Part 64
s''irl7n in Isa 13 21, AV and ERV have "satyrs," ERVm ."he-goats," ARV "wild goats," LXX dai.-
1. Book of Chronicles 2. Saul's Failings 3. His Virtue 4. David's Elegy
Iibvia, daimonia, "demons." For sd'lr in Isa 34 14, AV and ERV have "satyr," ERVm "he-
goat, ARV "wild goat." LXX has Irepos Trpbs
/. Early History.—The name Saul is usually regarded as simply the passive participle of the vb. "to ask," and so meaning "asked"
rbv irepov, heteros pr6s tdn heteron, "one to another," referring to daimonia, which here stands for
fiyim, "wild beasts of the desert."
1. Name (cf 1 S 8 4fT), but the gentilic adj. and Meansha'uli (Nu 26 13) would point to its ing having also an intensive connotation, "the one asked importunately," or perhaps, "the one asking insistently," "the beggar."
The text of ARV in these passages is as follows: Lev 17 7, "And they shall no more sacrifice their sacrifices unto the he-goats, after which they play the harlot": 2 Ch 11 1.5, "And he [Jcroboaml appointed him priests for the high places, and for the he-goats, and for the calves which he had made"; Isa 13 21 f (of Babylon), "But wild beasts of the desert [vylm] shaU lie there; and their houses shaU be full of doleful creatures ['ohlm]; and ostriches [b-nolh ya'dnah] shall dwell there, and wild goats ls''irim] shaU dance there. And wolves ['lyim]
Saul was the son of Kish, a Benjamite. His genealogical tree is given in 1 S 9 1 (cf LXX 10 21). In 1 S 9 1 his grandfather is
2. GeneAbiel, but in 1 Ch 8 33; 9 39, Ner, alogy who appears as his paternal uncle in
shall cry in their castles, and jackals [tannlm] in the pleasant palaces"; Isa 34 11.13.14.1.5 (of Edom) "But the pehcan [ka'Uh] and the porcupine [kippodh]
shall po.ssess it; and the owl [yanshoph] and the raven
1 S 14 50.51.
I'arei/i] shall dwell therein: .... and it shaU be a habitation of jackals [tannim], a court for ostriches [h'noth ya'dnah]. And the wild beasts of the desert [oiyim]
The last verse contains a very curious scribal error, a yodh having slipped out of one word in it into another. It states that both Abner and Ner were sons of Abiel. These apparent inconsistencies are to be explained by the tact ttiat in Heb. as in Arab., "son" is often used in the sense of grandson. Also, with the facility of divorce then prevalent, by "brother" and "sister" we must in most cases understand half-brother and half-sister. Moreover, Saul's mother might have been the wife at different times of Kish and of his brother Ner (cf 1 S 20 30). This was quite common, and in some cases compulsory (Dt 25 5-9).
shall meet with the wolves ['ij/imj, and the wild goat
Isd'ir] shall cry to his fellow; yea, the night monster
rJW/il shall settle there There shaU the dart-snake [kippoz] make hernest .... there shall the kites [daj/-
yoth] be gathered, every one with her mate."
The question is whether sa'ir and s^'lrim in these
passages stand for real or for fabulous animals. In Lev 17 7 and 2 Ch 11 15, it is clear that they are
ob,iects of worship, but that still leaves open the
Saul's home was at Gibeah (q.v.), which is also
question of their nature, though it may to many minds make "devils" or "demons" or "satyrs' seem preferable to "he-goats." In Isa 13 20 we
called Gibeah of Saul, i.e. Saul's Hill (1 S 11 4; cf also 10 5, God's Hill, or simply The
3. Home Hill, 10 10; Hos 5 8, etc), or the Hill and Station of Benjamin or of the Benjamites (1 S 13 15; 2 S 23 29). It is usually iden-
read, "neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there;
neither shall shepherds make their flocks to he down there." This may very likely have influ-
tified with Tell el-FAl, but perhaps its site is marked rather by some ruins near but beneath that eminence. The tribe of Benjamin was the fighting tribe of
enced the American Committee of Revisers to use
"wild goat" in Isa 13 21 and 34 14 instead of the
"he-goat" of the other passages. In ARV, no
Israel, and Kish seems to have been one of its most important members. Saul's remarks in depreciation
fabulous creatures (except perhaps "night-monster )
are mentioned here, but LXX employs daimonia, "demons," in Isa 13 21 for s'Hrim and m 34 14
(1 S 9 21) are not to be taken Htcrally.
The circumstances of Saul's career are too well known to require recapitulation. It will be suffi-
for Qiylm; ivoKivravpoL, onokenlauroi, from Sj/os,
6nos "ass " and Kivravpoi, kenlauros, "centaur,"
cient to refer to some of the recognized difficulties
in Isa 13 22 and 34 14 for 'lyim, and again in 34
Saul THE liSrrERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2698
30,000) at Michmash. In dismay, Saul's troops de-
of the narrative. These difficulties arise from the faet that we appear to have two distinct biographies
serted (vs 6 f), until he was left with only 600 (14 2). In spite of this, Jonathan precipitated
of Saul in the present Books of S. 4. Sources This may well be the case as it is the for Life practice of the Sem historian to set down more than one tradition of each event, without attempting to work these up into one consistent account. We shall call the duplicated narratives A and B, without postulating that either
3. Battle of hostilities by a reckless attack upon one Michmash of the outposts. This was so success-
ful that the whole Phili army was
seized with panic, and the onset of Saul and the
desertion of their Heb slaves completed their dis-
comfiture. Saul followed up his victory by making predatory excursions on every side (14 47). Saul's next expedition was against the Amalekites under Agag, who were likewise completely defeated.
is a continuous whole. See Samuel, Books of. According to A, Saul was anointed king of Israel at Ramah by the prophet Samuel acting upon an
The fight was carried out with all the
inspiration from Jeh, not only without
4. Defeats remorselessness common to tribal warthe Amalekfare. Warning was sent to the friendly
5. Election consulting anyone, but in the strictest as King secrecy (1 S 9 1—10 16). According to B, the sheiks of the tribes demanded a king. Samuel in vain tried to dissuade them. They would not listen, and a king was chosen by lot at Mizpah. The lot fell upon Saul, and Samuel immediately demitted office (ch 8; 10 17-27, omitting last clause; and ch 12). There are three distinct reasons given in the text
ites Kenites to withdraw out of danger; then the hostile tribe was slaughtered to a man, their chief alone being spared for the time being. Even the women and children were not taken as slaves, but were all killed (1 S 15).
It is not clear what was the precise attitude of Samuel toward Saul. As the undoubted head of the theocracy he naturally objected to
for the aboUtion of the theocracy and institution of
5. Deposihis powers being curtailed by the loss
an elective or hereditary monarchy:
tion Proof the civil power (8 6). Even after nounced the elections of Saul, Samuel claimed to be the ecclesiastical head of the
6. Reasons first, the incapacity of Samuel's sons
for It (8 IS); second, an invasion of the Ammonites (12 12); and third, the
state. He seems to have objected to Saul's offering the sacrifice before battle (13 10 ff), and to have considered him merely as his lieutenant (15 3) who could be dismissed for disobedience (15 14 S) Here again there seem to be two distinct accounts
Philis (9 16). These three motives are not mutually
exclusive. The Philis formed the standing menace
to the national existence, which would have necessitated the creation of a monarchy sooner or later. The other two were temporary circumstances, one of which aggravated the situation, while the other showed the hopelessness of expecting any improvement in it in the near future.
in the traditional text, which we may again call A and B. In A Saul is rejected because he does not wait long enough for Samuel at Gilgal (13 8; cf 10 8). "Seven days," of course, means eight, or even more, in short, until Samuel should come, whenever that might be. The expression might almost be omitted in translating. In B Saul is rejected because he did not carry out Samuel's orders (15 3) to the letter. The two narratives are not mutually exclusive. The second offence was an aggravation of the first, and after it Samuel did not see Saul again (15 35). He had good reason for not doing so. He had anointed a rival head of the state in opposition to
//. Reign and Fall.—The election of Saul at Mizpah was conducted in the presence of the chief-
tains of the clans; it is not to be
1. His First supposed that the whole nation was Action present. As soon as it was over, the electors went home, and Saul also returned to his father's farm and, like Cincinnatus, once more followed the plough. "Within about a month," however (10 27 LXX, for MT "But he held his peace"), the summons came. A message from the citizens of Jabesh-gilead (q.v.) was sent round the tribes appealing for help against the Ammonites under Nahash. They, of course, knew nothing about what had taken place at Mizpah, and it was only by chance that their messengers arrived at Gibeah when they did. Saul rose to the occasion, and immediately after he was acclaimed king by the whole body of the people (ch 11). This double election, first by the chiefs and then by the people, is quite a regular proceeding.
Saul, an act of treason which, if dis-
6. David covered, would have cost him his Introduced head(cf2 K 9 6.10). Saul did not at
to Saul once accept his deposition, but he lost heart. One cannot but admire him, deserted by Samuel, and convinced that he was playing a losing game, and yet continuing in office. To drive away his melancholy, his servants introduced to him a musician who played until his
spirits revived (16 14 ff; cf 2 K 3 15). By a strange coincidence (cf I, 5, above) the min-
This first success encouraged Saul to enter upon what was to be the mission of his life, namely, the throwing off of the Phih suzerainty.
strel was the very person whom Samuel had secretly
2. Army From the first he had had the boldest Reorganspirits upon his side (10 26 LXX, ized RVm) ; he was now able to form a standing army of 3,000 men, under the command of himself and his son Jonathan (q.v.). The Philis, the last remnant of the Minoan race, had the advantage of the possession of iron weapons.
anointed to supplant Saul. According
7. Two to what looks like another account, Accounts however, it was his encounter with Gohath which led to the introduction
of David to Saul (17 Iff; see David). In spite
of all that has been said to the contrary, the two narratives are not incompatible, since we are not
told the order of the events nor over how many years these events were spread. The theory of duplicate narratives rests upon the assumption that
It was, in fact, they who introduced iron into Pal from Crete—the Israelites knowing only bronze, and having even been deprived of weapons of the softer metals. They seem to have armed themselves—with the exception of the king and his son with mattocks and ploughshares (13 19 ff). The first encounter was the attack upon the Phih post at Michmash (1 S 13, 14). The text
all statements made by the dramatis personae in the Bible are to be taken at their face value. If chs 16 and 17 had formed part of a play of Shakespeare, they would have been considered a fine example of his genius. Treatises would have been written to explain why Saul did not recognize David, and why Abner denied all knowledge
of the narrative is uncertain, but the following out-
line is clear. On hearing that the Hebrews had revolted (13 3 LXX), the Philis gathered in great
of him. LXX, however, omits 17 12-31.41.50.55— 18 5.
force, including 3,000 chariots (13 5 LXX; MT has
2699 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Saul
Whether Saul actually discovered that David had been anointed by Samuel or not, he soon saw in him his rival and inevitable successor, 8. Saul's and he would hardly have been human Envy of if he had not felt envious of him. His David dislike of David had two motives. The first was jealousy, because the women preferred the mihtary genius of David to his own (18 7 f). His consequent attempt upon the life of David (vs 8-11) is omitted in LXX. Not least was the love of his own daughter for David (18 20; in ver 28 read with LXX "all Israel"). The second cause was his natural objection to see his son Jonathan supplanted in his rights to the throne, an objection which was aggravated by the devotion of that son to his own rival (20 30; see also David; Jonathan). Saul could not believe that David could remain loyal to him (24 9) ; at the first favorable opportunity he would turn upon him, hurl him
(contrast 11 8), were completely defeated, and Saul and his sons slain. Their armor was placed in the temple of Ashtaroth, and their bodies hung on the wall of Bethshan, but Saul's head was set in the temple of Dagon (1 Ch 10 10). The citizens of Jabesh-gilead, out of ancient gratitude, rescued the bodies and, in un-Semitic wise, burned them and buried the bones.
Once more we have, according to most presentday critics, duplicate accounts of the death of Saul.
According to one, which we may name 14. Double A, he fell, like Ajax whom he much Accounts resembles, upon his own sword, after being desperately wounded by the archers (1 S 31 4). According to the second (2 S 1 2 ff) , an Amalekite, who had been by accident a witness of the battle, dispatched Saul at his own request to save him from the enemy. But B
is simply the continuation of A, and tells us how David received the news of the battle. The Amalekite's story is, of course, a fabrication with a view to a reward. Similar claims for the reward of assassination are common (2 S 4 9 ff) With Saul the first Israelite dynasty began and ended. The names of his sons are given in 1 S 14 49 as Jonathan, Ishvi and Malchi-
9. Attempts from the throne, and exterminate his to Get Rid whole house. In these circumstances, it of Him was his first interest to get rid of him. His first attempt to do so (omitting with LXX 18 86-11) was to encourage him to make raids on the Philis in the hope that these might kill him (18 21 ff); his ne.xt, assassination by one of his servants (19 1), and then by his own hand (19 9 f ) . When David was compelled to
15. Saul's shua. Ishvi or Ishyo (LXX) is Posterity Eshbaal, called in 2 S 2 8 Ish-boSHETH (q.v.). 1 Ch 8 33 adds Abinadab. Jonathan left a long line of descendants famous, like himself, as archers (1 Ch 8 34 ff). The rest of Saul's posterity apparently died out. Malchishua and Abinadab were slain at Gilboa
fly, the quarrel turned to civil war. The superstitious fear of hurting the chosen of Jeh had given place to bhnd rage. Those who sheltered the fugitive, even priests, were slaughtered (22 17 ff). From one spot to another David was hunted, as he says, like a partridge (26 20).
(1 S 31 6; 1 Ch 10 2), and Ish-bosheth was assassinated shortly after (2 S 4 2 fT) . Saul had also two natural sons by Rizpah who were put to death by David in accordance with a superstitious custom, as also were the five sons of Saul's daughter Merab(2 S 21 8,notMichal; cf 1 S 18 19). Saul's other daughter Michal apparently had no children. Saul had, it seems, other wives, who were taken into the harem of David in accordance with the practice of the times (2 S 12 8), but of them and their descendants we know nothing.
It is generally maintained that here also we have duplicate accounts; for example, that there are two accounts of David taking refuge
10. David with Achish, king of Gath, and two of Spares Saul his sparing Saul's life. The latter are contained in chs 24 and 26, but the points of resemblance are shght. Three thousand (24 2; 26 2) was the number of Saul's picked men (cf 13 2). David uses the simile of "a flea"
///. Character,—Saul's hfe and character are disposed of in a somewhat summary fashion by the
in 24 14, but in 26 20 for "a flea" LXX has "my soul," which is no doubt original. The few other expressions would occur naturally in any narrative with the same contents.
Chronicler (1 Ch 10, esp. vs. 13.14).
1. Book of Saul was rejected because he was disChronicles loyal to Jeh, esp. in consulting a necromancer. The major premise of this conclusion, however, is the ancient dictum, "Misfortune presupposes sin." From a wider point of view Saul cannot be dismissed so cavaherly.
Obviously Saul's divided energies could not hold out long; he could not put down the imaginary rebelhon within, and at the same time
11. Saul's keep at bay the foreign foe. No sooner Divided had he got the fugitive within his Energies grasp than he was called away by an inroad of the Philis (23 27f); but
Like everyone else, Saul had his virtues and his
failings. His chief weakness seems to have been want of decision of character. He was
after his life had been twice spared, he seemed to
2. Saul's easily swayed by events and by people. FaiUngs The praises of David (1 S 18 7 f) at once set his jealousy on fire. His persecution of David was largely due to the instigation of mischievous courtiers (24 9) . Upon remonstrance his repentance was as deep as it was short-Uved (24 16; 26 21). His impulsiveness was such that he did not know where to stop. His interdict (14 24 ff) was quite as uncalled for as his religious zeal (15 9) was out of place. He was always at one extreme. His hatred of David was only equal to his affection for him at first (18 2) . His pusillanimity led him to commit crimes which his own judgment would have forbidden (22 17). Like most beaten persons, he became suspicious of everyone (22 7 f), and, like those who are easily led, he soon found his evil genius (22 9.18.22). Saul's inability to act alone appears from the fact that he never engaged in single combat, so far as we know. Before he could act at all his fury or his pity had to be roused to boiling-point (11 6). His mind was peculiarly sub-
realize at last that the latter were the real enemy, and he threw his whole strength into one desperate
effort for existence.
Saul himself saw that his case was desperate, and -that in fact the game was up. As a forlorn hope he determined to seek occult
12. Conadvice. He could no longer use the
suits a Neeofficial means of divination (28 6), romancer and was obliged to have recourse to a necromancer, one of a class whom he
himself had taken means to suppress (28 3). The
result of the seance confirmed his worst fears and
filled his soul with despair (28 7 G).
It says much for Saul that, hopeless as he was, he engaged in one last forlorn struggle with the enemy.
The Philis had gathered in great
13. Battle force at Shunem. Saul drew up his
of Gilboa army on the opposing hill of Gilboa. Between the two forces lay a valley
(cf 14 4). The result was what had been foreseen. The Israelites, no doubt greatly reduced in numbers
Savaran Sceptre, Scepter THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2700
most inappropriate word to apply to a human being. Cicero, for instance, arraigns Verres for using it: "Soter .... How much does this imply? So much that it cannot be expressed in one word in Latin" (Verr. ii.2, 63, § 154). So the adoption
ject to external influences, so that he was now a respectable man of the world, now a prophet (10 11; 19 24). On the other hand, Saul possessed many high qualities. His dread of office (10 22) was only equaled by the coolness with which he
of Soter by Christianity was most natural, the word seemed ready-made. (4) That the NT writers derived the word from its contemporary use is shown, besides, by its occurrence in combination with such terms as "manifestation" (epiphdneia, 2 Tim 1 10; Tit 2 13), "love toward man" (philanlhropia, Tit 3 4), "captain" {archegos, Acta 6 31; cf He 2 10), etc. These terms are found in the Gr sources many times in exactly the same combinations with Soter. (5) In the NT Soter ia uniformly reserved for Christ, except in Lk 1 47; Jude ver 25, and the Pastorals. In 1 Tim (1 1; 2 3; 4 10) it is appHed only to the Father, in 2 Tim
3. His accepted it (11 5). To the first call Virtues to action he responded with promptitude (11 6 ff). His timely aid excited the lasting gratitude of the citizens of Jabesh-gilead
(31 11 ff). If we remember that Saul was openly disowned by Samuel (15 30), and believed himself cast off by Jeh, we cannot but admire the way in which he fought on to the last. IMoreover, the fact that he retained not only his own sons, but a sufficient body of fighting men to engage a large army of Philis, shows that there must have been something in him to excite confidence and loyalty.
(1 10, only) it is applied to Christ, while in Tit there seems to be a deliberate alternation; of the Father
There is, however, no question as to the honorable and noble qualities of Saul. The chief were his prowess in war and his generosity
in 1 3; 2 10; 3 4; of Christ in 1 4; 2 13; 3 6. Literature.—P. Wendland, "Sajriip," ZNTW. V, 335-53, 1904; J. Weiss. "Heiland," In BGG, II, 1910; H. Lietzmann, Der Weltheiland, 1909. Much dntailed Information is available in various parts of Deissmann,
4. David's in peace. They have been set down Elegy by the man who knew him best in what are among the most authentic verses in the Bible (2 S 1 19 ff).
Light from the Ancient East, 19i0.
Burton Scott Easton SAVOR, sa'ver (ni"! , re'h; oiry.i\, osmt) : (1) The primary meaning of the word is "taste," "flavor" (from Lat sapor, "taste"). So in Mt 5 13; Lk 14 34, "if the salt have lost its savor" (fiupanffi, moranthe, "become tasteless," "insipid," so as to lose
(2) Saul of Tarsus. See Paul.
Thomas Hunter Weir SAVARAN, sav'a-ran: AV =RV Avaran (q.v.).
SAVE, sav: In tihe sense "except," the word came into Eng. through the Fr. (sauf) and is fairly common (38 t, in addition to "saving," AV Eccl 5 11; Am 9 8; Mt 6 32; Lk 4 27; Rev 2 17). It represents no particular Heb or Gr terms but is employed wherever it seems useful. It is still in good (slightly archaic) use, and RV has few modifications (Dt 15 4 AV; _Ps 18 31&, etc), but ERV has dropped "saving" in Lk 4 27 and Rev 2 17 and ARV also in Eccl 5 11; Am 9 8, retaining it only in Mt 5 32.
its characteristic preserving virtue). (2) But generally it has the meaning of "smell," "odor"; (a) once of evil odor: "Its stench shall come up, and its
ill savor shall come up" (Joel 2 20); (t) elsewhere in the sense of pleasant smell. In the OT, with the exception of Ex 5 21 and AV Cant 1 3 (RV "fragrance"), it is always accompanied by the adj. "sweet." It stands for the smell of sacrifices and oblations, in agreement with the ancient anthropomorphic idea that God smells and is pleased with the fragrance of sacrifices (e.g. "Jeh smelled the sweet savor," Gen 8 21; "to make a sweet savor unto Jeh," Nu 15 3; and frequently). In the NT, "savor" in the sense of smell is used metaphorically; (a) once the metaphor is borrowed from the incense which attends the victor's triumphal procession; God is said to make manifest through His apostles "the savor of his knowledge in every place" as He "leadeth" them "in triumph in Christ"
SAVIAS,sa-vi'as(5;ao«la,,SaoM(o): In 1 Esd 8 2, for Uzzi, an ancestor of Ezra, in Ezr 7 4.
SAVIOUR, sav'yer: (1) While that "God is the deliverer of his people" is the concept on which, virtually, the whole OT is based (see Salvation), yet the Hebrews seem never to have felt the need of a title for God that would sum up this aspect of His relation to man. Nearest to our word "Saviour" is a participial form (^"^115112,
(2 Cor 2 14; see Triumph), (fe) Elsewhere the metaphor is borrowed from the fragrant smell of the sacrifices. The apostles "are a sweet savor of Christ unto God" (2 Cor 2 15), i.e. they are, as it were, a sweet odor for God to smell, an odor which
moshi"') from'the vb. ^'^1
, yasha} (Qal not used; "save" in Hiphil), but even this participle is not frequently apphed to God (some 13 t of which 7 are in Isa 43-63). (2) In the NT, however, the case is different, and Sur-^p, Soltr, ia used in as technical a way as is our "Saviour." But the distribution of the 24 occurrences of the word is significant, for two-thirds of them are found in the later books of the NT— 10 in the Pastorals, 5 in 2 Pet, and one each in Jn, 1 Jn, and Jude—while the other instances are Lk 1 47; 2 11; Acts 5 31; 13 23; Eph 5 23; Phil 3 20. And there are no occurrences in Mt, Mk, or the earlier Pauline Epp. The data are clear enough. As might be expected, the fact that the OT used no technical word for Saviour meant that neither did the earliest Christianity use any such word. Doubtless for Our Lord "Messiah" was felt to convey the meaning. But in Gr-speaking Christianity, "Christ," the
is pleasing to God, even though its effect upon men varies (to some it is a "savor from death unto death,"
i e. such as is emitted by death and itself causes death; to others it is "a savor from fife unto life," ver 16). By the same sacrificial metaphor, Christ's offering of Himself to God is said to be "for a sweet smelUng savor" (Eph 5 2 AV, RV "for an odor of a sweet smell"; the same phrase is used in Phil 4 18 of acts of kindness to Paul, which were "a sacrifice acceptable, well-pleasing to God"). (3) Once it is used in the figurative sense of reputation: "Ye have made our savor to be abhorred [lit. "our smell to stink"] in the eyes of Pharaoh" (Ex 5 21). Cf the Eng. phrase, "to be in bad odor." The vb. "to savor" means: (1) intransitively, to taste or smell of, to partake of the quality of something, as in the Preface of AV, "to savour more of curiosity than wisdonie," or (2) transitively, to perceive by the taste or smell, to discern: "thou savourest not the things that be of God" (AV Mt 16 23; Mk 8 33, RV "mindest"; cfjpoi'si!, phTonets: Vulg sapis). The adj. "savory" occurs only in Gen 27 4.7.9.14.17.31 ("savory food") and RV Isa 30 24 (m "salted"). .^ D. MlALL Edwards
tr of Messiah, soon became treated as a proper name, and a new word_ was needed. (3) Soter expressed the exact meaning and had already been
set apart in the language of the day as a religious term, having become one of the most popular Divine titles in use. Indeed, it was felt to be a
2701 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Savaran Sceptre, Scepter
SAW, so. See Tools.
food to the Israehte (Lev 11 9ff; Dt 14 9f). In the figurative sense the word is used of a coat of mail (1 S 17 5.38). (2) M'ghinnah from maghen,
SAWING ASUNDER, so'ing
' a-sun'der. See Punishments.
lit. "a buckler" or "small shield" (2 Ch 23 9; Jer 46 3), is used in the description of the crocodile (see Leviathan) for the homy scales or scutes imbedded in the skin, not imbricated upon it (Job 41 15 [Heb ver 7]). (3) The Gr lepis, which in classical language has a much wider range of meaning than the above Heb words ("rind," "husk," "shell," "fishscale," "scale of snake," "flake of metal and of snow," etc), is found in the NT description of St. Paul's recovery from temporary blindness, "And straightway there fell from his eyes as it were scales, and he received his sight" (Acts 9 18). There
SAYEST, sa'est: "Thou sayest" (Mt 27 11 Mk 15 2; Lk 22 70, "Ye say"; Jn 18 37), i.e rightly; "Thou hast said" (Mt 26 25.64), = "Yes" a rabbinical idiom never found in the OT. Mark (14 62) renders by "I am." All these passages WHm punctuate interrogatively (cf KHhubhoth,
i. 103 6).
SAYINGS, sa'ingz, DARK. See Dark Sayings.
SAYINGS, FAITHFUL. See Faithful Sayings.
is nothing in the words of the sacred text which compels us to think of literal scales. (In Tob, however, a literal flaking-off of foreign substance is meant.) We have here rather a description of the sensation which terminated the three days' period of blindness which the apostle suffered after his meeting with the risen Lord on the road to Damascus. The apostle himself does not use this e.xpression in his own graphic description of the same experience: "In that very hour I looked upon him"
SAYINGS OF JESUS. See Logia.
SAYINGS, UNWRITTEN, un-rit"n. See AgraPHA.
SCAB, skab, SCABBED, skab'ed, skabd (ns|^,
yallepheth, nnSOn, mispahalh, nnSD
, ^appahath, vb. nSIB , sippah; <n\\i.<i<rla, semasla, \(ixi]v, leichtn) : These are generic terms for any skin disease in which there are patches of hard crusts on the surface. The commonest of these are the forms now named eczema, herpes and, perhaps, psoriasis, all of which are common in Bible lands. Milder cases in which the disease was locaUzed and in small patches (the semasia of LXX) did not render the bearer unclean, and they were to be distinguished by the priest (Lev 13 2.6) from the more virulent and spreading eruptions which (ver 7) were regarded as causes of ceremonial uncleanness. These severer forms are the leichen of LXX mentioned in Lev 21 20, which disqualified any son of Aaron from serving as a priest, and when affecting an animal rendered it unfit to be offered as a burnt offering (Lev 22 22) . Hippocrates speaks of these cases as obstinate and persistent, and Galen believed that they might degenerate into leprosy; hence the terms in which Aeschylus speaks of it (Choephori 281). Celsus, however, recognized that leichen was a papular eruption, not a true scab. The name yallepheth seems to have been given to it on account of the firmness of attachment of the scabs, while the term mi^pahath refers to its tendency to spread and cover the surface. A cognate word in Ezk 13 18 is the name of a large tallith or prayer veil used by the false prophetesses in Israel
(22 13). The phrase has, however, come into Eng., for we speak of "scales falling from one's eyes" when we mean a sudden illumination or remembrance or a dissipation of harassing doubt.
In Isa 40 12; RV Prov 16 11 for Obs
, peZe.?, in the sense of "instrument for weighing." See Balance. H. L. E. LUERING
SCALL, skol (priD , nethek; flpaio-|ia, ihrausma)
This only occurs in Lev 13 and 14 where it is used 14 t to describe bald or scaly patches of eruption on the skin. Such patches are generally the result of the action of parasitic organisms. The common form known now as scalled head is produced by a microscopic plant, Achorion schoenleinii. In Old and Middle Eng., scall was used for scabbiness of the head (Chaucer and Spenser). See also Skeat, Concise Etymol. Diet, of Eng. Language.
SCAPE-GOAT, skap'got. See Azazel.
SCARLET, skar'let. See Colors; Dyeing.
SCARLET (WORM) C^t: n?bin , tola'alh shanl [Ex 25 4, etc]): Cermes vermilio, a scale insect from which a red dye is obtained. See Color; Dyeing; Worm.
(tr"^ "kerchief"). Scabs were esp. disfiguring on the head, and this infliction was threatened as a punishment on the daughters of Zion for their wanton haughtiness (Isa 3 17). In Middle Eng., "scab"
SCATTERED ABROAD, skat'erd a-brod'. Dispersion.
See
is used for itch or mange, and as a term of opprobrium, as in Greene, Bacon and Bungay, 35, 1591.
SCENT, sent: (1) In Hos 14 7, "The scent [m "his memorial"] thereof shall be as the wine of Lebanon." "Scent" is used for IDT, zekher
Alex. Macalister SCABBARD, skab'ard, SHEATH, sheth. See Armor, III, 5; War, 9.
(so MT, but the pointing is uncertain), 'properly "memorial," whence RVm. The Eng. tr comes through the LXX which took zkr as "offering of sweet savor," and so "sweet savor." For the "wine of Lebanon'' see Wine. If this tr is not right, the alternative is "memorial" in the sense of "renown."
SCAFFOLD, skaf'old Clip's, kiyyor): The Eng. word is used once of Solomon's "brazen scaffold" on which he knelt at the dedication of the temple
(2 Ch 6 13).
(2) Job 14 9; Jer 48 11 for ni"! , re'h, "odor." "Scent" of the water in Job 14 9 is poetic for "contact with." (3) Wisd 11 18 AV has "filthy scents of scattered smoke," where "scent" is used in the obsolete sense of "disagreeable odor." The tr
SCALE, skal. See Siege, 4, (e) ; Weights and Measures.
SCALES, skalz ([1] ritofjiSp, kaskeseth, "fish-
is, however, very loose, and "scents" is a gloss; RV "noisome smoke." Burton Scott Easton
scales"; [2] nsjp, m'ghinnah, pp , macjhen,
"scales of the crocodile"; [3] XeirJs, lepls, with
vfj. Xcirtju, fepizo, "scale away" [Tob 3 17; 11 13]):
SCEPTRE, SCEPTER, sep'ter CJnTlJ , shebhet,
(1) The first Heb word kaskeseth means the imbri-
tJlll.TB , sharbhlt, expanded form in Est 4 11; 5 2; 8 4;' pdpSos, rhdbdos [Ad Est 15 11; He 1 8],
cated scales of fish, which together with the dorsal
fin were a distinguishing mark of all fish allowed as
Sceva Scorpion THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2702
o-KTjirTpos, sktptros) : A rod or mace used by a sovereign as a symbol of royal authority. The Heb shebhet is the ordinary word for rod or club, and is used of an ordinary rod (of 2 S 7 14), of the shepherd's crook (Ps 23 4), scribe's baton or marshal's
(1 Cor 12 18 ff). The ecclesiastical meaning is that of a break from a church organization, that may or may not be connected with a doctrinal dissent.
SCHOOL, skool (a-xo\i\, schole) . See Tyrannus.
staff (Jgs 5 14), as well as of the symbol of royalty. Its symbolism may be connected with the use of the shebhet for protection (2 S 23 21 ; Ps 23 4) or for punishment (Isa 10 24; 30 31). It is used with reference to the royal line descended from Judah
SCHOOLMASTER, skool'mas-ter: Gal 3 24 f AV reads: "The law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ, that we might be justified by faith. But after that faith is come, we are no longer under a schoolmaster." "Schoolmaster" is a tr of -a-aiSa-
(Gen 49 10), and figuratively of sovereignty in general and possibly of conquest (Nu 24 17, in
70)765, paidagogos, lit. "child-leader." This paida-
Israel; Isa 14 5, in Babylonia; Am 1 5.8, in Syria, among Philis; Zee 10 11, in Egypt), the disappearance or cutting off of him that holdeth the scepter being tantamount to loss of national independence. The kingship of Jeh is spoken of as a scepter (Ps 45 6 [Heb ver 7] quoted in He 1 8). The manner of using the scepter by an oriental monarch is suggested in the act of Ahasuerus, who holds it out to Esther as a mark of favor. The subject touches the top of it, perhaps simply as an act of homage or possibly to indicate a desire to be heard. The scepter of Ahasuerus is spoken of as "golden" (Est 5 2), but it is probable that scepters were ordinarily made of straight branches (inateh) of certain kinds of vines (Ezk 19 11.14). It is sometimes difficult to determine whether the word shebhet is used in figurative passages in the sense of scepter or merely in the ordinary sense of
gogos was not a teacher but a slave, to whom in wealthy famihes the general oversight of a boy was committed. It was his duty to accompany
his charge to and from school, never to lose sight of him in public, to prevent association with objectionable companions, to inculcate moral lessons
at every opportunity, etc. He was a familiar
figure in the streets, and the (sour) "face of a paidagogos" and "to follow one like a paidagogos" were proverbial expressions. Naturally, to the average boy the paidagogos must have represented the incorporation of everything objectionable. Hence St. Paul's figure may be paraphrased: "The law was a paidagogos, necessary but irksome, to
direct us until the time of Christ. Then was the time of our spiritual coming-of-age, so that the control of the paidagogos ceased." The word paidagogos was taken over into Aram, at an early
staff (e.g. Ps 125 3, AV "rod," RV and ARV "sceptre" [of the wicked]; Ps 2 9, "rod of iron"; Prov 22 8, "rod of his wrath"). Another word, m'hokek, lit. "prescribing" (person or thing), formerly tr"* uniformly "lawgiver," is now generally taken, on the basis of parallelism, to mean "sceptre"
date, and St. Paul's language, which is hardly that
of a mere adult observer, suggests that he had had personal experience with the institution. Wealthy and intensely orthodox Jewish parents living in a gentile city may well have adopted such a precaution for the protection of their children.
in four poetic passages (Gen 49 10, "ruler's staff" to avoid repetition; Nu 21 18; Ps 60 7; 108 8). Nathan Isaacs SCEVA, se'va (SkevcI, Shewi): A Jew, a chief
No Eng. word renders paidagogos adequately. "Schoolmaster" is quite wrong, but RV's "tutor"
(cf 1 Cor 4 15) is Uttle better in modern Eng.
Burton Scott Easton SCHOOLS OF THE PROPHETS. See Education; Prophets.
priest, resident in Ephesus, whose seven sons were exorcists (Acts 19 14 ff). Ewald regards the name as being Heb sh'khabhyah. He was not an officiating priest, as there were only synagogues in Asia Minor. He may have belonged to a high-priestly family, or perhaps at one time he had been at the head of one of the 24 courses in the temple.
SCIENCE, sl'ens: This word as found in AV means simply "knowledge." "Science" occurs in AV only in two places, Dnl 1 4, "children .... understanding science" (r?l '^.?"!"^
, yodh^'edha^aih, "those who understand science"). The meaning of the term here is "knowledge," "wisdom." The only other occurrence of "science" is in the NT (1 Tim 6 20, "avoiding .... oppositions of science falsely so called," rrjs ^cvBaviifLov 7>'ci(rews, tts pseudonumou gnoseos, "the falsely called gnosis"). "Science" is the tr of the Gr gnosis, which in the NT is usually rendered "knowledge." The science here referred to was a higher knowledge of Christian and Divine things, which false teachers alleged that they possessed, and of which they boasted. It was an incipient form of Gnosticism, and it prevailed to a considerable extent in the churches of proconsular Asia, e.g. in Colossae and Ephesus. Timothy ia put on his guard against the teaching of this gnosis falsely so called, for it set itself in opposition to the gospel. See Gnosticism. "Science" in the modem sense of the word, as the discovery and orderly classification and exposition of the phenomena and of the laws of Nature,
In the narrative the construction is loose. There were seven sons (ver 14), and it would appear (ver
16) that in this particular case all were present. But (ver 16) the demon-possessed man overpowered "both of them." TR gets over the difficulty by omitting "both," but SABD, so Tisch., WH, Soden, and best critics, retain the difficult reading. The explanation is that ver 14 states the custom: "who did this" being hoi touto poioiintes, "who used to do this." Vs 15 and 16 state a particular case in which two took part, but the incident is mtroduced in a careless manner.
Ewald would translate amphoteron as "in both
sides," but this is impossible. Baur understood "disciples" for "sons." D and Syr have an interesting expansion which Blass considers original (ver
14): "Among whom also the sons [Syr 'seven'] of a certain Sceva, a priest, wished to do the same, [who] were in the custom of exorcising such. And entering into the demon-possessed man they began to call upon the Name, saying, 'We charge you by Jesus whom Paul preaches to come out.' "
is not found either in the OT or the NT unless the passage in Dnl be interpreted as meaning the scientific knowledge which the learned men of Babylon possessed of mathematics and astronomy, etc. See also Acts 7 22. To the Heb mind all natural phenomena meant the working of the hand of God in the world, directly and immediately, without the intervention of any secondary laws.
" S. F. HUNTEE SCHISM, siz'in (o-x(o-|jia, schisma): Only in
1 Cor 12 25. The same Gr word, lit. "a split,"
is tr<i "rent" in Mt 9 10; Mk 2 21; and "division" inJn 7 43; 9 16; 10 19. It designates "a separa-
tion," not from, but within, the church, interfering with the harmonious coordination and cooperation
John Rutherfurd
of the members described in the preceding verses
2703 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Sceva Scorpion
SCIMITAR, sim'i-tar, -ter (aKivdKii, akindke): Formerly given as "fauchion" in AV Jth 13 6; 16 9, the weapon which Judith took down from the rail of the bed at Holoferncs' head, and with which she severed his head from his body.
been well indicated by Cheyne, who says that the
"scorner [scoffer] is one who despises that which
is holy and avoids the company of the noble 'wise men,' but yet in his own vain way seeks for truth; his character is marked by arrogance as that of the wise is characterized by devout caution."
SCOFF, skof, SCOFFER, skof'er: The vb. indicates the manifestation of contempt by insulting words or actions; it combines bitterness with ridicule. It is much more frequent in RV than in AV, replacing "scorn" of the latter in Ps 1 1; Prov 1 22, etc. "Scorn" refers rather to an inner emotion based on a sense of superiority; "scoff," to the outward expression of this emotion.
W. M. McPheeteks SCORPION, skor'pi-un i'^-j'^?, 'akrahh; of Arab.
D^nnpy rbTQ,
i_,Ji£., 'akrab, "scorpion"
ma'dleh 'akrahhtm, "the ascent of Akrabbim"; o-Kopirios, skorpios. Note that the Gr and Heb may be akin; cf, omitting the vowels, ^krh and skrp) : In Dt 8 15, we have, "who led thee through the great and terrible wilderness, wherein were fiery serpents [nahdsh sdrdph] and scorpions I'akrafjh]." Rehoboam (1 K 12 11.14; 2 Ch 10 11.14) says, "My father chastised you with whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions." Ezekiel is told to prophesy to the children of Israel (2 6), and "Be not afraid of them, neither be afraid of their words, though briers and thorns are with thee, and thou dost dwell among scorpions." "The ascent of Akrabbim," the north end of Wddi-ul-'Arabak, S. of the Dead Sea, is mentioned as a boundary 3 t (Nu 34 4; Josh 15 3; Jgs 1 36). Jesus says to the Seventy (Lk 10 19), "Behold, I have given you authority to tread upon serpents and scorpions," and again in Lk 11 12 He says, "Or if he shall ask an egg, will he give him a scorpion?"
SCORN, skorn: Fox Talbot connects this Eng, word with the Danish skarn, "dirt," "ordure," "mud," "mire." As distinguished from such words as "mock," "deride," "scoff," all of which refer specifically to the various ways in which scorn finds outward expression, scorn itself denotes a subjective state or reaction.
Further, this state or reaction is not simple but complex. It includes a sense of superiority, resentment, and aversion. This reaction occurs when one is confronted with a person or a proposition that by challenging certain things for itself evokes a vivid sense of one's own superiority and awakens mingled resentment, repulsion and contempt by the holiowness of its claims and its intrinsic inferiority or worse. Scorn is a hotter, fiercer emotion than disdain or contempt. It is obvious that scorn may—indeed, it not uncommonly does—arise in connection with an ungrounded, arrogant sense of self-esteem.
Note that we have here three doublets, the loaf and the stone, the fish and the serpent, and the egg and the scorpion, whereas in the passage in Mt (7 9 f) we have only the loaf and stone and the fish and serpent. EB (s.v. "Scorpion") ingeniously seeks to bring Lk into nearer agreement with Mt by omitting from Lk the second doublet, i.e. the fish and the serpent, instancing several texts as authority for the omission, and reading
The word, outside of the phrase "laugh to scorn,"
is found only in the OT, and then only 4 t (Est 3 6; AVPs44 1.3; 79 4; Hab 1 10), and it represents three different Heb words for none of which
it is a suitable rendering. The two words "thought scorn" in Est 3 6 represent but one in Heb, viz. bdzah, for which "di.sdain" would be a nearer equiv-
6t//oi', dpson, "fish," for woe, oon, "egg." In Rev 9 2-10 there' come out of the smoke of the abyss winged creatures ("locusts," ixpiSes, akrldes) like war-horses with crowns of gold, with the faces of men, hair of women, teeth of lions, breastplates of iron, and with stinging tails like scorpions. In Ecclus 26 7 it is said of an evil wife, "He that taketh hold of her is as one that graspeth a scorpion." In 1 Mace 6 51 we find mention of "pieces [aKopni^ia, skorpldia, diminutive of skorpios] to cast darts." In Plutarch skorpios is used in the same sense (Liddell and Scott, s.v. a-Kopmoi).
alent. In Hab 1 10 AV the word tr"^ "scorn" is mi^hdk, "an object of laughter," "laughing-stock." In Ps 44 13; 79 4 the Heb word is la'agh from a
root, probably meaning "to stutter," "stammer,"
for which "mocking" is a better Eng. equivalent. In AV Job 34 7; Ps 123 4, la'agh is rendered "scorning" (the rendering given in Prov 1 22 to
lagdn, a word from a totally different root and one much more nearly approximating the fundamental
In the passage cited from Dt, and probably also in the name "ascent of Akrabbim," we find references to the abundance of scorpions, esp. in the warmer parts of the country. Though there
idea of the Eng. word "scorn." In Prov 29 8 and
Isa 28 14 tefon is rendered "scornful").
As a vb. the word Is the tr given to Id'agh, "to mock"
(2 K 19 21 II Isa 37 22; Job 22 19; Neh 2 19; Ps 22
7, "all laugh to scorn"); fcate =" to scoff" (Ezk 16 31, m "Gr scoffelh," but te.Kt still "scorneth"); for the noun c'hok. "laughter" (Ezk 23 32); sahak =''to laugh," "laugh at" (Job 39 7.18; 2 Ch 30 10). with the noun s'hok. "laugh to scorn" (RV "laughing-stock." Job 12
is a Gr proverb, "Look for a scorpion under every stone," few would agree with the categorical statement of Tristram (NHB) that "every third stone is sure to conceal one." Nevertheless, campers and Scorpion, people sleeping on the ground need to exercise care in order to avoid their
4)'- luc =" to scoff" (as used in ethical and religious connections) (Job 16 20; Prov 3 34; 9 12, aU "scoff"
in RV); in Prov 19 2.8 RV, not happily, mock at. RV is warranted in substituting "scoff" for "scorn" because the context Indicates some form of outward expression of the scorn.
RV always (except Job 12 4; Sir 6 4; 1 Mace
10 70) retains "laugh to scorn" (2 K 19 21; 2 Ch 30 10; Neh 2 19; Job 22 19; Ps 22 7; Lsa 37 22; Ezk 16 31; 23 32; 2 Esd 2 21; Jth 12 12; Wisd 4 18; Sir 7 11; 13 7; 20 17; Mt 9 24; Mk 5 40; Lk 8 53). The vb. in Apoc and the NT is usually
stings, which, though often exceedingly painful for several hours, are seldom fatal.
Scorpions are not properly insects, but belong with spiders, mites and ticks to the Arachnidac. The scorpions of Pal are usually 2 or 3 in. long. The short cephalothorax bears a powerful pair of jaws, two long limbs terminating with pincers, which make the creature look like a small crayfish or lobster, and tour pairs of legs. The rest of the body consists of the abdomen, a broad part continuous with the cephalothorax, and a slender part forming the long tail which terminates with the sting. The tail is usually carried curved over the back and is used for stinging the prey into insensibility. Scorpions feed mostly on insects for which they lie in wait. The scorpion family is remarkable for having existed with very little change from the Silurian age to the present time.
KarayeKda, katageldo, but in Wisd 4 1 iKyeXdoi, ekge-
• in Sir 13 7 /cara/^tw/ctio/xai, katamokdomai; and in
Ido
2 Esd 2 21 inrideo. In addition "scorn" is retained
in Est 3 6; Job 39 7.18; 2 Esd 8 56 (contemno).
In Prov 19 28 "scorn" is changed to "mock at,'
but elsewhere invariably to "scoff."
Scorner is the tr of the participle of luQ, and
once of the participle of lagag. For "sconier|_ RV everywhere substitutes—properly— ' scoffer.
Outside of Prov (and Hos 7 5) the word is to be
It does not seem necessary to consider that the
found only in Ps 1 2. The force of the word has
Scorpions Scrip THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2704
words of Rehoboam (1 K 12 11, etc) refer to a whip that was called a scorpion, but rather that as the sting of a scorpion is worse than the lash of a whip, so his treatment would be harsher than his father's.
make unmeaning marks; tdwah means "to make a mark" from taw, "a, mark," esp. as a cross (Ezk 9 4), a signature (Job 31 35, see RV), the name of the letter P , originally made in the form of a cross
RVm has "made marks" ; but LXX has tumpanizo, "to beat as a drum," which the Vulg, Ewald, Driver and others follow ("beat upon" or "drummed on the doors of the city," which seems more probable).
Alfred Ely Day SCORPIONS, skor'pi-unz, CHASTISING WITH. See Punishments, 3, (17); Scorpion.
SCOURGE, skArj, SCOURGING, skvVjing
SCREECH, skrech, OWL. See Night-Monster.
((idcTTil, mdslix, |iao-Ti,-y6u, masUgdo; in Acts 22 25 fiao-TlJu, mastlzo, in Mk 16 15 1] Mt 27 26 4>paY6X- \6a, phnigelloo) : A Rom implement for severe bodily punishment. Horace calls it Aorri6iie./Za(7cMMm. It consisteil of a handle, to which several cords or leather thongs were affixed, which were weighted with jagged pieces of bone or metal, to make the blow more painful and effective. It is comparable, in its horrid
SCRIBES, skribz: The existence of law leads necessarily to a profession whose business is the study and knowledge of the law; at any rate, if the law is extensive and complicated. At the time of Ezra and probably for some time after, this was chiefly the business of the priests. Ezra was both
priest and scholar ("ISO, sopher). It was chiefly
in the interest of the priestly cult that the most important part of the Pent (P) was written. The priests were therefore also in the first instance the scholars and the guardians of the Law; but in the course of time this was changed. The more highly esteemed the Law became in the eyes of the people, the more its study and interpretation became a lifework by itself, and thus there developed a class of scholars who, though not priests, devoted themselves assiduously to the Law. These became known as the scribes, that is, the professional students of the Law. During the Hellenistic period, the priests, esp. those of the upper class, became tainted with the Hellenism of the age and frequently turned their attention to paganistio culture, thus neglecting the Law of their fathers more or less and arousing the scribes to opposition. Thus the scribes and not the priests were now the zealous defenders of the Law, and hence were the true teachers of the people. At the time of Christ, this distinction was complete. The scribes formed a solid profession which held undisputed sway over the thought of the people. In the NT they are usually called ypafifiaTeis, grammateis, i.e. "students of the Scriptures," "schol-
effects, only with the Russian knout. The victim was tied to a post (Acts 22 25) and the blows were applied to the back and
loins, sometimes even, in the wanton cruelty of the executioner, to the face and the bowels. In the tense position of the body, the effect can easily be imagined. So hideous was the punishment that the victim usually fainted and not rarely died under it. Eusebius draws a horribly realistic picture of the torture of scourging (HE, IV, 15). By its appUcation secrets and confessions were wrung from the victim
Roman Scourges.
(Acts 22 24). It usually preceded capital punishment (Livy xxxiii.36). It was illegal to apply the flagellum to a Rom citizen (Acts 22 25), since the Porcian and Sempronian laws, 248 and 123 BC, although these laws were not rarely broken in the provinces (Tac. Hisl. iv.27; Cic. Verr. v. 6, 62; Jos, BJ, II, xiv, 9). As among the Russians today, the number of blows was not usually fixed, the severity of the punishment depending entirely on the commanding officer. In the punishment of Jesus, we are reminded of the words of Ps 129 3. Among the Jews the punishment of flagellation was well known since the Egyp days, as the monuments abundantly testify. The word "scourge" is used in Lev 19 20, but ARV translates "punished," the original word hikkoreth expressing the idea of investigation. Dt 25 3 fixed the mode of a Jewish flogging and limits the number of blows to 40. Appareiitly the flogging was administered by a rod. The Syrians reintroduced true scourging into Jewish
ars," corresponding to the Heb D'^ISD , soph''rim = homines literati, those who make a profession of literary studies, which, in this case, of course, meant chiefly the Law. Besides this general designation, we also find the specific word vo/ukoI, nomikol, i.e. "students of the Law," "lawyers" (Mt 22 35; Lk 7 30; 10 25; 11 45.52; 14 3); and in so far as they not only know the Law but also teach it they are called TO/ioSiSdo-zcaXoi, nomodiddskaloi, "doctors of the Law" (Lk 5 17; Acts 5 34). The extraordinary honors bestowed on these scholars on the part of the people are expressed in tlieir honorary titles. Most common was the appellative "rabbi" = "my lord" (Mt 23 7 and otherwise). This word of polite address gradually became a title. The word 'rabboni" (Mk 10 51; Jn 20 16) is an extensive form, and was employed by the disciples to give e.\pression to their veneration of Christ. In the Gr NT "rabbi" is tr<i as «ipie, kurie (Mt 8 2.6.8.21.25 and otherwise), or 5i5ao-«aA6, diddfikale (Mt 8 19 and otherwise), in Lk by eTTio-Tira, epistdia (Lk 5 5; 8 24.45; 9 3.3.49; 17 13). Besides these, we find Trar^p, patfr, "father," and KaBriy^Trii, kathcgiles, "teacher" (Mt 23 9 f).
life, when Antiochus Epiphanes forced them by means of it to eat swine's flesh (2 Mace 6 30; 7 1). Later it was legalized by Jewish law and became customary (Mt 10 17; 23 34; Acts 22 19; 26 11), but the traditional limitation of the number of blows was still preserved. Says Paul in his "foolish boasting": "in stripes above measure," "of the Jews five times received I forty stripes save one," distinguishing it from the "beatings with rods," thrice repeated (2 Cor 11 23-25).
From their students the rabbis demanded honors even surpassing those bestowed on parents. "Let the honor of thy friend border on the honor of thy teacher, and the honor of thy teacher on the fear of God" i'lbholh 4 12). "The honor of thy teacher must surpass the honor bestowed on thy father; for son and father are both in duty bound to honor the teacher" (K'rilhoth 6 9). Everywhere the rabbis demanded the position of first rank (Mt 23 6f; Mk 12 38 f; Lk 11 43; 20 46). Their dress equaled that of the nobihty. They wore crroXal, stolal, "tunics," and these were the mark of the upper class.
The other OT references (Job 5 21; 9 23; Isa 10 26; 28 15.18 [dW , shot]; Jo.sh 23 13 ['d'Oti
shotet]) are figurative for "affliction." Notice the curious mixture of metaphors in the phrase "overflowing scourge" (Isa 28 15.18). Henuy E. Dosker SCRABBLE, skrab"!: Occurs only in 1 S 21 13, as the tr of niri, tdwah: "David .... feigned him-
self mad and scrabbled on the doors of the gate." "To scrabble" (modern Eng. "scrawl") is here to
2705 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Scorpions Scrip
class. Indeed, various passages of the NT which speak of the "scribes of the Pharisees" (Mk 2 16; Lk 5 30; Acts 23 9) indicate that there were also "scribes of the Sadducees."
Since the scribes were lawyers (see Laws-br), much of their time was occupied in teaching and in judicial functions, and both these activities must be pursued gratuitously. Rabbi Zadok said: "Make the knowledge of the Law neither a crown in which to glory nor a spade with which to dig." Hillel used to say: "He who employs the crown [of the Law] for external purposes shall dwindle." That the judge should not receive presents or bribes was written in the Law (Ex 23 8; Dt 16 19); hence the Mish said: "If anyone accept pay for rendering judgment, his judgment is null and void." The rabbis were therefore obliged to make their living by other means. Some undoubtedly had inherited wealth; others pursued a handicraft besides their study of the Law. Rabbi Gamaliel II emphatically advised the pursuit of a business in addition to the pursuit of the Law. It is well known that the apostle Paul kept up his handicraft even after he had become a preacher of the gospel
Under the reign and leadership of the scribes, it became the ambition of every Israelite to know more or less of the Law. The aim of education in family, school and synagogue was to make the entire people a people of the Law. Even the common laborer should know what was written in the Law; and not only know it, but also do it. His entire life should be governed according to the norm of the Law, and, on the whole, this purpose was reahzed in a high degree. Jos avers: "Even though we be robbed of our riches and our cities and our other goods, the Law remains our possession forever. And no Jew can be so far removed from the land of his fathers nor will he fear a hostile commander to such a degree that he would not fear his Law more than his commander." So loyal were the majority of the Jews toward their Law that they would gladly endure the tortures of the rack and even death for it. This frame of mind was due almost wholly to the systematic and persistent instruction of the scribes.
(Acts 18 3; 20 34; 1 Cor 4 12; 9 6; 2 Cor 11 7; 1 Thess 2 9; 2 Thess 3 8), and the same is reported of many rabbis. But in every instance the pursuit of the Law is represented as the worthier, and warning is given not to overestimate the value of the ordinary avocation. It was a saying of Hillel: "He that devotes himself to trade will not become wise." The principle of gratuity was probably carried out in practice only in connection with the judicial activity of the scribes; hardly in connection with their work as teachers. Even the Gospels, in spite of the admonition that the disciples should give without pay because they had received without pay (Mt 10 8), nevertheless also state that the workman is worthy of his hire (Mt 10
The motive underlying this enthusiasm for the Law was the behef in Divine retribution in the strictest judicial sense. The prophetic idea of a covenant which God had made with His select people was interpreted purely in the judicial sense. The covenant was a contract through which both parties were mutually bound. The people are bound to observe the Divine Law literally and conscientiously; and, in return for this, God is in duty bound to render the promised reward in proportion to the services rendered. This apphes to the people as a whole as well as to the individual. Services and reward must always stand in mutual relation to each other. He who renders great services may expect from the justice of God that he will receive great returns as his portion, while, on the other hand, every transgression also must be followed by its corresponding punishment.
10; Lk 10 7); and Paul (1 Cor 9 14) states it as his just due that he receive his livelihood from those to whom he preaches the gospel, even though he makes use of this right only in exceptional cases
(1 Cor 9 3-18; 2 Cor 11 8.9; Gal 6 6; Phil 4 10.18). Since this appears to have been the thought of the times, we are undoubtedly justified
in assuming that the Jewish teachers of the Law also demanded pay for their services. Indeed, the admonitions above referred to, not to make instruc-
The results corresponded to the motives. Just as the motives in the main were superficial, so the results were an exceedingly shallow view of religious and moral life. Religion was reduced to legal formalism. All religious and moral life was dragged down to the level of law, and this must necessarily lead to the following results: (1) The individual is governed by a norm, the application of which could have only evil results when applied in this realm. Law has the purpose of regulating the relations of men to each other according to certain standards.
tion in the Law the object of self-interest, lead to the conclusion that gratuity was not the rule; and
in Christ's philippics against the scribes and Phari-
sees He makes special mention of their greed (Mk 12 40; Lk 16 14; 20 47). Hence, _ even though they ostensibly gave instruction in the Law gratuitously, they must have practised methods by which they indirectly secured their fees.
Its object is not the individual, but only the body of society. In the law, the individual must find the proper rule for his conduct toward society as an organism. This is a matter of obligation and of government on the part of society. But rehgion
Naturally the place of chief influence for the
scribes up to the year 70 AD was Judaea. But not only there were they to be found. Wherever the
zeal for the law of the fathers was a perceptible
force, they were indispensable; hence we find them
is not a matter of government; where it is found,
also in Galilee (Lk 5 17) and in the Diaspora. In
it is a matter of freedom, of choice, and of conduct.
the Jewish epitaphs in Rome, dating from the latter days of the empire, grammaleis are frequently mentioned; and the Bab scribes of the 5th and
(2) By reducing the practice of religion to the form of law, all acts are placed on a par with each other. The motives are no longer taken into consideration, but only the deed itself. (3) From this it follows that the highest ethical attainment was the formal satisfaction of the Law, which naturally led to
6th cents, were the authors of the most monumental work of rabbinical Judaism—the Talmud.
Since the separation of the Pharisaic and the Sadducean tendencies in Judaism, the scribes
finical Uteralism. (4) Finally, moral life must, under such circumstances, lo.se its unity and be
generally belonged to the Pharisaic class; for thi3
latter is none other than the party which recog-
split up into manifold precepts and duties. Law always affords opportunity for casuistry, and it was the development of this in the guidance of the Jewish religious life through the "precepts of the elders" which called forth Christ's repeated denunciation of the work of the scribes.
nized the interpretations or "traditions" which the
scribes in the course of time had developed out of
the body of the written Law and enforced upon the
people as the binding rule of life. Smce, however,
"scribes" are merely "students of the Law," there must also have been scribes of the Sadducee type;
Frank E. Hirsch SCRIP, skrip: A word connected with "scrap," and meaning a "bag," either as made from a "scrap"
for it is not to be imagined that this party, which
recognized only the written Law as binding, should
not have had some opposing students in the other
Scripture Sea, The Great THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2706
(of skin) or as holding "scraps" (of food, etc). AV has "scrip" in 1 S 17 40 and 6 t in NT; ERV has "wallet" in the NT, but retains "scrip" in 1 S 17 40; ARV has "wallet" throughout. See Bag.
writers, and the description of them given by Herodotus in book iv of his history represents a race of savages, inhabiting a region of rather indefinite boundaries, north of the Black and Caspian seas and the Caucasus Mountains. They were nomads who neither plowed nor sowed (iv.l9), moving about in wagons and carrying their dwellings with them
SCRIPTURE, skrip'ttlr (t) -ypael)!], he grapht,
pi. at ypa4)a[, hai graphai): The word means "wTiting." In the OT it occurs in AV only once, "the scripture of truth," in Dnl 10 21, where it
(ib, 46) ; they had the most filthy habits and never washed in water (ib, 75); they drank the blood of the first enemy killed in battle, and made napkins of the scalps and drinking bowls of the skulls of the slain (ib, 64-6.5). Their deities were many of them identified with those of the Greeks, but the most characteristic rite was the worship of the naked sword (ib, 62), and they sacrificed every hundredth man taken in war to this deity. War was their chief business, and they were a terrible scourge to the nations of Western Asia. They broke through the barrier of the Caucasus in 632 BC and swept down hke a swarm of locusts upon Media and Assyria, turning the fruitful fields into a desert; pushing across Mesopotamia, they ravaged Syria and were about to invade Egypt when Psammitichus
is more correctly rendered in RV, "the writing of truth." The reference is not to Holy Scripture, but to the book in which are inscribed God's purposes. In the NT, "scripture" and "scriptures" stand regularly for the OT sacred books regarded as "inspired" (2 Tim 3 16), "the oracles of God" (Rom 3 2). Cf on this usage Mt 21 42; 22 29; Mk 12 10; Lk 4 21; 24 27.32.4.5; Jn 5 39; 10 3.5; Acts 8 32; 17 2.11; Rom 15 4; 16 26, etc; in Rom 1 2, "holy scriptures." See Bible. The expression "holy scriptures" in 2 Tim 3 15 AV represents different words {Herd grdtmnala) and is properly rendered in RV "sacred writings." In 2 Pet 3 16, the term "scriptures" is extended to the Epp. of Paul. In J as 4 5, the words occur: "Think ye that the scripture speaketh in vain? Doth the spirit which he made to dwell in us long unto envying?" The passage is probably rather a summary of Scripture teaching than intended as a direct quotation. Others (e.g. Westcott) think the word is used in a wide sense of a Christian hymn. J.-iMES Orr
I, who was besieging Ashdod, bought them off by rich gifts, but they remained in Western Asia for 28 years, according to Herodotus. It is supposed that a company of them settled in Beth-shean, and from this circumstance it received the name Scythopolis. Various branches of the race appeared at different times, among the most noted of which were the Pabthians (q.v.). H. Porter
SCRIPTURES, skrip'tarz, SEARCH THE. See Search the Scriptures.
SCYTHOPOLIS, si-thop'5-lis, si-thop'6-lis. See Beth-shean.
SCROLL, skrol. See Roll.
SEA, se {W^jyam; 9a\ao-o-a, Ihdlassa; in Acts 27
SCUM, skum (Jl^^n, hel'ah; LXX Ws, ids, "poison" or "verdigris"; cf Plato &/). 609a) : The word is only found in Ezk 24 6.11.12, where RV translates it "rust." The fact, however, that the caldron is of brass and therefore not liable to rust, and the astonishment expressed that the fire did not remove it (ver 12), would seem to point to the preferability of the tr "scum," the residue of dirt adhering to the caldron from previous use.
.5 ireXaYos, pelagos) : The Mediterranean ia called ha-yam ha-gadhol, "the great sea" (Nu 34 6; Josh 1 4; Ezk 47 10, etc); ha-yam hd-'ahdron, "the hinder," or "western sea" (Dt 11 24; 34 2; Joel 2 20; Zee 14 8); yam pHishtim, "the sea of the Philis" (Ex 23 31); AV translates yam ydpho' in Ezr 3 7 by "sea of Joppa," perhaps rightly.
The Dead Sea is called ydm ha-melah, "the Salt Sea" (Nu 34 3; Dt 3 17; Jash 3 16,' etc); haydm ha-kadhmoni, "the east sea" (Ezk 47 18; Joel 2 20; Zee 14 8); ydm hd-^drdbhdh, "the sea of the Arabah" (Dt 3 17; Josh 3 16; 12 3; 2 K 14 25). The Red Sea is called ydm siiph, lit. "sea of weeds" (Ex 10 19; Nu 14 25; Dt 1 1; Josh 2 10; Jgs 11 16; 1 K 9 26; Neh 9 9; Ps 106 7; Jer 49 21, etc); ipvBpa. Bahaaaa, eruthrd thdlassa, lit. "red sea" (Wisd 19 7; Acts 7 36; He 11 29); ydmmi<;- rayim, "the Egyp sea" (Isa 11 15). Ydm is used of the Nile in Nah 3 8 and probably also in Isa 19 5, as in modem Arab, bahr, "sea," is used of the Nile and its affluents. Ydm is often used for "west" or "westward," as "look from the place where thou art, .... westward" (Gen 13 14); "western border