Part 44
But art is not dead, and spiritual art did not die with the creation of the Madonna. Take St. Gaudens' "Puritan." Compare that with an Apollo. Again we have the contrast there is between a Madonna and a Venus. We have the physical and the aesthetic in an Apollo, but there is not a gleam of the intellectual. That Apollo thinks is not indicated, much less what he might be thinking about. There is not the faintest suggestion of the ethical. There is no intent and purpose in him. But in the Puritan there is intent and purpose. He means much. He is ethical. That determined bearing can only come from a spirit alive with the sense of right. When it comes to that, you will warrant that the Puritan carries more physical guns than the Apollo, and that if they were to clinch in a tug of wrestling Apollo would fall underneath. That ethical intent and purpose is masterly. You may look through a whole pantheon of Greek gods and meet not a trace of the force concentrated in the Puritan. He is forceful because right makes might. He is in the majority because he knows Who is with him. He is constious of power because he has subdued the kingdom within. He has won the greatest of all victories—self-control.
Sometimes it may be thought that there is a look of moral indifference about the way in which Jesus disposed of the woman's case who was taken in adultery (Jn 8 1-11); "Did no man condemn thee? And she said. No man. Lord. And Jesus said. Neither do I condemn thee; go thy way; from henceforth sin no more." But
it must first be remembered that it was not her case but that of her accusers that was immediately before the mind of Jesus. They brought her before Him to trap Him, but He turned and put them on trial. He made
C. Caverno PURLOINING, pAr-loin'ing: Lit. "for far off," hence to carry away or steal; the word is the tr of Kocr^ifo/iai, nosiphizomai, "to take away for one's
their moral condition the main issue. Hers was but an incident. But then, Jesus did not leave her without impressing on her mind that she was a sinner. The last words left ringing in her ears were, "Sin no more." And she was left, as all in sin are left, to wrestle out adjustment with the Holy Spirit who leaves no soul without conviction of "sin, righteousness and judgment." The words of Jesus no more than the words of anyone else can explain all things at once. They can cover a point
self," "to secrete," "to steal," a word appropriate to those in the position of slaves in a master's service (Tit 2 10, "not purloining")
in view but much must always be left to the understanding that comes from known experience imder the moral government of God.
PURPLE, pAr'p'l (IBanS, 'argamdn; Chald
The subsequent psychology of a sinner after the words
inanS, 'arg'wan [2 Ch 2 7]; cf Arab, jjl^vl ,
of Scripture leave him is of deepest interest. Psychological action he must have had; what is it? The question arises. Had the prodigal son completed his repentance till he had asked the forgiveness of his mother and his elder brother? What is the subsequent psychology of a sinner as he disappears from our view 7 We can interpret here by what we know to be the operations
'urjuwdn, and Pers ijlji)! , 'arghawdn; irop<|>vipa,
porphura, irop<t>upeos, porphureos [LXX and NT] )
Purple dye was manufactured by the Phoenicians from a marine mollusk. Murex trunculus. The shell was broken in order to give access to a small gland which was removed and crushed. The crushed gland gives a milky fiuid that becomes red or purple on exposure to the air. Piles of these broken shells still remain on the coast at Sidon and Tyre. The purple gland is found in various species of Murex and also of Purpura.
of the Holy Spirit in the soul; just as we know a material object that disappears from view is still under the law
of gravitation. Few who have thought on this subject have expressed the truth so well as Wliittier in "Our Master," or in "John Underhill" in these words:
"And men took note of his gloomy air
The shame in his eye, the halt in his prayer. The signs of a battle lost within. The pain of a soul in the coils of sin.
Purple cloth was used in the furnishings of the tabernacle (Ex 26 4, etc) and of Solomon s temple
Purpose of God Python THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2510
(2 Ch 2 14; 3 14); in the palanquin of Solomon (Cant 3 10) ; and in the hangings of the palace of Ahasuerus (Est 1 6). The kings of Midian had purple raiment (Jgs 8 26); the worthy woman of Prov 31 22 has clothing of fine hnen and purple. Mordeoai was clothed with purple by Ahasuerus
Egypt. They appear as shield-bearers (Jer 46 9: "Cush and Put, that handle the shield; and the Ludim, that handle and bend the
3. As Nabow"). See also Ezk 30 5, where the
tionality order in the Heb is Cush, Put and Lud. In Nah 3 9 Put is the helper
of No-amon (Thebes in Egypt), and in Ezk 27 10 Put appears with Persia and Lydia (Lud) as being
in the army of Tyre.
The common identification of Put is the Egyp Puni (or Pwent) proposed by Ebers. The assimilation of n to a following consonant
i. Identiis common in the Sem languages, and fied with would occasion no difficulty if the Punt vocalization be found to agree. The
final t of Punt, however, seems to be the Egyp fem. ending, whereas the t of Put is radical.
Nevertheless, the district would seem to be rightly identified with the tract to the E. of Abyssinia (Somaliland), and as it is described
5. Somalias being on both sides of the sea (the land and Red Sea), Yemen would seem to be Yemen included. In connection with this,
it is worthy of note that a fragment of a Bab tablet referring to Nebuchadrezzar's campaign in Egjrpt in his 37th year mentions, as though in the neighborhood, the city (here, apparently, standing for the district) of Putu-yaman—probably not "Ionian [Gr] Put" (Lesbos, according to Winck-
Shells of Murex trunculus (the Broken Ones from a
Large Shell Heap at Sidon).
(Est 8 15); Jesus by the Rom soldiers (Mk 15 17.20; Jn 19 2.5). The rich man of Lk 16 19 and the scarlet woman of Rev 18 12.16 were arrayed in purple. In Cant 7 5 the bride has hair like purple. Purple is in the merchandise of Babylon (Rev 18 12). It is surprising that Ezekiel speaks of the Tyrians as obtaining purple from the isles of Elishah (Ezk 27 7) and from Syria (Ezk 27 16). See Colors; Dye, Dyeing.
ler), but "Put of Yemen." If this be in contradistinction to the district of Put (Punt) on the African mainland, the latter would be the Pulu referred to in the Pers inscription of Naqsh-iRustem, which mentions, among the tributarycountries, Kushiya, Putiya and Masiya, in Babylonian {mat) Pida, [{mat) K\usu, (mdt) Massui"!), "the land Put, the land Kush (Ethiopia), the land Mass(l(?)." The soldiers of Put in the army of Tyre may have been either from the African or the Yemenite Put, in which case there was no northern tract of that name, unless settlements had been made at any time from the original district. See W. Max MtlUer, Asien und Europa, Leipzig, 1893, 106 ff. T. G. Pinches
Alfred Ely' Day PURPOSE, ptlr'pus, OF GOD (-TrpoBeo-is, proihesis [Rom 9 11; Eph 1 11]): The word "purpose" seems to be an equivalent of the word "decree" as used in regard to man's relation to eternity. More correctly stated, it softens the word "decree" and refers back to the cause of the decree as lodged in an intelligent design and forward to an aim consistent with the character of God. See Foeeohdination; Predestination.
PUTEOLI, pa-te'6-li (UoTioXoi, Poiloloi, "sulphur springs" [Acts 28 13, WH], the modern Pozzuoli): A maritime city of Campania, which occupied a central position on the northern shore of a recess in the Gulf of Naples, protected on the W. by the peninsula of Baiae and Cape Misenum. It was originally a colony of the neighboring Gr city Cumae.
PURSE, purs. See Bag.
PURSLAIN, purs'lan, JUICE, joos, jC Juice.
See
PURTENANCE, pur'te-nans: With the significance of "belongings," this word occurs in AV of Ex 12 9 as the tr of anf3 , Jcerebh, "within," "inward," "roast .... with the purtenance thereof," RV "inwards" (cf Lev 19; 3 3, etc).
The earliest event in the history of Puteoli which can be dated definitely was the repulse of Hannibal before its walls by a Rom garrison in 214 BC. The design of the Carthaginian to secure a seaport as base of supplies and communication was thus thwarted (Livy xxiv.7, 12, 13). A Rom colony was established here in 194 BC, and Puteoli thus became the first Rom port on the Gulf of Naples
PUT, put CJ'S , pfd: -i>oiS, PJwud, in Gen and Ch, variant for Gen <i>o\iT, Phout, for Ch, ^ov6, Phouth)
In consequence of the identification
(Livy x.xxiv.45; Strabo v.245; Velleius, i.l5). Its subsequent remarkable prosperity and commercial activity are to be attributed to the safety of the harbor and the inhospitable character of the coast nearer Rome. For Puteoh became the chief seaport of the capital before the creation of an artificial harbor at Portus Augusti by Claudius, and before Trajan made the mouth of the Tiber the principal converging point for the over-sea carrying trade. The imports at Puteoli consisted mainly of Egyp grain and oriental wares, dispatched from Alexandria and other cities of the Levant (Cicero Pro Rabirio 40; Suetonius Aug. 98; Strabo xvii. 793; Cicero Pro Caelio 10). The eastern element in the population was very numerous (Petronius 81
1. Renderat the time, the prophets have "Libya" ings (A(/3ues, Libues), except Nah 3 9, where the Gr renders the word as ipvyifi, phuge, "flight." The Vulg has "Phut," "Phuth," and in the Prophets "Libyes" and "Libya"; AV "Phut."
In the "Table of Nations" Put is the third son of Ham (Gen 10 6), the first and second being Cush and Misraim, and the fourth 2. Son of Canaan. Put is the only one of the Ham sons of Ham who is not credited with descendants. In the Prophets, warriors from Put are referred
to, principally in connection with the forces of
25n THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Purpose of God Python
CIL, X, 1797). The harbor was rendered doubly safe by a mole, which is known to have been at least 418 yds. in length, consisting of massive piers connected by means of arches constructed in soUd masonry (Strabo v.245). Extensive remains of this mole still exist. The shore hne devoted to purposes of commerce {emporium) extended for a distance of about Ij miles westward from the mole. At the height of its prosperity under Claudius and Nero, the town is thought to have contained a population of nearly 100,000.
ing to BZ)B,Hommel,iSd?<<7e«7t!ere, derives 'ili5"'1 from
TDT^, dusk, Arab. iwjIj) , d&s, "to tread," and
cf Assyr dashshu, "mountain-goat"): Dishon as the name of an animal occurs only in Dt 14 5 in the list of clean beasts. Both AV and RV have "pygarg," which is not the recognized name of any animal whatever. The LXX pugargos (from
TTvyi), pugt, "rump," and apyb^, argos, "white") was used by Herodotus (iv.l92) as the name of an antelope. A white rump is a very common feature of deer and antelopes, and is commonly explained as enabling the fleeing herd easily to keep in sight of its leaders. It has been used as a specific name of Cervus pygargus, the Tartarian roe, and Buhalis pygargus, a small South African antelopeThe Arabic Bible has ri^m, "a white gazelle," a kindred word to r''em, AV "unicorn," RV "wild-ox." Tristram, NHB, considers dishon to be the addax, Antilope addax or Addax nasomaculatus. There
The region in which the town was situated is of volcanic formation, the name Puteoli being due to the odor of the sulphureous springs or to the wells of a volcanic nature which abound in the vicinity. The volcanic dust, called pozzolana today, was mixed with lime to form a cement of the greatest durability, which was proof against the influence of seawater.
Extensive remains of an amphitheater, whose axes measure 160 and 126 yds. across the space inclosed by the outer fagade and 75 and 45 yds. within the arena, bear testimony to the fornaer affluence of Puteoli.
is excellent reason, however, for believing that the range of this African antelope does not extend into
Pal, Sinai or Arabia. For a discussion of the animal names in Dt 14 4.5, see Zoology. Alfred Ely Day PYRAMID, pir'a-mid (irDpa(j.ts, puramis): Pyramids are mentioned in connection with the splendid monument reared by Simon Maccabaeus in memory of his parents and brethren at Modin (1 Mace 13 28; of Ant, XIII, vi, 6). Jos describes them as "very surprising, both for their largeness and beauty." There is nothing to show how the pyramid aUotted to each was distinguished, whether by difference in size or by inscriptions. It is remarkable that in Scripture there is no allusion to the giant structures in Egypt; but these may have supphed the suggestion to Simon's mind.
The region about Puteoli together with Baiae became the favorite resort of the Rom nobility, and the foundations of many ancient villas are still
visible, although partly covered by the sea. Cicero's villa in the territorj' of Puteoli (Cicero Ad Fam. v.15, 2; Ad Alt. xiv.l6, 1; 20, 1) was afterward selected as the place of burial of Hadrian (Spartianus Had. 25). The portion of the bay between Puteoli and Baiae was the scene of the attempt made at the instigation of Nero upon the life of his mother by means of a vessel so contrived that it was to break to pieces while conveying Agrippina toward her villa near the Lucrine Lake (Tacitus Annals xiv.8). See Nero. The apostle Paul found a Christian community at Puteoli, when he arrived there on his way to Rome, and stopped 7 days with them (Acts 28 13.
W. EwiNG PYRRHUS, pir'us (Ilijppos, Purros, "fiery-red"): The name is inserted in the text of RV in Acts 20 4 as that of the father of Sopateb (q.v.).
14). At that time the ordinary route to Rome, following the Via Appia from Capua, was 155 Rom, or about 142| Eng., miles (Nissen, Italische Landeskunde, II, 739). Later, Domitian reduced the di.stance to 139 Rom miles (about 129 Eng.) by layirig out the Via Domitia along the coast, joining the Via Appia at Sinuessa {Geog. Raven., IV, 32; Itin. Ant., 122; Tab. Pent.). George H. Allen
PYTHON, pi'thon: Occurs only in Acts 16 16, where RV reads, "a certain maid having a spirit of divination [m "a spirit, a Python"] met us." mdap, Puthon, or livSdi, Putho, is the oldest name of Delphi (or the country about Delphi), in which was situated the famous Delphic Oracle. Consequently "Pythian spirit" came to be the generic
title of the supposed source of inspiration of di-
viners, including the slave-girl of the account in Acts. Exactly what facts underlie the narrative
PUTHITES, pu'thlts C^n^S , puthl, "simple"; AV
Puhites) : One of the families of Kiriath-jearim, grandchildren of Caleb (1 Ch 2 50.53).
it is rather hard to say, but it is evident that the
girl was sincere in her conviction that she spoke with Pythian inspiration. Probably she represents some hysterical type, of none too strong mentality, whose confused utterances were taken as coming from some supernatural power. Impressed by St. Paul's personality, she followed him about, and, when his command came, was in a state of mind that had prepared her to obey it. The narrative, incidentally, gives an interesting sidelight on a society in which a girl with hysteria had a greater commercial value than she had after her cure. See Divination. Burton Scott Easton
, piitl'el, "contemned by El") : Father of the wife of Eleazar, Aaron's son, and thus grandfather of Phinehas, Eleazar's son (Ex 6 25). See Phinehas, (3).
PUTIEL, pu'ti-el (bX"itD1S
PUVAH, pu'va. See Puah.
PYGARG, pi'garg i'\T^''l, dishon; LXX irv-yap-
•yo9, pugargos; cf proper nouns, "Di.shon" and "Dishan" [Gen 36 21-30; 1 Ch 1 38-42]; accord-
Qoph Queen Mother THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2512
QOPH, kof (p, k). See Koph.
an effort that when forced to cross a large body of water they always waited until the wind blew in the direction of their course, lest they tire and fall. Their average was about 16 birds to each nest. If half a brood escaped, they yet multiplied in such numbers as easily to form clouds in migration. Phny writes of their coming into Italy in such numbers, and so exhausted with their long flight, that if they sighted a sailing vessel they settled upon it by hundreds and in such numbers as to sink
QUAIL, kwal ("Ijl?, s'law; opTu-yo(i^Tpa, ortugomilra; Lat Cotumix vulgaris): A game bird of the family Cotumix, closely related to "partridges" (q.v.). Quail and partridges are near relatives, the partridge a Uttle larger and of brighter color. Quail are hke the gray, brown and tan of earth. Their plumage is cut and penciled by markings, and their flesh juicy and delicate food. Their habits are very similar. They nest on the ground and brood on from 12 to 20 eggs. The quail are more friendly
it. Taking into consideration the diminutive vessels of that age and the myriads of birds, this does not appear incredible. Now compare these facts with the text. Israelites were encamped on the Sinai Peninsula. The birds were in migration. The quail followed the Red Sea until they reached the point of the peninsula where they selected the narrowest place, and when the wind was with them they crossed the water. Not far from the shore arose the smoke from the campfires of the Israehtes. This bewildered them, and, weary from their journey, they began to settle in confused thousands over and around the camp. Then the Israehtes arose and, with the ever-ready "throw sticks," killed a certain number for every soul of the camp and spread the bodies on the sand to dry, just as Herodotus (ii.77) records that the Egyptians always had done (see Rawlinson, Herod, II, for an illustration of catching and drying quail). Nature and natural history can account for this incident, with no need to call in the miraculous.
Gene Stkatton-Poetek QUARREL, kwor'el: Originally (1) "a complaint" (cf "querulous"), or (2) "a cause of complamt," and so (3) "a contention." (1) In AV Mk 6 19 (RV "set herself"; the coUoquial "had It in for him" is an exact tr) and Col 3 13 (mom*^, mompht, "complaint"; so RV). (2) In 2 K 5 7 (riDS, 'anah, "be opportune," RVm "an occasion").
Quail.
birds and Uve in the open, brooding along roads and around fields. They have a longer, fuller wing than the partridge and can make stronger flight. In Pal they were migratory. They are first mentioned in Ex 16 13: "And it came to pass at even, that the quails came up, and covered the camp and in the morning the dew lay round about the camp." This describes a large flock in migration, so that they passed as a cloud. Nu 11 31-33: "And there went forth a wind from Jeh, and brought quails from the sea, and let them fall by the camp, about a day'.s journey on this side, and a day's journey on the other side, round about the camp, and about two cubits above the face of the earth. And the people rose up all that day, and all the night, and all the next day, and gathered the quails: he that gathered least gathered ten homers: and they spread them all abroad for themselves round about the camp"; cf Ps 78 26-30: "He caused the east wind to blow in the heavensAnd by his power he guided the south wind He rained flesh also upon them as the dust And winged birds as the sand o( the seas: And he let it fall in the midst of their camp Round about their habitations. So they did eat, and were well flUed; And he gave them their own desire." Again the birds are mentioned in migration. Those that fell around the camp and the bread that was sent from heaven are described in Ps 105 39-42. Commentators have had trouble with the above references. They cause the natural historian none —they are so in keeping with the location and the laws of Nature. First the Heb s'law means "to be fat." That would be precisely the condition of the quail after a winter of feeding in the S. The time was early spring, our April, and the quail were flocking from Africa and spreading in clouds—even to Europe. They were birds of earth, heavy feeders and of plump, full body. Migration was such
(3) In AV Lev 26 25 (loose tr of DJ33, mkam, "vengeance"; so RV). Cf Sir 31 29"aV (RV "conflict") and Prov 20 3 RV (AV "meddling").
QUARRIES, kwor'iz (Dib-ipS, p<:filim [Jgs 3
19.26, "graven images"], D"!"!!?}, sh'bharmi [Josh 7 5, "Shebarim," RVm "the quarries"])
P'sillm is elsewhere tr-i "graven images" (Dt 7 5; Ps 78 58; Isa 10 10; Mic 5 13, etc) and is a pi. form of pesel, " graven image " (Ex 20 4, etc), from pdsal, "to carve." It occurs in the story of Ehud and Eglon and refers to images or hewn stones in the vicinity of Gilgal. Sh'bharim is pi. of shebher, "breach," "fracture " more often "destruction" (e.g. Prov 16 18), from shabhar. "to break." The form sh'bharim is also found in Job 41 2.5, "consternation," AV "breakings." In Josh 7 5 Shebarim is the point to which the Israelites were chased after their first attack upon Ai. See Shebarim. Quarries in Pal are not usually very deep because there is plenty of good stone to be found at the surface. The quarryman seeks a thick stratum of firm hmestone which has a favorable exposure. The vertical joint-planes divide the stratum into large blocks which the quarryman dislodges with the aid of crowbars. These great blocks he skilfully cleaves by inserting several wedges in a line in holes made by a pick, and driving the wedges in with a heavy hammer. In these days gunpowder is occasionally used, esp. when there are not favorable joint-planes producing blocks capable of being moved by the crowbar.
Another method, which is employed where stones of great size are wanted, is to carve the stones out of the rook by cutting channels around them with
2513 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Qoph Queen Mother
the pick. In the limestone quarries of Ba'albek and the granite quarries of A^wdn at the first cataract of the Nile, enormous stones may be seen which were abandoned while in process of being removed by this method. The channels are wide enough to admit the body of the workman, and the marks of the picks on the sides of the channels are plainly visible. Alfred Ely Day
in his cell between two soldiers, "bound with two chains," his left hand chained to one and his right to the other. The other two soldiers of the quaternion mounted guard before the door, and are spoken of as "the first and the second guard" (ver 10) whom St. Peter and his angel guide had to pass on the way to liberty. The Gr word thus rendered
is not found in LXX or anywhere else in the NT.
T. NicoL QUEEN, kwen: The Bible applies this term:
QUARTER, kwor'ter: Lit., of course, "the fourth part," and so of the four "ends" (n2J3, kacah) in Jer 49 36, and AV of the four "corner's"' (so RV, yuuia, gonia) in Rev 20 8. Hence, "any part" and in this sense used freely for various words by AV. RV has usually dropped "quarter," but unfortunately has retained it in Nu 34 3; Josh IB 5;
(1) To the wife of a king ("queen consort") (HSb'O, malkah). In the Book of Est it is the title given to Vashti (1 9) and Esther (2 22) ; cf Cant 6 8 f
Another Heb word for queen consort is n'1'^33,
g'hhirah, lit. "mistress" (cf 1 K 11 19, the wife of Pharaoh; 2 K 10 13, "the children of the king and
Stone in Quarries at Ba'albek.
the children of the queen"). In Neh 2 6 and Ps 45 9 we find the expression bSTlJ , sheghal, which some
18 14.15, and introduced it in Josh 18 12.14.20
for nXS, pgah, usually rendered "side." The
result is very obscure. Elsewhere in RV only in the phrase "from every quarter" (Gen 19 4; Isa 56 11; Mk 1 45). Cf Border; Coast.
trace back to '?1^, shdghal, "to ravish," a rather doubtful derivation. Still another term is n'I'C, sardh, lit. "princess" (Isa 49 23). The LXX sometimes uses the word fSaa-iXicra-a, basllissa; cf Ps 45
QUARTUS, kw6r'tu3 (Kovapros, Kouarlos): A Christian in Corinth who with "Erastus the treas-
9. (2) To a female ruler or sovereign ("queen regnant"). The only instances are those of the queen (malkah) of Sheba (1 K 10 1-13; cf 2 Ch 9 1-12) and of Candace, the queen (basilissa) of the Ethiopians (Acts 8 27). In Mt 12 42 (cf Lk 11 31) Christ refers to the queen of the south (^atrfXio-o-a p&rov, basllissa ndtou) , meaning, of course, the queen of Sheba. (3) To a heathen deity, "^IQlBn £lDbl3, m'lekheih ha-shamayim, "the queen' of heaven"' (Jer 7 18; 44 17 ff). See Queen of Heaven.
urer of the city" sent greetings to the Christian community in Rome (Rom 16 23). He is known
to Paul only as a Christian, "the brother."
QUATERNION, kwa-tflr'ni-un (TerpaSiov, tetrd-
dion): The name given to a company of four
soldiers of Herod's army (Acts 12 4). To four such companies St. Peter had been handed over, who would take their turn of acting as guard over
the prisoner, each of the four watches of the night
according to Rom reckoning, which Herod Agrippa I would follow. In the castle of Antonia St. Peter was thus closely secured, in order that Herod, who had already killed James, the brother of John, with
(4) Metaphorically, to the city of Babylon (Rome) (Rev 18 7) : an expression denoting sovereign contempt and imaginary dignity and power. William Baur
the sword (12 2), might, after the solemnities of the
QUEEN MOTHER (m/3H, g'bhirah, lit. "mis-
Passover, make sure of his death likewise. On the
tress," then a female ruler, and sometimes simply
night before his intended execution he was sleeping
Queen of Heaven Quotations, NT THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDL'l 2514
the wife of a king ["queen," 1 K 11 19]; in DnI
Occurs only in two passages: Jer 7 IS; 44 17-
19.25, where the prophet denounces the wrath
5 10 the term XHpb'a, malk'lha', "queen," really means the mother of the king) : It stands to reason that among a people whose rulers are polygamists the mother of the new king or chief at once becomes a person of great consequence. The records of the Books of K prove it. The g'bhirah, or queen mother, occupied a position of high social and political importance; she took rank almost with the king. When Bath-sheba, the mother of Solomon, desired "to speak unto him for Adonijah," her son "rose up to meet her, and bowed himself unto her, and sat down on his throne, and caused a throne to be set for the king's mother; and she sat on his right hand" (1 K 2 19). And again, in 2 K 24 15, it is expressly stated that Nebuchadnezzar carried away the king's mother into captivity; Jeremiah calls her g'bhirdh (29 2). The king was Jehoiachin (Jeconiah, Jer 29 2), and his mother's name was Nehushta
of God upon the inhabitants of Judah and Jerus who have given themselves up to the worship
of the host of heaven. This is no doubt a part of the astral worship which is found largely developed among the Jews in the later period of their history
in Canaan. It is first mentioned in 2 K 17 16 aa practised by the men of the Northern Kingdom when Samaria had fallen and the ten tribes were being carried away into captivity. Moses is represented as warning the Israelites against the worship of the sun and moon and stars and all the host
of heaven, practised by the people of Canaan (Dt 4 19; 17 3), and the existence of such worship among the Canaanites and neighboring nations is attested from an early period (cf Job 31 26-28). The worship of the heavenly bodies was widely spread in the East and in Arabia; and the Bab pantheon was full of astral deities, where each divinity corresponded either to an astral phenomenon or to some circumstance or occurrence in Nature which is connected with the course of the
(2 K 24 8). This was the royal pair whose impending doom the prophet was told to forecast (Jer 13 18). Here again the queen mother is mentioned with the king, thus emphasizing her exalted position. Now we understand why Asa removed Maacah his (grand?) mother from being queen (queen mother), as we are told in 1 K 15 13 (cf 2 Ch 15
stars (Jeremias, The OT in the Light of the Ancient
East, I, 100). From the prophets we gather that before the exile the worship of the host of heaven had become established among all classes and in all the towns of Israel (Jer ubi supra; Ezk 8 16). In that worship the queen of heaven had a conspicuous place; and if, as seems probable from the cakes which were offered, she is to be identified with the Assyr Ishtar and the Canaanite Astarte, the worship itself was of a grossly immoral and debasing character. That this Ishtar cult was of great antiquity and widely spread in ancient Babylonia may be seen from the symbols of it found in recent excavations (see Nippur, II, 236). How far the astral theorists like Winckler and Jeremias are entitled to link up with this worship the mourning for Josiah, the lamentations over Tammuz, the story of Jephthah's daughter, and even the narrative of the misfortunes and the exaltation of Joseph, is questionable. But that the people of Judah in the daj's before the exile had given themselves over to the worst and vilest forms of heathen worship and incurred the grievous displeasure of Jeh is made clear by the denunciation of the worship of the queen of heaven by Jeremiah. T. NicOL
16). She had used her powerful influence to further the cause of idolatry. In this connection Athaliah's coup d'etat may be briefly mentioned. After the violent death of her son Ahaziah (2 K 9 27), she usurped the royal power and reigned for some time in her own name (2 K 11 3; cf 2 Ch 22 12) . This was, of course, a revolutionary undertaking, being a radical departure from the usual traditions.
And finally, the political importance of the g'- hhlrah is illustrated by the fact that in the Books of K, with two exceptions, the names of the Jewish kings are recorded together with those of their respective mothers; they are as follows: Naamah, the Ammonitess, the mother of Rehoboam (1 K 14 21; cf ver 31, and 2 Ch 12 13); Maacah, the daughter of Abishalom (1 K 15 2) or Absalom
(2 Ch 11 20), the mother of Abijah; Maacah, the daughter of Abishalom, the mother (grandmother?) of Asa (1 K 15 10; cf 2 Ch 15 16); Azubah, the daughter of Shilhi, the mother of Jchoshaphat
(1 K 22 42; cf 2 Ch 20 31); Athaliah, the granddaughter of Omri, the mother of Ahaziah (2 K 8 26; cf 2 Ch 22 2); Zibiah of Beersheba, the mother of Jehoash (2 K 12 1; cf 2 Ch 24 1); Jehoaddin (Jehoaddan, 2 Ch 25 1) of Jerus, the mother of Amaziah (2 K 14 2) ; Jecoliah (Jechi-
QUEEN OF SHEBA, she'ba (1 K 10 1-13; 2 Ch 9 1-12, called in Mt 12 42; Lk 11 31, "the queen of the south" [pao-tXto-cra votov, basilissa
?i6tou]) : The two OT accounts of the coming of the queen of Sheba (see Sheba) to Solomon differ slightly from one
liah, 2 Ch 26 3) of Jerus, the mother of Azariah
(2 K 15 2) or Uzziah (2 K 15 13.30, etc; cf 2 Ch 26 3); Jerusha (Jerushah, 2 Ch 27 1), ^the daughter of Zadok", the mother of Jotham (2 K 15
another, and, of the two, that in 1 K is the
1 OT older. (1) The words "concerning the / . name of Jeh" (1 K 10 1) are wanting Accounts in 2 Ch; while LXX in 1 K has "and the name of Jeh," apparently a correction of the MT. (2) For 1 K 10 9, "because Jeh loved Israel for ever," 2 Ch 9 8 has "because thy God loved Israel, to establish them for ever " ; LXX in 1 K has "because Jeh loved Israel, to establish it for ever." (3) In the last verse of each account, we find another dilTerenee: 2 Ch 9 12 says that .Solomon gave to the queen all her desire, "besides that wliich she had brought unto the king."
33); Abi (Abijah, 2 Ch 29 1), the daughter of Zechariah, the mother of Hezekiah (2 K 18 2); Hephzibah, the mother of Manasseh (2 K 21 1); MeshuUemeth, the daughter of Haruz of Jotbah, the mother of Anion (2 K 21 19); Jedidah, the daughter of Adaiah of Bozkath, the mother of Josiah (2 K 22 1); Hamutal, the daughter of Jeremiah of Libnah, the mother of Jehoahaz (2 K 23 31); Zebidah, the daughter of Pedaiah of Rumah, the mother of Jehoiakim (2 K 23 36); Nehushta, the daughter of Elnathan of Jerus, the mother of Jehoiachin (2 K 24 8); Hamutal (Hamital), the daughter of Jeremiah of Libnah, the mother of Zedekiah (2 K 24 18). The exceptions are Jehoram and Ahaz. William Baur
i.e. according to some, besides the equivalent of what she had brought to him; 1 K 10 13 m has " besides that which he gave her according to the hand of king Solomon," i.e. besides gifts commensurate with his own wealth and power {SBOT), or besides gifts which he gave her qud king.
The narrative tells of the queen of Sheba, on hearing of Solomon's great wisdom, coming to test him with perplexing questions or 2. The riddles (cf Jgs 14 12). She brought Narrative presents to the king, and interviewed him: "And when the queen of Sheba had seen all the wisdom of Solomon, and the house that he had built" (i.e. the palace, not the temple) as
QUEEN OF HEAVEN (C^'ClSn Tsb}? , m'lckheth ha-shdmayim, although there is another reading, riDSbp, m'le'kheth, "worship" or "goddess"):
2515 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Queen of Heaven Quotations, NT
well as its arrangements, "and his burnt-offering which he offered in the house of Jeh [so read and translate with RVm in 1 K 10 5, and also in 2 Ch 9 4]; there was no more spirit in her": the half of Solomon's wisdom had not been told her. "Happy," she said to him, "are thy wives [so read with LXX, Syr and Old Lat VSS], happy are these thy servants." She then exchanged gifts with him and returned to her own land.
life, and this idea was in 1611 adequately given by the word "quick," although this sense of the word has long been somewhat obscured. As the tr of rWh (Isa 11 3) "quick" as found in AV signified "acute." In this passage RV substitutes "delight" for "quick understanding." In Lev 13 10.24 RV retains the rendering "quick," although originally the word mihyah must in some way have involved the conception of life, which no longer belongs to the Eng. word "quick." It is not clear exactly in what sense the flesh in the sore or scar was thought of as living, esp. as it was plainly regarded as in an unhealthy condition. Possibly the condition under consideration resembled what is sometimes idiomatically styled in Eng. "proud flesh," and was thought of as a peculiar manifestation of life.
The narrative is a complement of that in 1 K 3 16-28, where the king's justice is exemplified; here his wisdom.
The narrative is referred to by Jesus in Mt 12 42; Lk 11 31, where He refuses to accede to the
request of the scribes and Pharisees 3. Emfor a sign from Him. He tells them ployed by that no sign will be given them exJesus cept that of Jonah, whose sign was his preaching, one that proved sufficient to the Ninevites; and 'behold something greater than Jonah is here.' The men of Nineveh will be a living condemnation of them "in the judgment"
To quicken also means a reviving, a refreshing, an increasing of life (Ps 71 20; 85 6; 119 37.40. 88; Isa 57 10). It often has reference to the resurrection from the dead (1 Cor 15 36) and is so used in many places in AV. Where it refers to the giving of spiritual life ARV has changed it in every case (Eph 2 1.5; Col 2 13; cf Jn 6 21). David Foster Estes QUICKSANDS, kwik'sandz. See Syrtis.
(cf Lk 16 31); and so will the "queen of the south" who came from the ends of the earth after hearing of Solomon's wisdom, 'and behold something greater than Solomon is here.' The only sign to be given is that of the wisdom of Jesus, a wisdom far greater than that of Solomon (see D. Smith, Days of His Flesh, 176 S).
QUIET, kwi'et: Vb. or adj. only in EV, "quietness" being used for the noun. No special Heb or Gr words are represented, but in the OT usually
for some form or derivative of t3|5T|J , shdkat, "be undisturbed" (Jgs 18 7; cf Prov 1 33, "INTIJ,
Eastern lit. has mucli to say about thie queen ol Sheba. The Arabs called her Bilkis. Abyssinian legend declares that she came from Ethiopia, her 4. Eastern name being Makeda, and that she had a t:j.«.„4. son by Solomon. See Delitzsch, Jris, 116l,Xterature 27; ZDMG. X, 19f; J Pr T. VI, 524 ff (1880). Gressraann (in Schri/ten des AT, II , 1 , 20.3) has further references to Wilhelm Hertz , Gesammelte Abhandlunqen. 190.5, 41.3 fl; Bezold, Kebra Naganl. 190.5, and also ZDMG. 60, 666 ff. For the Mohammedan story, see Koran xxvii, with notes in Sale's tr.
sha'ar, "to loll," "be at ease"; Eccl 9 17, VXTi,
nakath, "quiet," "be set on"). For "them that are quiet in the land" in Ps 35 20, see Meek; Poor. For "quiet prince" in Jer 51 59, RV substitutes "chief chamberlain," m "quartermaster." "Jacob was a quiet [DP , tdm, "gentle"] man" (Gen 26 27, AV "plain"), 'in the NT, it is the tr of wvxd^a, hesuchdzo, "to refrain from gossip or meddlesomeness": "that ye study to be quiet" (1 Thess 4 11), and of i^iri/x'os. hesuchios, "gentle": "a meek and quiet spirit" (1 Pet 3 4; cf 1 Tim 2 2). M. O. Evans QUINTUS MEMMIUS, kwin'tus mem'i-us. See Memmius, Quintus.
David Francis Roberts QUENCH, kwench, kwensh: Where the word is used of fire or of thirst it has the usual meaning: "to allay," "to extinguish," "to suppress," "to cool." In the OT it is frequently applied to the affections and passions (see 2 K 22 17; Cant 8 7; Isa 42 3; Jer 4 4; 21 12). Quenching the coal or the lighl; of Israel may mean slaying a dear one or a brilliant leader. In the NT it is also used figuratively, as in Eph 6 16 the shield of faith quenches the fiery darts of the evil one. In Mk 9 48, (rpiwvui^ sbennumi, and its derivative are applied with reference to Gehenna (tr'^ "hell"). The same word is also used of resisting the gifts of the Holy Spirit
QUIRINIUS, kwi-rin'i-us. See Chronology op THE NT, I, 1, (2); Luke, Gospel of, 5.
QUIT, kwit: Same derivation as "quiet," so that "to be quit" (Ex 21 19.28; Josh 2 20 AV) is "to be relieved of responsibility," np25, nakah, "^p!
in 1 Thess 5 19. G. H. Gerberding
naki, "guiltless" (so RV Josh 2 20). Hence "to quit one's self" means "to be freed by discharging a duty." The phrase in EV, however, is a gloss, for in 1 S 4 9 it is used for iT^n , haydh, "to be," while in 1 Cor 16 13 dpSpi^o/xat, andrizomai, means "to behave like a man."
QUESTION, kwes'chun: The noun for in'n,
dabhar, "word," in 1 K 10 3 |1 2 Ch 9 2, with "hard question" for HT^n, hidhah, "dark saying,"
"riddle," in 1 K 10 1 II 2 Ch 9 1. In the NT for
^fjT-qixa, zetema, the synonym fi7T7)o-is, zetesis (and
1 Tim 1 4, iK^TjTTitTis, ekzitesis), being rendered "questionings" by RV (AV does not distinguish). In Mk 11 29 for Xiyos, liigos, "word" (so RVm). The vb. in the sense "ask a question" in 2 Ch 31 9
QUIVER, kwiv'er (HStpN , 'ashvdh, ^bp , iHl;
<t>ap^Tpa, pharelra [Sir 26 12]) : A case or sheath for carrying arrows, a part of the ordinary equipment of the warrior, both foot-soldier and charioteer (Job 39 23; Isa 22 6), and also of the huntsman (Gen 27 3). Figuratively of a group in passages where children (Ps 127 5) or prophets of Jeh (Isa 49 2) are spoken of as arrows. Arrows are called b'ne 'ashpdh, "sons of the quiver" (Lam 3 13). By identifying the arrows with the death they produce, the quiver is likened to an open sepulcher
for T151"1, darash, and Lk 2 46; 23 9 for iwepwrdt^,
eperotdd (cf ARV, ERVm Jn 16 23). Elsewhere
the vb. is for (Tv^-qT^w, suzeteo, "dispute" (Mk 1 27,
etc; cf Acts 6 9; 9 29). "Called in question," Acts 19 40 AV, represents ^7/caX^w, egkaUo, "call
into court," but in 23 6; 24 21, "I am called in
question" is for Kplm/xai., krinomai, "I am being judged." Burton Scott Easton
(Jer 5 16).
QUICK, kwik, QUICKEN, kwik"n: Translates
QUOTATIONS, kwO-ta'shunz, NEW TESTAMENT:
in AV four different words: (1) rT^^n, haydh, (2)
i^lTl-a, mihyah, (3) PIT, ru'^h, and (4) faw, zdo.
I. Introductory Limitation of the Discussion
Of these words (1) and (4) had simply the sense of
Quotations, NT THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2516
The second great constructive principle of NT
II. Constructive Principles of NT Quotation 1. Unity of the Two Dispensations 2. Biblical Movement Planned from tlie Beginning 3. The OT Accepted as Authoritative 4. Issue Involved in Foregoing Principles of Reference III. Typical Instances of NT Quotation 1. Introductory Formulas 2. Unity of the Two Dispensations 3. Prevision of Christianity in the OT 4. Argumentative Quotations 5. Catena of Passages. Illustrating Principles of Quotation Literature
quotation, and manifestly in close harmony with the first one, is that the movement
2. Biblical from Abraham to Christ was not only Movement organically one, but that it was from Planned the beginning planned and prepared from the for. The Bible is one because the Beginning history out of which it grew is one. The history is one because God is in the history and God is one. According to the
writers of the NT in this history as a whole we have the unfolding of an all-embracing plan of God,
/. Introductory.—There are, all told, approximately 300 direct quotations from the OT in the
stretching out into the remotest future and coming
NT. The presence of so many citaLimitation tions, each one of which involves an of the interpretation of the passage given a Discussion new context in quotation, opens many avenues of discussion and propounds many difficult and far-reaching problems. In every separate instance, in the long list of NT quotations, the principle of accommodation (see Accommodation) in some form is involved, and, consequently, the question of historical and exegetical accuracy is unavoidably raised. In the present article we shall concentrate attention upon that which is of far greater importance than the question whether the writer is incidentally correct, according to modern scientific principles, in any specific citation. This more important and vital issue we take to be the general, guiding principles adopted by the NT writers in their use of the book of the older covenant. A review of these principles, together with certain outstanding and typical instances in which these principles are used and applied, will form the substance of the discussion.
to its culmination in the person and the kingdom of the Messiah. They maintain also that this plan was disclosed in part beforehand, by way of anticipation and preparation, in order that men might
intelligently cooperate with God in the fulfilment of His purpose. This is the idea involved in prophecy and its fulfilment, and in the closely related idea of promise and its reaUzation. One mind, one will, and one central purpose are operating^ throughout the entire history which is, on the Divine side, the fulfilment of a plan complete in thought before it takes shape in events. On the basis of this con-
ception, of the foreseen plan of God and its gradual revelation to men through messages of hope and warning set in the key of the great future and pointing the way thither, the greater part of the structure of NT quotation is reared.
A third principle which reaUy involves a combination of the other two and is prominently brought
forward in the use of quotation for
3. The OT purposes of argument is the recogAccepted as nition and acceptance of the OT as Authoritaauthoritative, a real Word of God, in
//. Constructive Principles of NT Quotation.— In the first place, the NT writers regard the Chris-
tive form occasional, but essentially applicable to all experiences, and hence good for all time. It is evident that the belief in the continued authority of the Scripture of the old covenant over the men of the new, rests upon the unity of the two dispensations and the acceptance of the same Divine mind and will as operating throughout aU outward and historical changes. This is admirably expressed by Paul when he speaks of 'the mystery of his will, according to his good pleasure which he purposed in him unto an economy of the fulness of the periods, to sum up aU things in Christ' (Eph 1 9.10), and by the author of He when he says: 'God, having of old spoken unto the fathers in the prophets by various portions and in various ways, hath at the end of these days spoken unto us in his Son' (1 1.2). The justification of these accepted principles of reference on the part of the NT writers hes beyond
tian religion as having its roots in the
1. Unity of OT. From the call of Abraham to the the Two founding and expansion of the ChrisDispensatian church the men of the NT recogtions nize a single organic movement. In their use of the ancient oracles in new setting they constantly and confidently rely upon the unity of the two dispensations, that recorded in the OT and that in which they themselves were participants. Such a unity, taking for granted its existence^ would remove to a degree the very distinction implied in the terms Old and New Testaments, and would involve a definite and organic relationship of all the books to each other. There are no longer two separate groups of books standing apart from each other and having bonds of union only within the group, but, on the contrary, two related sub-groups outwardly corresponding to contrasted phases of the historical movement, but inwardly conformed to the deep-lying principles which make the entire movement one. According to this idea the Book of Gen is as really related to the Gospel of Mt as it is to the Book of Ex. On the surface, and historically speaking, the Book of Gen leads immediately to the Book of Ex, which is its companion volume and complement, but go more deeply into Gen and just as really and just aa directly it leads to Mt, which ia also its fellow and complement. And so throughout. The unifying medium is, of course, the history which is one in that it involves the same organic principles applied to successive areas of human experience. The books of the Bible are, therefore, like any group of books on a common subject, phases of each other, contrasted and yet intimately cognate. In quoting from the OT the NT writers were simply obeying an impulse common to all thoughtful writers and accounting for all quotations, seeking for diversified expression of the same truths.
the scope of the present discussion.
4. Issue InIt is sufficient to emphasize the fact volved in that any detailed discussion of NT Foregoing quotations seriatim is meaningless and Principles futile except upon the basis of an exof Refplicit and consistent determination erence of these antecedent questions. To the present writer the vahdity of these principles is beyond question. The denial of any one of the three involves one in difficulties of interpretation, both critical and historical, from which there is no escape. It is to be noted, therefore, that the establishment of the principles, in accordance with which the NT ^\Titers quote, carries with
it in a general way the justification of their usage.
///. Typical Instances of NT Quotation.—With these constructive principles in mind we are prepared to pass in review typical instances in which general principles are embodied. At this point we shall be greatly assisted in the analysis and distribution of the complex material before us by giving careful heed to the formulas, more or less fixed and
2517 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Quotations, NT
The prevision of events in the life of Jesus and in the history of Christianity is involved in all the quotations in which a necefisary con-
uniform, by which the writers introduce quotations and indicate their sense of the value and significance of that which is quoted. While
3. Previnection between the passage as presion of dictive and the event is asserted, or Christianity in which a prophet is said to have been in the OT speaking or writing concerning the event or person in question. An examination of the OT without reference to its use
1. Introthese formulas exhibit certain verbal ductory variations, they are practically reFormulas ducible to three, which correspond with substantial accuracy to the three constructive principles already noted: the unity of the OT and NT; the prevision of the NT in the OT; the authority of the OT as the Word of God intended for all time.
in the NT seems to justify the conclusion that its bearing upon the future may be particularized under four heads, which in turn with sufficient accuracy and exhaustiveness will classify the pertinent NT quotations.
The unity of the two dispensations is asserted in
all those passages introduced by a formula, in which
fulfilment is asserted as a fact, and in
(1) The prophetic teaching of Israel embodied not only in the messages of the prophets, but also in laws, institutions, and rites, has a twofold dispensational application. Reference is made here only to those explicit references to a future era of especial blessing. For example, in Acts 2 17 £f Peter interprets the Pentecostal experience in the terms of prophecy, referring to Joel (2 28 ff) , who promises an outpouring of God's Spirit in a "great and notable day" of the Lord. The promise through Joel is an undeniable prediction (every promise is such), which in a measure would be ful-
2. Unity of which the operation of identical printhe Two ciples in two or more separate events in Dispensathe field of history is implied. A sugtions gestive example is in Mt 13 14, where Our Lord asserts^ in connection with the parable of the Sower, that m the unbelief of the people of His day "the prophecy of Isaiah" is ful-
filled. The prophetic words here quoted (Isa 6 9.10) are not predictive in any immediate sense, but are susceptible of repeated application and realization because of the general principle which they contain. They apply to the prophet's own day; they also apply—and in that sense are ful-
filled in any exceptional manifestation of God's
filled—to the time of Jesus, and by a legitimate extension of meaning, to stubborn unbelief in any age
Spirit among men. The only question which can possibly be raised in connection with Peter's use
(cfJn6 45).
of this passage is whether the Pentecostal outpouring was the climactic realization of the promise: that
Another passage in which the same formula is used in a very exceptional way clearly sets forth the fundamental principle upon which this usage
is, the establishment of the era of blessing foretold by the prophet. Later in the same book (3 20-26) the same apostle sweeps the whole field of prophecy as centering in certain promises fulfilled in Christ and the Christian community.
rests. Jas 2 23 asserts that the justification of Abraham in the offering of Isaac "fulfilled" the passage which affirms that his belief was counted to him for righteousness (Gen 15 6)._ This passage
He instances two, the prophet like Moses (Dt 18 IS) and the promised inclusive blessing through Abraham (Gen 12 3). He also includes (Acts 3 26) a hint of the Servant passages of Isa. This
is not predictive in any sense, nor is there in the narrative any hint of a connection between the passage and the episode on Mt. Moriah. This use
identification of the NT movement through two
of the formula of fulfilment by James involves the
specific predictive promises is wholly justified by the prophetic character of Jesus, the range and richness of the blessings brought from Abraham through Him, and by the fact elsewhere emphasized that no other has measured up to the standard of the ideal servant. Negatively, it may be urged that if these promises were not fulfilled in Christ, history affords no possibility of discovering any fulfilment measurably adequate, either in the past or future. In He (8 8-12) reference is made to the promise of a new covenant in Jer (31 31 fi') as a justification for
principle that any event which realizes the meaning and truth of a Scriptural statement fulfils it. A vast number of quotations in the NT come under
this head. Persons, events, doctrines, illustrate and confirm, or embody and concretely realize,
principles which are taught in the OT or implied in
its history. We are warned by this passage and many others like it against a too rigid and literal
interpretation of any formula implying fulfilment. While it may certainly be intended to imply literal
prediction and an equally literal fulfilment, it may, on the contrary, be intended to intimate nothing more than a harmony of principle, fitting the passage
believing that the OT dispensation was not com-
plete in itself and that in its very constitution it pointed forward to Christianity as its fulfilment. Combining this passage with that quoted above (Acts 2 17 ff) taken from Joel, the strength of the case for this use of the OT is at once seen. Dis-
to the person or event with which it is connected. In this connection it is to be remembered that a harmony of principle may extend all the way from
a comparatively superficial illustrative resemblance
tinctively Jeremiah's "new covenant" was to be inward and gracious rather than outward and legal. The promise through Joel is an awakening of prophecy through the free outpouring of God's
to a profound assonance of thought. Not a few OT quotations were made for purposes of illustration and literary embellishment. Herein lies the sig-
nificance of Matthew's use (2 17f)of Jer 31 15. _ A
Spirit. The distinctive feature of the gospel is
glance at this quoted passage indicates that it is a
its idea of justification by faith, through grace revealed in Christ and imparted by the Holy Spirit given according to promise at Pentecost. The "new covenant" foretold by Jeremiah was estab-
figurative and poetic expression in which Rachel
(already for many years in her tomb) is represented
as weeping for her exiled children and refusing to be comforted except by their return. There is no
lished at Pentecost through the outpouring of the
strictly predictive element in the passage, save only
Spirit promised through Joel. To deny this as
the promise of return, which is not used by Matthew.
fulfilment is to nullify the meaning of Christian
Its applicability to the massacre of the children of Bethlehem lies in its poetical appositeness, and
history and to erase both promises from the page
of credible prophecy.
there alone. Once again the voice of wailmg motherhood is heard in Israel. The tender and
(2) Contemporary persons or institutions are sometimes interpreted, not in the terms of present
beautiful imagery is applicable in this sense and is
actuality, but on the basis of the ideal not revealed
used with true insight, but with no intention of
or realized until the coming of Christ. One strik-
justifying a claim of prediction and fulfilment in
ing example of this method is to be found in the
the literal sense.
Quotations, NT THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2518
whom I have chosen" (44 1). It also involves the
so-called "Immanuel passage" (Mt 1 23, quoting Isa 7 14). Undoubtedly the message of the prophet to Ahaz had an immediate and contemporary significance. But, like many another notable prophetic message, it is set in the key of the Messianic King whose unworthy predecessor Ahaz was. "The Messiah comes, but the wilfulness of Ahaz has rendered His reign impossible"
entire scope and meaning of the prophetic office through which Jeh's will was made known to Israel and through Israel to the world. Both these con-
siderations sweep out into the prophet's future and both point unerringly to Christ as the historical
fulfilment of Israel's mission and as the actual reaKzation of the ideal and ministry of prophethood. The very ambiguity of the reference in this chapter
(G. A. Smith, "Isa," Expositor's Bible, I, 134). In Acts 2 24-36, passages representative of many others quoted, both the resurrection and ascension of Jesus are interpreted in the light of two quotations from the Pss (16 8ff; 110 1) as predetermined and therefore certain events in the plan and purpose of God. In both instances the argument is that the promises nominally made to David, or claimed by him, were couched in terms too vast to find fulfilment in his own experience, but were spoken of the greater King who was to come and in whose experience alone they were realized. In the former instance, a triumph over death was anticipated with assurance which not the Psahnist but only Christ attained; in the latter a royal ascendancy was promised that only Christ's ascension to the place of power could satisfy. An examination of the passages shows that Peter's interpretation is justified not merely by the wording of the promises, which point to a fulness of experience not realized by any OT man, but still more clearly by the descriptive titles which identify the person who is the subject of the experience. In the first instance he is spoken of as Jeh's "Holy One," in the second as "My Lord." The triumph over death which the speaker anticipates is grounded in a unity of purpose and will with God—a holiness which was ideal and still unrealized until Christ came. The logic of the ps is: God's "Holy One" must not see corruption. The logic of history is : Christ is God's Holy One and He did not see corruption. The principle that triumph over death is the logical issue of holiness found its justification and proof not directly in the experience of the singer who first glimpsed it as a truth, but in the career of Christ who first realized it as a fact.
(ch 61), whether to the Servant or to the prophet, and the questions raised as to whether Israel ideal-
ized is referred to or some person or personification, serve to make more clear and unmistakable the
central fact that only in Christ is the conception embodied in the entire series of passages altogether
realized. It thus becomes for sober thought a distinct revelation and portraiture in advance of what Jesus was in His person and work.
(3) In the course of Israel's training to receive the Messiah, certain external items were given as bearing upon the identification of Him when He should come. We shall instance three items,
closely related to each other, and each intensely interesting in itself. These three items are (a) His sonship to David (Acts 2 30.31), (6) His birth from a Virgin (Mt 1 22 f), (c) His birth at Bethlehem (Mt 2 5). Objection is offered at once to the interpretation of these OT passages as predictive, and to the alleged fulfilments in the life of Jesus, on the ground mainly that being definite events (cf Mt 2 15) they are not included within the legitimate scope of prediction; and, secondarily, that being items of this external kind it would be an easy matter to invent fulfilments. It may be granted at once that incidents of this kind could be indefinitely mul-
tiplied by fabricating coincidences, but the fact remains that, in the absence of any visible check upon invention, very few such instances are alleged by NT writers. Furthermore, there are suggestive variations between the events recorded and the natural interpretations of the OT passages connected with them; that is, the fulfilments arrive by such devious routes as to make it difficult to suppose them to be due to the imaginative stimulation of the passages. For example, the birth at Bethlehem was brought about by circumstances not at all to the liking of Jewish patriots, and was obscured to contemporaries by the previous and subsequent residence at Nazareth. The kinship of Jesus to the house of David was made adoptive
Note.—The argument here is not affected if one accepts the variant reading "Holy Ones" for the preceding passage.
The second passage is particularly interesting because Our Lord Himself first pointed out its implications as to the place and work of the Messiah. Such a passage as this entire ps (110) would have been impossible had not the powers and respon-
(unless Mary was of that house) by the virgin birth. The interpretation of Isa 7 14 as intimating a virgin birth was not compulsory to one familiar with the Heb text of the passage and would have been thought of in that connection only by one assured of the fact. The virgin birth (see Immanuel; Virgin Birth) is not an etymological but a providential commentary on Isa 7 14. One other consideration of primary importance remains. In the one point where the identification of Jesus with the Messiah by His foUowera can be tested most severely, they are most completely triumphant. It would be comparatively easy to invent incidents suggested by OT prophecies, and to take dignities and titles wholesale from the same source—but given all these, to find one capable of realizing and fulfilling the expectations so aroused is the chief problem. Here fabrication is impossible. And here too the NT meets and answers the challenge of truth. In view of these considerations it is safe to assert that even in matters of historical detail the career of Jesus was foreseen and predicted. Such passages belong to the philosophy of preparation as a whole and should be studied in that connection.
sibilities of the Davidic King been keyed from the beginning at the Messianic level. The logic here
is the same as in Ps 16. The Messianic kingdom over all nations awaited the coming of the true Messianic King. The long-delayed triumph followed hard upon the coming of the long-e.xpected King (cf Ps 2 1.2; Acts 13 32-34). The same principle is involved in Our Lord's use of the Servant passage (Isa 61 1 if) in His sermon at Nazareth. Here the issue as to Messianic prophecy is fairly joined at the center. It is central because it occurs in the Lord's own teaching and also because it concerns, not any external or incidental happenings in the life of .lesus, but the whole trend and movement of prophetic thought, together with the entire meaning and interpretation of His career.
Interpreted altogether apart from the NT, the passage has an unmistakable bearing upon the future. As one of the series concerned with the Servant (Isa 42 1 ff), the quoted passage focuses attention upon the mission of Israel to the world,
still to be carried out. "Ye are my witnesses, saith Jeh, and my servant whom 1 have chosen" (43 10), "Yet now hear, O Jacob my servant, and Israel,
(4) In certain instances the original passage and
its reappearance in quotation indicate a process
2519 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Quotations, NT
a detail of this last argument; see Rom 9 7.9.12.
which is continuous throughout all history. For example, the use of Zee 13 7 (Mk 14 27) suggests a deeper view of the connection between prophecy and history, immediate and more remote, than we are often aware of. On the face of them such passages as those concerning the Smitten Shepherd and the scattered sheep are predictions, and the life of Christ stands as fulfilment. It simply cannot be contended that such passages as these do not find fulfilment and explanation in the career of Jesus as nowhere else in the history. Nevertheless, the connection is far deeper than mere foresight of an isolated event and its occurrence. We may well say that, in a sense, the event is foreseen because it is already a fact. The allegory of the Smitten Shepherd is, as has well been said, "a summary of the history of Israel." But it is more than that. The relationship of God with Israel, which involved a dealing of Divine grace with men, their rejection of it and the consequent vicarious immolation of the Divine Friend and Shepherd, which came to its climax in the tragedy of the cross, was established in all essential factors in the early days. Therefore, Christ can say, as the outcome of the profoundest insight into the meaning of history, 'That which concerneth me hath fulfilment' (cf Lk 24 44). He was more deeply concerned in the doings of an earher time than being there foreseen. In a real sense, "the Lamb" was "slain from the foundation of the world" (Rev 13 8). In this allegory of the rejected Shepherd and in the successive delineations of the Servant passages, we have the portrait of the Christ as He was—not merely as He was to be. In these quotations deep answers to deep. The only satisfactory interpretation of the tragedy of the cross is that in accordance with principles long operative in human history, "it must needs be." The only satisfactory interpretation of the passages cited is that they disclose the actual operation of the forces which in their culmination issued in the tragedy of the cross. This brings the passages in the original and in quotation into the framework of the same course of events. Peter in
13.1.5.17). We shall consider typical examples of Paul's use of the OT in argumentation. Choice has been made of those which have provoked adverse criticism. Among these is the use of Gen 13
1.5; 17 8 in Gal 3 16. This is a leading example of Paul's alleged "rabbinical" method: "He saith not, And to seeds, as of many ; but as of one. And to thy seed, which is Christ." The Heb word "seed" as appUed to offspring (^^T, zero-) is singular. This, of course, means that a man's descendants are looked upon as organically one, inasmuch as they continue his hfe. The word would apply to any one of the family, but only by virtue of his belonging to the family. Etymologically Paul's argument would apply to Isaac as well as to Jesus—provided only the promise is looked upon as being fulfilled in him. But the promise which was fulfilled in Isaac, was fulfilled in a larger way in Israel as a whole, and was fulfilled in the largest way of all in Christ. The use of the sing, word indicates that Abraham's children were looked upon as one in him—they are also one in Christ. The true children of Abraham are such in Christ. Historically the argument is fully justified. "The personality of Christ is in some sense coextensive with the fulfilment of the promise to Abraham" (Beet). "Christ istheorganof fulfilment" (Meyer). The classical passage in the discussion of justification based upon an OT quotation is Rom 1 17, quoting Hab 2 4. The quoted passage seems to fail the argument because the literal tr would appear to be that "the righteous shall live by their faithfulness." A deeper view, however, amply
justifies the quotation; first, because the stedfastness demanded by the prophet is a persistent trust in God in view of the delay of the promised vision; second, the deepest principle common to the OT and NT is that stability of character has its root in trust in Jeh (Isa 28 16; cf 26 1-3). Nothing could be more foreign to the thought of the OT than that a man could be righteous without trust in God.
One further quotation argmnentatively used by Paul may fitly close this section of our discussion. In Eom 11 26.27 he quotes Isa 59 20.21 as indicating the Divine purpose to include the Gentiles within the scope of salvation. This passage is doubly significant because it is attacked by Kuenen {Prophets and Prophecy in Israel) on the ground that it is uncritically taken from the LXX version which in this instance does not correctly represent the Hcb text. It may be remarked that a large percentage of the NT quotations are taken from the LXX. (For estimates of the number see Johnson, Quotations of the NT, ch i.J This prevalent habit is amply justifiable by, and in large consideration of, the fact that the NT was written for the purpose of being read and understood by those to whom the LXX was often the only version available, and the familiarity of that version was ample compensation for any slight loss in verbal accuracy. The only reasonable qualification of this general statement is that we should call in question any deviation which is depended upon for a point in argument. Kuenen, tlie severest critic of the NT writers in this particular, alleges very few instances, and Professor Johnson has satisfactorily dealt with these in detail (as above). In the case immediately before us the deviations in the version used by Paul do not in the least modify, in the way of strengthening, the reference to the Gentiles (beginning in ver 19 and continuing throughout) which is the point upon which Paul is laying stress. It is not too much to say that Paul's argmnent would be unimpaired had he used the Heb text, upon which our RV rests (cf He 2 6-8). In general, it may be premised that no stringent rule of verbal accuracy should bo considered binding upon writers who address a popular audience beyond that which guards the substantial cogency of their argument. From the fair application of this reasonable rule the NT writers have nothing to fear.