 was probably a field near a pottery strewn with potsherds, thus making it useless for cultivation although useful to the potter as a place in which to weather his clay or to dry his pots before firing.
Pottery was used anciently for storing liquids, such as wine or oil, fruits, grains, etc. The blackened bot-
Interior of Pottery.
toms of pots of the Jewish period show that they were used for cooking. Earthenware dishes were also used for boiling clothes. Every one of these
lower end of the shaft is pointed and fits into a stone socket or bearing in which it rotates. A second bearing just below the upper disk is so arranged that the shaft incHnes shghtly away from the potter. The potter leans against a slanting seat, bracing himself with one foot so that he will not slide off, and with the sole of his other foot he kicks the upper face of the lower wheel, thus making the whole machine rotate. The lower wheel is often
4. Uses uses still continues. To one living in Bible lands today it seems inconceivable that the Hebrews did not readily adopt, as some writers disclaim, the porous earthen water jars which they found already in use in their new country. Such jars were used for carrying live coals to start a fire, and not only for drawing water, as they are today, but for cooling it (Isa 30 14). The evaporation of the water which oozes through the porous material cools down the contents of a jar, whereas a metal or leathern vessel would leave it tepid or tainted . They were also used for holding shoemaker's glue or wax; for filling up the cracks of a wall before [jlastering; ground up they are used as sand in mortar.
of stone to give greater momentum. With a marvelous dexterity, which a novice tries in vain
to imitate, he gives the pieces of clay any shape he desires.
After the vessel is shaped it is dried and finally
fired in a furnace or kiln. The ancient Egyp kiln was much smaller than the one used today (Wilkin-
son, II, 192). Most of the kilns are of the crudest form of the "up-draught" variety, i.e. a large cham-
Only a few of the Heb words for vessels of dilTerent sorts, which in all probability were made of pottery, have been tr'i by terms which indicate that
ber with perforated bottom and a fireplace beneath. The fire passes up through the holes, around the
jars packed in tiers in the chamber, and goes out
5. Biblical i^ct. (For iSin. heres, and I^T , ySsar, Terms see Earthen Ves.sels; Ostr.\ca.) "IS, kadh, is trJ "pitcher" in Gen 24
at the top. An interesting survival of an early Gr form is still used in Rachiyet-el-Fakhar in Syria. In this same village the potters also use the lead
14 fl; Jgs 7 16 fl; Eccl 12 6 (cf Kepi/iioi', Icerdmion, Mk
Potter, Pottery Praetorian Guard THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2426
14 13; Lk22 10); "jar" in 1 K 17 12 (cf iSp.a, hudria, Jn i 28). The kadh corresponded in size and use to the Arab, jarrah (cf Eng. deriv. "jar"). The jarrah
Figurative: The shaping of clay into pottery
typiJBed the molding of the characters of individuals
or nations by a master mind (Jer 18 1-6; Isa 29
is used for drawing and storing water and less frequently for holding other hquids or solids. It is used as an approximate standard of measure. For example, a man estimates the capacity of a cistern in jirdr {pi. of jarrah). p3pB , bakhuk, "abottle," usually leathern, but in Jer
16; 45 9; 64 8; Rom 9 20 ff); commonplace (Lam 4 2; 2 Tim 2 20); fraihiess (Ps 2 9; Isa
30 14; Jer 19 11; Dnl 2 41; 2 Cor 4 7; Rev
2 27). LiTERATUKB.—PubHcations of PEF, esp. BUss and MacaMster, Excavations in Pal; Excanations oj Gezer;
19 l.lb of pottery. This may have been like the Arab.
i_ftJ>j' , ibrlk, which causes a gurgling sound when
Bliss, A Mound of Many Cities: Flinders Petrie, Tell el-Hesy Bhss and Dickie, Excamtions at Jems; Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art (i) in Chaldaea and Assyria,
liquid is turned from it. Bakbuk is rendered "cruse" in
1 K 14 3.
(ii) Sardinia and Judaea, (iii) Cyprus and Phoenicia, (iv) Egypt; King and Hall, Egypt and Western Asia in Light
"'bS , k'H, "vessel," was of wood, metal or earthenware 'in Lev 6 28; Ps 2 9; 31 12; Isa 30 14; Jer 19 11, etC;Ci oarpaKiyO';, osirdkinos, 2 Cor 4 7, etc. ^S, pakh, is tr<i "vial" in 1 S 10 1; 2 K 9 1; see
of Modern Discoveries: S. Birch, History of Ancient
Pottery: Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians; PEFQ; EB; HDB. . .„ James A. Patch POTTER'S, pot'erz, FIELD. See Aceldama.
so-called pilgrim bottles.
DID' ^'^s, also niUp . kdsdk, "cup" or "bowl," tr^
POUND, pound (HDia, maneh; f-vS., mnd, XCrpa,
"cup" in many passages, like Arab. iH^D . kd's, which
r~ ^*" . »'
Exterior of Pottery.
was formerly used for drinking instead of modem cups.
I'Ura: Lat libra): Pound does not correctly represent the Heb maneh, which was more than a pound (see Maneh). The litra of Jn 12 3 and 19 39 is the Rom pound [libra) of 4,950 grains, which is less than a pound troy, being about lO-j oz. In a monetary sense (its use in Lk 19 13-2.5) it is the mna, or maneh, which was either of silver or gold, the former, which is probably the one referred to bv Luke, being equal to £6.17, or about $33; the latter £102.10 or $510. See Weights and Measures. Figurative: "Pound," like "talent," is used in the NT for intellectual gifts and spiritual endowments, as in the passage given above.
yiD3, gdbhi", trJ "bowl" in Jer 35 5.
1^"lS. pdrHr, tr'J "pots" in Nu 11 S; ct Jgs 6 19;
1 S 2 14; cf x^^'P'^, chutra, which is similar to Arab.
tXH , kidr, commonly used for cooking today.
eoebh, "pot," Jer 22 28 ARVm. iSy, 'ecebh, "pot,'
The chemical changes wrought in clay by weathering and firing render it practically indestructible when exposed to the weather and to the
6. Archaeoaction of moisture and the gaseous logical Sigand solid compounds found in the soil. nificance When the sun-baked brick walls of a Palestinian city crumbled, they buried, often intact, the earthenware vessels of the period. In the course of time, perhaps after decades or centuries, another city was built on the debris of the former. The brick walls required no digging
H. Porter POVERTY, pov'er-ti: This word, found but once in the OT (Gen 45 11) outside of the Book of Prov in which it occurs 11 t (6 11; 10 15;
1 OT 11 24 AV; 13 18; 20 13; 23 21; 24 References 34; 28 19.22 AV; 30 8; 31 7), is a tr
for foundations, and so the substrata were left undisturbed. After long periods of time the destruction, by conquering armies or by neglect, of succeeding cities, produced mounds rising above the surrounding country, sometimes to a height of 60 or 100 ft. A typical example of such a mound is Tellel-Hesy (? Lachish). Dr. Flinders Petrie, as a result of the study of the various strata of this mound, has formed the basis of a classification of Palestinian pottery (see 2, above). With a knowledge of the forms of pottery of each period, the excavator has a guide, though not infallible, to the date of the ruin,s ho finds. See also Crafts, II, 4.
of 121^1, yiwwaresh, "to be poor," "to come to poverty" (Gen 45 11). Four different Heb words are used in the 11 references in Prov, all bearing the idea of being in need of the necessities of life, although a distinction is made between being in want and being in extreme want. Prov 18 23 well illustrates the general meaning of "poverty" as found in this book: "The poor [lt5'l"l , rush, "to be impoverished," "destitute"] useth entreaties; but the rich answcreth roughly."
"Poverty" occurs 3 t in the NT (2 Cor 8 2.9;
2427 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Potter, Pottery Praetorian Guard
Rev 2 9) and is the tr of Tmoxela,, ptocheia, "to be reduced to a state of beggary or pauperism."
7 53; cf 8 1), and was buried in a borrowed grave (Mt 27 57-61).
The teaching of the Bible on this
Figurative: Of course there is also a spiritual poverty indicated by the use of this word—a poverty
2. NT subject would, however, be incomplete References unless all the references to the "poor" were considered in this connection. Indeed the word for "poverty" has its root in the word for "poor" (irruxiis, plochos; "^D^, 'ani, or 51
in spiritual things: "Blessed are the poor in spirit." By this is meant. Blessed are they who feel that they have no self-righteousness, no worth of their own to present to Christ as a ground of their salva-
tion, who feel their utter bankruptcy of spirit, who say "Nothing in my hand I bring." It is to this state of spirit that Christ refers in Rev 3 17: "Because thou sayest, I am rich, and have gotten
dal). See Poor. At least two degrees of poverty are recognized. The OT does not distinguish between them as clearly as does the NT. The NT, for
riches, and have need of nothing; and knowest not that thou art the wretched one and miserable and poor and blind and naked." William Evans POWDERS, pou'derz (bDT npnS , 'ahh'kath
3. Two example, by its use of two words for Degrees of "poor" sets forth this distinction. In Poverty 2 Cor 9 9, "he hath given to the poor," the word used is tt^ci??, pines, which does not indicate extreme poverty, but simply a condition of living from hand to mouth, a bare and scant livelihood, such as that made by the widow who cast her two mites into the treasury (Lk 21 2)
rokhel): The "powders of the merchant" in Cant 3 6 were probably perfumes, as they are associated with myrrh and frankincense in the account of the
festal procession of the litter of Solomon. They may have been some sweet-scented Wood in powder, or else some form of incense.
while in such passages as 2 Cor 6 10: "As poor, yet making many rich," and Lk 6 20: "Blessed are ye poor" (Tmoxoi, ptochoi), a condition is indicated of abject beggary, pauperism, such as that in which we find Lazarus who was laid at the gate of the rich man's palace, begging even the crumbs which fell from the table of the rich man (Lk 16 20.
POWER, pou'er: This word, indicative of might, strength, force, is used in the OT to render very many Heb terms, the tr in numerous instances being varied in RV to words like "valor," "rule," "strength," "might," "dominion." The principal words for "power" in the NT are dimins, dunamis, and i^ovala, exousla. In the latter case RV frequently changes to "authority" (Mk 3 15; 6 7; Eph 1 21, etc) or "right" (Rom 9 21; 1 Cor 9
21). It was into this latter condition that Christ
voluntarily entered for our sakes: "For ye know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, that, though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor [a mendicant, a beggar], that ye through his poverty might become rich" (2 Cor 8 9). Between 30 and 40 t in the NT this latter word is used.
6; 2 Thess 3 9, etc). Power is attributed preeminently to God (1 Ch 29 11; Job 26 14; Ps 66 7; 145 11; Rev 7 12, etc). On this attribute
The causes of poverty are failure of harvest and poor crops (Neh 5 1-3); devastation caused by enemies sweeping through the land;
of power of God, see Omnipotence. The supreme manifestation of the power, as of the wisdom and
4. Causes the oppression of the people by their
love of God, is in redemption (1 Cor 1 18.24). The preaching of the gospel is accompanied by the power of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 2 4; 1 Thess 1 5,
of Poverty own rulers (Isa 5 8) ; excessive inter-
est, usury (Neh 5 1-5); persecution because of the faith (2 Cor 6, 8). Widows and orphans by reason of their desolate condition were
etc). Miracles, as "mighty works," are denoted by the term "powers" (so Mt 11 21.23 RVm, etc). The end of all time's developments is that God takes to Him His great power and reigns (Rev 11 17). James Orr
in a special sense subject to poverty. Gluttony
brings poverty (Prov 23 21), as does indolence
(28 19). God commanded His people to care lor the poor. The exhortations to relieve poverty are nvmierous, esp. in the Pent Those in poverty must be treated with kindness (Dt 15 7-11); must be allowed to glean in the vineyards (Lev 19 10); toreap the harvest (23 22; cf Ruth 2 14-16) ; must not be neglected (Prov 28 27) ; nor
POWER OF KEYS. See Keys, Power of.
PRffitORIAN, prg-to'ri-an, GUARD: "My bonds
dealt with harshly (Am 8 4-6) ; must be treated as equal before God (Prov 22 2); are to share m our hos-
in Christ are manifest in all the palace, and in all
other places" (Phil 1 13 AV). This verse is tr'^ in RV, "My bonds became manifest in Christ through-
pitality (Lk 14 1.3.21). Indeed, the truth or falsity ol
a man's religion Is to be tested, in some sense at least, by
his relation to those in need (Jas 1 27) The year of JubUee was intended to be of great benefit to the poor by restoring to them any possessions which they by reason of their poverty, had been compeUed to deed over to their creditors (Lev 25 2.5-54; Dt 15 12-1.5). God required certain tithes from His people which were
out the whole praetorian guard, and to all the rest," and is noteworthy.
It has been usual to connect the words, "the soldier
that guarded him," Acts 28 16, with this statement
in Phil 1 13, that the apostle's bonds
to be devoted to the helping of the poor and needy (Dt 14 2886 12.i:3). So in the NT the apostles lay
1. Praewere manifest in the whole praetorium, torium in and to understand that the former was Phil the cause of the latter; that the result Usual View of Paul's making the gospel known in
special emphasis upon remembering the Pooj;.'" t^*; matter of offerings. Paul, esp., incucated this duty upon the churches which he had founded (Rom 15 26 Gal 2 10). The attitude of the early Christian church towa?d its poor is amply iUustrated in that first attempt
his own hired house to those soldiers to one of whom he was chained by the wrist day and
at communism in Acts 2, 4. James in his Bp., sting-
inglv reminds his readers of the fact that they had grossly
neglected the important matter ofc^r'ng for the poor
night, was that it became known in all the praeto-
(ch 2). Indeed, so strong is he m his plea for the care of
rian regiment that his bonds were endured for
the poor that he clauns that the man w,lio75';i!ly,"^f:
lects the needy thereby proves that the 'o™of God has
Christ's sake, that it was for conscience' sake that he was suffering wrongfully, that he was no wrongdoer but a prisoner of Jesus Christ. In this way
no place in his heart, and that he has consequently no
rearfaith in God (vs 14-26). Christians are exhorted to abound in the grace of hospitality, ^"ch, of course is
the gospel would spread through the whole of the
nothing less than kindness to those in need (Rom 1/ ic.,
praetorian guard in that regiment's headquarters which were situated in a permanent camp estab-
1 Tim 6 18; 1 Jn 3 17). See Poor.
The happiest mother and the noblest and holiest
lished by Tiberius in Rome, outside the Colhne Gate,
son that ever lived were among the poor. Jesus
at the N.E. of the city. This verse would also mean that the gospel had been proclaimed in the same way to those members of the prcetorian guard
was born of poor parents, and had not where to lay
His head (Mt 8 20), no money with which to pay
tribute (Mt 17 27), no home to call His own (Jn
Praetorian Guard Praise THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2428
to all the rest; and that most of the Brethren in the Lord, being confident in my bonds, are more abundantly bold to speak the word of God without fear.' This passage lias been generally misconceived and connected with the period of imprisonment; and here again we are indebted to Mommsen for the proper interpretation. The Prcetorium is the whole body of persons connected with the sitting in judgment, the supreme Imperial Court, doubtless in this case the Prefect or both Prefects of the Praetorian Guard, representing the emperor in his capacity as the fountain of justice, together with the assessors and liigh officers of the court. The expression of the chapter as a whole shows that the trial is partly finished, and the issue as yet is so favorable that the Brethren are emboldened by the success of Paul's courageous and freespoken defence and the strong impression which he evidently produced on the court; but he himself, being entirely occupied with the trial, is for the moment prevented from preaching as he had been doing when he wrote to the Colossians and the Asian churches generally."
who were on duty as the bodyguard of the emperor and who were lodged in one of the buildings which adjoined the emperor's palace on the Palatine HiU.
Thus Lightfoot, discussing tlie meaning of tlie phrase "in the whole prjetorium" {Comm. on Phil, 99 fl), reviews
the difEerent interpretations wtiich have 2 Liehtfoot been given of the word, and shows (1) that „" T„?„ ,^ no instance is to be found of its signifying oninterpreZero's palace on the Palatine HiU; (2) tations that there is no authority for the interpretation which would make it mean the prEetoriau barracks on the Palatine; (3) that neither is there any authority for making it mean the preetorian camp outside the walls of Rome. In Lightfoot's words (op. cit., 101). "All attempts to give a local sense to 'praetorium' thus fail for want of evidence." Lightfoot accordingly defends the interpretation, "the prsetorian guard," and RV", above cited, follows him in this.
Thus the correct meaning of "praetorium" enables us to fix the date of tlie Ep. to the Phil as having been written close to the end of Paul's first
One of the meanings of "prtetorium" is a coun-
cil of war, the officers who met in the general's tent (see Pe^torium). Lightfoot is
5. Bearing Rom imprisonment. That this inference
* T-|3^„ -.f is correct is confirmed by various otlier on uaie oi facts, such as his promise to visit tliat city. Epistle and the fact that in PhU 2 20 f AV he says regarding 'Timotliy, "I have no man likeminded, who will naturally care for your state. For
3. View of very decided in interpreting "prxtoMommsen rium" to mean the prajtorian regiand Ramsay ment, the imperial guards, and he adds, "in this sense and in this alone can it be safely affirmed that the apostle would hear the word prfetorium used daUy," and that
all seek their own, not tlie things whicli are Jesus Christ's." We could not conceive of Paul writing like this if JNIark, Tychicus, Aristarchus, and esp. if Luke had been with him then, and yet we know (Col 4 7.10.14) that each and all of these companions of the apostle were with him in Rome when he wrote the Ep. to the Col. They had evidently, along with others, been sent on missions to Asia or other places, so that Paul now had only Timothy "likeminded" when he wrote to Philippi. See Paul the Apostle; Philippians, Epistle to the.
this sense is in all respects appropriate. But the other meaning, though not appropriate here, viz. a council of war composed of the officers and their general, is much nearer to that which is now accepted by such authorities as Mommsen and Sir W. M. Ramsay, who hold that in this passage "praetorium" means a council, not of war, however, but the council of judgment, the emperor's court of appeal in which he was assisted by his legal asses-
All these facts and considerations confirm us in accepting the signification of "praetorium" as the emperor's supreme court of appeal, before which Paul when he wrote the Ep. to the Phil had so conducted his defence as to produce a most favorable impression, from which he inferred that he might soon be liberated from imprisonment. And
sors (see Mommsen, Berlin Akad. SUzungaher
. , 189.5, 501; Ramsay, Si. Paul the Traveller and the Rom
Citizen, 3.57; Workman, Persecution in the Early Church, 3.5). Over this court there presided the emperor or his delegate, the prefect of the praetorian guard, and associated with him were twenty assessors selected from the senators. Formerly their votes were taken by ballot, but Nero preferred to receive from each a written opinion and on the next day to deliver his judgment in person. Such,
his liberation, as the event proved, soon followed. John Rutherfurd