Part 12
(2 S 8 6-10). But the whole of Eastern Pal (13 7-32), and of Western Pal, excepting the shore plains, was allotted to the 12 tribes. Judah and Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh), being the strongest, appear to have occupied the mountains and the sh'pheldh, as far N. as Lower Galilee, before the final allotment.
(2) The passage of the Jordan.—Israel crossed Jordan at the lowest ford E. of Jericho. The river was in flood, swollen by the melting snows of Hermon (Josh 3 15); the stoppage occurred 20 miles farther up at Adam (ed-Ddmieh), the chalky cliffs
Thus the lot of Simeon was within that inherited by Judah (19 1), and that ol Dan seems to have been partly talcen from Ephraim, since Joseph's lot originally
at a narrow place being probably undermined and
falling in, thus damming the stream. A Moslem
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reached to Gezer (16 3) ; but Benjamin appears to have received its portion early (cf 15 5-11; 16 1-2; 18 1128). This lot was larger than that of Ephraim, and Benjamin was not then the "smallest of the tribes of Israel" (1 S 9 21), since the destruction of the tribe did not occur till after the death of Joshua and Eleazar
reading seems preferable; for the Gr says that Judah "did not take Gaza" nor Ashkelon nor Ekron, which agrees with the failure in conquering the "valley" (ver 19) due to the Canaanites having
"chariots of iron." The Can. chariots are often mentioned about this time in the Am Tab and Egyp accounts speak of their being plated with metals. Manasseh, Ephraim, Zebulun, Asher and Naphtali, were equally powerless against cities in the plains (vs 27-33); and Israel began to mingle with the Canaanites, while the tribe of Dan seems never to have really occupied its allotted region, and remained encamped in the borders of Judah
(Jgs 20 28). The twelve tribes were distributed in various regions which may here briefly be described. Reuben held the Moab plateau to the Arnon {Wddy Mdjub) on the S., and to the "river of Gad" (Widy NA'a-Cir) on the N.. thus including part of the Jordan valley close to the Dead Sea. Gad held all the W. of Gilead, being separated from the Ammonites by the upper course of the Jabbok. All the rest of the Jordan vaUey E. of the river was included in this lot. Manasseh held Bashan, but the conquest was not completed till later. Simeon had the neghebh plateau S. of Beersheba. Judah occupied the mountains S. of Jerus, with the sh'^pheldh to their W., and claimed Philistia S. of Ekron. Benjamin had the Jericho plains and the mountains between Jerus and Bethel. The border ran S. of Jerus to Rachel's tomb (1 S 10 2), and thence W. to Kiriath-jearim i'Erma) and Ekron. Dan occupied the lower hills W. of Benjamin and Ephraim. and claimed the plain from Ekron to Rakkon (.Tell er Rakkeit) N. of Joppa. Manasseh had a large region, corresponding to Samaria, and including Carmel, Sharon and half the Jordan valley, with the mountains N . of Shechem ; but this tribe occupied only the hills, and was unable to drive the Canaanites out of the plains (Josh 17 11.16). Ephraim also complained of the smallness of its lot (ver 15), which lay in rugged mountains between Bethel and Shechem, Including, however, the corn plateau E. of the latter city. Issachar held the plains of Esdraelon and Dothan, with the Jordan valley to the E., but soon became subject to the Canaanites. Zebulun had the hills of Lower Galilee, and the coast from Carmel to Accho. Naphtali owned the mountains of Upper Galilee, and the rich plateau between Tabor and the Sea of Gahlee. Asher had the low hills W. of Naphtali, and the narrow shore plains from Accho to Tyre. Thus each tribe possessed a proportion of mountain land fit for cultivation of figs, olives and vines, and of arable land fit for corn. The areas allotted appear to correspond to the density of population that the various regions were fitted to support.
till some, at least, of its warriors found a new home under Hermon (1 34; 18 1-30) in the time of Jonathan, the grandson of Moses.
(2) Defeat of Sisera.—The oppression of Israel by Jabin II of Hazor, in Lower Galilee, appears to have occurred in the time of Rameses II, who, in his 8th year, conquered Shalem {S&lim, N. of Taanach), Anem ('Anm), Dapur {DebHrieh, at the foot of Tabor), with Bethanath ('Ainitha) in Upper Galilee (Brugsch, Hist Egypt, II, 64). Sisera may have been an Egyp resident at the court of Jabin
(Jgs 4 2); his defeat occurred near the foot of Tabor (ver 14) to which he advanced E. from Harosheth {el Harathiyeh) on the edge of the sea plain. His host "perished at Endor" (Ps 83 9) and in the swampy Kishon (Jgs 6 21). The site of the Kedesh in "the plain of swamps" (4 11) to which he fled is doubtful. Perhaps Kedesh of Issachar (1 Ch 6 72) is intended at Tell Kadeis, 3 miles N. of Taanach, for the plain is here swampy in parts. The Can. league of petty kings fought from Taanach to Megiddo (6 19), but the old identification of the latter city with the Rom town of
The Levitical cities were fixed in the various tribes as centers for the teaching of Israel (Dt 33
Legio (Lejj'Q.n) was a mere guess which does not
fit with Egyp accounts placing Megiddo near the Jordan. The large site at Mugedd'a, in the Valley of Jezreel seems to be more suitable for all the OT as well as for the Egyp accounts (SWP, II, 90-99).
10), but a Levite was not obliged to live in such a
city, and was expected to go with his course annually to the sacred center, before they retreated to Jerus on the disruption of the kingdom (2 Ch 11 14). The 48 cities (Josh 21 13-42) include 13 in Judah and Benjamin for the priests, among which Beth-shemesh (1 S 6 13.15) and Anathoth
(3) Gideon's victory.—The subsequent oppression by Midianites and others would seem to have coincided with the troubles which occurred in the 6th year of Minepthah (see Exodus, The). Gideon's home (Jgs 6 11) at Ophrah, in Manasseh, is placed by Sam tradition at Fer'ata, 6 miles W. of Shechem, but his victory was won in the Valley of Jezreel (7 1-22) ; the sites of Beth-shittah (Shaita) and Abel-meholah (Min Helweh) show how Midian
(1 K 2 26) are early noticed as Levitical. The other tribes had 3 or 4 such cities each, divided among Kohathites (10), Gershonites (13), and Merarites (12). The six Cities of Refuge were included in the total, and were placed 3 each side of the Jordan in the S., in the center, and in the N., namely Hebron, Shechem and Kedesh on the W., and Bezer (unknown), Ramoth (Reim-An) and Golan (probably Sahem el Jaulan) E. of the river. Another less perfect list of these cities, with 4 omissions and 11 minor differences, mostly clerical,
fled down this valley and S. along the Jordan plain,
crossing the river near Succoth {Tell Der^ala) and ascending the slopes of Gilead to Jogbehah (7mbeihah) and Nobah (8 4-11). But Oreb ("the raven") and Zeeb ("the wolf") perished at "the raven's rock" and "the wolf's hollow" (cf 7 25), W. of the Jordan. It is remarkable (as pointed out by the present author in 1874) that, 3 miles N. of Jericho, a sharp peak is now called "the raven's nest," and a ravine 4 miles farther N. is named "the wolf's hollows." These sites are rather farther
is given in 1 Ch 6 57-81. Each of these cities had "suburbs," or open spaces, extending (Nu 36
4) about a quarter-mile beyond the wall, while the
fields, to about half a mile distant, also belonged to the Levites (Lev 26 34).
(1) Early wars.—In Jgs, the stories of the heroes who successively arose to save Israel from the heathen carry us to every part of the
S. than might be expected, unless the two chiefs were separated from the fugitives, who followed Zebah and Zalmunna to Gilead. In this episode "Mt. Gilead" (7 3) seems to be a clerical error for "Mt. Gilboa," unless the name survives in corrupt form at 'Ain JdHd ("Gohath's spring"), which is a large pool, usually supposed to be the spring of Harod (7 1), where Gideon camped, E. of Jezreel. The story of Abimelech takes us back to Shechem. He was made king by the "oak of the pillar" (9 6), which was no doubt Abraham's oak already noticed; it seems also to be called 'the enchanter's oak' (ver 37), probably from some superstition connected with the burial of the Teraphim under it by Jacob. The place called Beer, to which Jotham
2. Book of country. "After the death of Joshua" Judges (1 1) the Canaanites appear to have recovered power, and to have rebuilt some of the cities which he had ruined. Judah fought the Perizzites ("villagers") at Berek (Berkah)
in the lower hills W. of Jerus, and even set fire to that city. Caleb attacked Debir (vs 12-15), which
is described (cf Josh 15 15-19) as lying in a "dry" (AV "south") region, yet with springs not far away. The actual site (edh Dhdheriyeh) is a village with
ancient tombs 12 miles S.W. of Hebron; it has no
springs, but about 7 miles to the N.E. there is a
perennial stream with "upper and lower springs." As regards the Phili cities (Jgs 1 18), the LXX
fled from Abimelech (ver 21), may have been
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Beeroth (Bireh) in the lot of Benjamin. Thcbcz, the town taken by the latter (ver 50), and where he met his death, is now the village Tdhds, 10 miles N.E. of Shechcm.
Kiriath-jearim (ver 12). This agrees with the former mention of the site (13 25) as being near Zorah; and the open valley near Beth-shemesh is
visible, through the gorges of Lehi, from the site of Kiriath-jearim at ^Erma.
The Ammonite oppression of Israel in Gilead occurred about 300 years after the Heb conquest (11 26), and Jephthah the deliverer returned to Mizpah (ver 29), which was probably the present village (SJl/ (already noticed), from his exile in the "land of Tob" (vs 3.6). This may have been near Taiyibeh, 9 miles S. of Gadara, in the extreme N. of Gilead—a place notable for its ancient dolmens and rude stone monuments, such as occur also at Mizpah. Jephthah's dispute with the men of Ephraim (12 1) indicates the northern position of Mizpah. Aroer (11 33) is unknown, but lay near Rabbath-ammon (Josh 13 25; 2 S 24 5); it is to be distinguished from Aroer CAr'air) in the Arnon ravine, mentioned in Jgs 11 26.
(4) Appendix: Defeat of Benjamin.—In the 2d episode we trace the journey of the Levite from Bethlehem past Jerus to Gibeah (Jefea'), E. of Ramah (er-Rdm), a distance which could easily be traversed in an afternoon (cf 19 8-14). Gibeah was no doubt selected as a halting-place by the Levite, because it was a Levitical city. The story of the great crime of the men of Gibeah was well known to Hosea (9 9). Israel gathered against them at Mizpah {Tell en Na^beh) on the watershed, 3 miles to the N.W., and the ark was brought by Phinehas to Bethel (cf 20 1.31; 18 26.27), 3 miles N.E. of Mizpah. The defeat of Benjamin occurred where the road to Gibeah leaves the main north road to Bethel (ver 31), W. of Ramah. The survivors fled to the rock Rimmon {Riimmon), 3 J miles E. of Bethel, on the edge of the "wilderness" which stretches from this rugged hill toward the Jordan valley. The position of Shiloh, 9 miles N. of this rock, is very accurately described (21 19) as being N. of Bethel {Beitln), and E. of the main road, thence to Shechem which passes Lebonah {Lubban), a village 3 miles N.W. of Seil-iXn or Shiloh. The "vineyards," in which the maidens of Shiloh used to dance (ver 20) at the Feast of Tabernacles, lay no doubt where vineyards still exist in the little plain S. of this site. It is clear that the writer of these two narratives had an acquaintance with Palestinian topography as exact as that shown throughout Jgs. Nor (if the reading "captivity of the ark" be correct) is there any reason to suppose that they were WTitten after 722 BC.
The scene of Samson's exploits lies in the sh'phelah of Judah on the borders of Philistia. His home at Zorah (Sftr'a/i) was on the hills N. of the Valley of Sorek, and looked down on "the camp of Dan" (13 2.5 m) , which had been pitched in that valley near Beth-shemesh . Eshtaol (Eshn^a) was less than 2 miles E. of Zorah on the same ridge. Timnath (14 1) was only 2 miles W. of Beth-shemesh, at the present ruin Tihneh. The region was one of vineyards (ver 5), and the name Sorek {SiXrik) still survives at a ruin 2 miles W. of Zorah. Sorek signified a "choice vine," and a rock-cut wine press exists at the site {SWP, III, 126). These 5 places, all close together, were also close to the Phili corn lands (15 5) in a region of vines and olives. Samson's place of refuge in the "cleft of the rook of Etam"
(see 15 8) was probably at Beit ^Ai&h, only 5 miles E. of Zorah, but rising with a high knoll above the southern precipices of the gorge which opens into the Valley of Sorek. In this knoll, under the village, is a rock passage now called "the well of refuge" {Bir el HasiltaK), which may have been the "cleft" into which Samson "went down." Lehi (ver 9) was apparently in the valley beneath, and the name ("the jaw") may refer to the narrow mouth of the gorge whence, after conference with the Philis, the men of Judah "went down" (ver 11) to the "cleft of the rock of Etam" {SWP, III, 83, 137), which was a passage 2.50 ft. long leading down, under the town, to the spring. All of Samson's story is connected with this one valley (for Delilah also lived in the "Valley of Sorek," 16 4) excepting his visit to Gaza, where he carried the gates to the 'hill facing Hebron' (16 3), traditionally shown (SWP,
The Book of Ruth gives us a vivid picture of Heb life "when the judges ruled" (1 1 AV), about a century before the birth of David. Laws 3. Book as old as Hammurabi's age allowed the of Ruth widow the choice of remaining with the husband's family, or of quitting his house (cf 1 8). The beating out of gleanings (2 17) by women is still a custom which accounts for the rock mortars found so often scooped out on the hillside. The villager still sleeps, as a guard, beside the heap of winnowed corn in the threshingfloor (3 7) ; the head-veil, still worn, could well have been used to carry six measures of barley (ver 15). The courteous salutation of his reapers by Boaz (2 4) recalls the common Arab, greeting {Allah ma'kilm), "God be with you." But the thin wine (ver 14) is no longer drunk by Moslem peasants, who only "dip" their bread in oil.
III, 255) at the great mound on the E. side of this town where he died, and where his tomb is (wrongly) shown. Another tomb, close to Zorah, represents a more correct tradition (16 31), but the legends of Samson at this village are of modern Christian origin.
(1) Samuel.—The two Books of S present an equally valuable picture of life, and an equally real topography throughout. Sam4. Books of ucl's father—a pious Levite (1 Ch Samuel 6 27)—descended from Zuph who had lived at Ephratah (Bethlehem; cf IS 9 4.5), had his house at Ramah (1 19) close to Gibeah, and this town {er-Rdm.) was Samuel's home also (7 17; 25 1). The family is described as 'Ramathites, Zuphites of Mt. Ephraim' (1 1), but the term "Mt. Ephraim" was not confined to the lot of Ephraim, since it included Bethel and Ramah, in the land of Benjamin (Jgs 4 5). As a Levite, Elkanah obeyed the law of making annual visits to the central shrine, though this does not seem to have been generally observed in an age when "every man did that which was right in his own eyes
The appendix to Jgs includes two stories concerning Levites who both lived in the time of the 2d generation after the Hcb conquest (18 30; 20
28), and who both "sojourned" in Bethlehem of Judah (17 8; 19 2), though their proper city was one in Mt. Ephraim. In the first case Jonathan, the grandson of Moses, founded a family of idolatrous priests, setting up Micah's image at Dan {Tell el K&(j,'i) beside the sources of the Jordan, where ancient dolmen altars still exist. This image may have been the cause why Jeroboam afterward established a calf-temple at the same place. It is said to have stood there till the "captivity of the ark" (St. Petersburg MS, Jgs 18 30), "all the time that the house of God was in Shiloh" (ver 31). From this narrative we learn that the
(Jgs 21 25). The central shrine had been removed by Joshua from Shechem to the remote site of Shiloh (Josh 22 9), perhaps for greater security, and here the tabernacle (ver 19) was pitched (cf 1 S 2 22) and remained for 4 centuries till the death
tribe of Dan did not settle in its appointed lot
(18 1), but pitched in the "camp of Dan," west of
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of Eli. The great defeat of Israel, when the ark was captured by the Philis, took place not far from Mizpah (4 1), within an easy day's journey from Shiloh (cf ver 12). Ekron, whence it was sent back
a day for the news to reach Saul and another for the march from Bezek to Jabesh, there would have been just time for the gathering of Israel at this fairly central meeting-place.
(6 16), was only 12 miles from Beth-shemesh CAinshenis), where the ark rested on a "great stone" (LXX, ver 18) ; and Beth-shemesh was only 4 miles W. of Kiriath-jearim (ver 21), which was in the mountains, so that its inhabitants "came down" from "the hill" (6 21; 7 1) to fetch the ark, which abode there for 20 years, till the beginning of Saul's reign (14 18), when, after the war, it may have been restored to the tabernacle at Nob, to which place the latter was probably removed after Eli's death, when Shiloh was deserted. The exact site of Nob
The scene of the victory over the Philis at Michmash is equally real. They had a 'post' in Geba (or Gibeah, 13 3), or a governor (cf LXX), whom Jonathan slew. They came up to Michmash {Muhhmds) to attack Jonathan's force which held Gibeah, on the southern side of the Michmash valley, hard by. The northern cliff of the great gorge was called Bozez ("shining") in contrast to the southern one (in shadow) which was named Seneh or "thorn" (14 4). Jos {BJ, V, ii, 2) says that Gibeah of Saul was by "the valley of thorns," and the ravine, fianked by the two precipitous cliffs E. of Michmash, is still called WMy es Suweinil, or "the valley of little thorn trees." Jonathan climbed the steep slope that leads to a small flat top (1 S 14 14 AV), and surprised the Phili 'post.' The pursuit was by Bethel to the Valley of Aijalon, down the steep Beth-horon pass (vs 23.31); but it should be noted that there was no "wood" (vs 25.26) on this bare hilly ridge, and the word (cf Cant 5 1) evidently means "honeycomb." It is also possible that the altar raised by Saul, for fulfilment of the Law (Gen 9 4; Ex 20 25), was at Nob where the central shrine was then established.
is not known, but probably (cf Isa 10 32) it was close to Mizpah, whence the first glimpse of Jerus
is caught, and thus near Gibeon, where it was laid up after the massacre of the priests (1 S 21 1; 22 9.18; 2 Ch 1 3), when the ark was again taken to Kiriath-jearim (2 S 6 2). Mizpah (Tell enNa^beh) was the gathering-place of Israel under Samuel; and 'the "stone of help" (Eben-ezer) was erected, after his victory over the Philis, "between Mizpah and Shen" (1 S 7 12)—the latter place
(see LXX) being probably the same as Jeshanah I'Ain Sinai), 6 miles N. of Mizpah which Samuel visited yearly as a judge (ver 16).
(2) Saul's search.—The journey of Saul, who, "seeking asses found a kingdom," presents a topography which has often been misunderstood. He started (9 4) from Gibeah (Jeba') and went first to the land of Shalisha through Mt. Ephraim. Baal-shalisha (2 K 4 42) appears to have been the present Kefr Thilth, 18 miles N. of Lydda and 24 miles N.W. from Gibeah. Saul then searched the land of Shalim—probably that of Shual (1 S 13
(4) David's early life.—David fed his flocks in the wilderness below Bethlehem, where many a silent and dreadful "Valley of Shadows" (cf Ps 23 4) might make the stoutest heart fail. The lion crept up from the Jordan valley, and (on another occasion) the bear came down from the rugged mountains above (1 S 17 34). No bears are now known S. of Hermon, but the numerous references (2 K 2 24; Isa 69 11; Hos 13 8; Prov 17 12; 28 15) show that they must have been exterminated, like the lion, in comparatively late times. The victory over Goliath, described in the chapter containing
17), N.E. of Gibeah. Finally he went south beyond the border of Benjamin (10 2) to a city in the "land of Zuph," which seems probably to have been Bethlehem, whence (as above remarked) Samuel's family—descendants of Zuph—came originally.
this allusion, occurred in the Valley of Elah near Shochoth (Shuweikeh) ; and this broad valley (Wddy es Sunt) ran into the Phili plain at the probable site of Gath (Tell es Sdfi) to which the pursuit led (1 S 17 1.2. .52). The watercourse still presents "smooth stones" (ver 40) fit for the sling, which is still used by Arab shepherds; and the valley still has in it fine "terebinths" such as those from which it took its name Elah. The bronze armor of the giant (vs 5.6) indicates an early stage of culture, which is not contradicted by the mention of an iron spearhead (ver 7), since iron is found to have been in use in Pal long before David's time. The curious note (ver 54) as to the head of Goliath being taken "to Jerus" is also capable of explanation. Jerus was not conquered till at least 10 years later, but it was a general practice (as late as the 7th cent. BC in Assyria) to preserve the heads of dead foes by salting them, as was probably done in another case (2 K 10 7) when the heads of Ahab's sons were sent from Samaria to Jezreel to be exposed at the gate.
If so, it is remarkable that Saul and David were anointed in the same city, one which Samuel visited
later (16 1.2 if) to sacrifice, just as he did when meeting Saul (9 12), who was probably known to him, since Gibeah and Ramah were only 2 miles apart. Saul's journey home thus naturally lay on the road past Rachel's tomb near Bethlehem, and along the Bethel road (10 2,3) to his home at Gibeah (vs 5.10). It is impossible to suppose that Samuel met him at Ramah—a common mistake which creates great confusion in the topography.
(3) Saul's coronation and first campaign.—Saul concealed the fact of his anointing (10 16) till the
lot fell upon him at Mizpah. This pubhc choice by lot has been thought (Wellhausen, Hist Israel,
1885, 252) to indicate a double narrative, but to a Hebrew there would not appear to be any discrepancy, since "The lot is cast into the lap; but the whole disposing thereof is of Jeh" (Prov 16
33). Even at Mizpah he was not fully accepted
David's outlaw life began when he took refuge with Samuel at the "settlements" (Naioth) near Ramah, where the company of prophets lived. He
till his triumph over the Ammonites, when the kingdom was "renewed" at Gilgal (11 14). This campaign raises an interesting question of geography. Only 7 days' respite was allowed to the men of Jabesh in Gilead (11 3), during which news was
easily met Jonathan near Gibeah, which was only 2 miles E.; and the "stone of departure" ("Ezel,"
1 S 20 19) may have marked the Levitical boundary of that town. Nob also (21 1) was, as we have seen, not far off, but Gath (ver 10) was beyond the Heb boundary. Thence David retreated up the Valley of Elah to Adullam QAid-el-ma), which stood on a hill W. of this valley near the great turn (southward) of its upper course. An inhabited cave
sent to Saul at Gibeah, and messengers dispatched "throughout the borders of Israel" (ver 7), while the hosts gathered at Bezek, and reached Jabesh on the 7th or 8th day (vs 8-10) at dawn. Bezek appears to be a different place from that W. of
Jerus (Jgs 1 4) and to have been in the middle of Pal at Jbztk, 14 miles N. of Shechem, and 25 miles W. of Jabesh, which probably lay in Wddy Ydbis in
still exists here (cf 22 1), and the site meets every requirement (-SH'P, III, 311, 347, 361-67). Keilah
Gilead. The farthest distances for the messengers would not have exceeded 80 miles; and, allowing
(23 1) is represented by the village Kila, on the east
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to Ramah docs not appear to be a "worthless anachronistic anecdote" (p. 271); and no one who has lived in the terrible Jeshimon could regard the meetin_g at Hachiilah asa"jest" (p. 26.5). Nor did the hill ("the dusky top") "take its name from the circumstance, " but WeUhausen probably means the ^elaha-mahl'^koth ("cliff of slippings" or of "slippings away"), now Wddy Maldkeh near Maon (cf 1 S 23 19.24.28), which lay farther S. than Ziph.
side of thf same valley, 3 miles farther up; and Hereth (22 5) was also near, but "in Judah" (23
3), at the village Khards on a wooded spur 7 miles N.W. of Hebron. Thence David went "down" (ver 4) to Keilah 2 miles away to the W. As there was no safety for the outlaws, either in Philistia or in Judah, thej' had to retreat to the wilderness of Ziph (Tell ez'Zif), 4 miles S.E. of Hebron. The word "wood" (horesh) maj' more probably be a proper name, represented bj' the ruin of Khoreisa, rather more than a mile S. of Ziph, while the hill Haehilah (ver 19) might be the long spur, over the Jeshimon or desert of Judah, 6 miles E. of Ziph, now called el Kola. Maon (M'ain) lay on the edge of the same desert still farther S., about 8 miles from Hebron. En-gedi (23 29; 24 1.2) was on the precipices by the Dead Sea. The "wild goats" (ibex) still exist here in large droves, and the caves of this desert are still used as folds for sheep in spring (ver 3). The villagers S. of Hebron are indeed remarkable for their large flocks which—by agreement with the nomads—are sent to pasture in the Jeshimon, like those of Nabal, the rich man of Carmel (Kumiul), a mile N. of Maon (25 2), who refused the customary present to David's band which had protected his shepherds "in the fields"
(7) Early years of David's reign.—Da'vid, till the 8th year of his reign, was king of Judah only. The
first battle with Saul's son occurred at Gibeon (2 S 2 13), where the "pool" was no doubt the cave of the great spring at el Jib; the pursuit was by the 'desert Gibeon road' (ver 24) toward the Jordan valley. Gibeon itself was not in a desert, but in a fertile region. Abner then deserted to David, but was murdered at the "well of Sirah" CAin Sdrah) on the road a mile N. of David's capital at Hebron. Nothing more is said about the Philis till David had captured Jerus, when they advanced on the new capital by the valley of Rephaim (5 22), which apparently ran from S. of Jerus to join the valley of Elah. If David was then at AduUam ("the hold," ver 17 AV; cf 1 S 22 S), it is easy to understand how he cut off the Phili retreat (2 S 5 23), and thus conquered all the hill country to Gezer (ver 2.5). After this the ark was finally brought from Baale-judah (Kiriath-jearim) to Jerus
(ver 15) or pastures of the wilderness. In summer
r)a\'id would naturally return to the higher ridge of Hachilah (26 1) on the south side of which there
(6 2), and further wars were beyond the limits of Western Pal, in Moab (8 2) and in Syria (vs 3-12)
is a precipitous gorge (impassable save by a long detour), across which he talked to Saul (ver 13}, likening himself (ver 20) to the desert "partridge"
but for "Syrians" (ver 13) the more correct reading appears to be Edomites (1 Ch 18 12), and the "Valley of Salt" was probably S. of the Dead Sea. Another war with the Syrians, aided by Aramaeans from E. of the Euphrates, occurred E. of the Jordan
still found in this region.
(5) Defeat and death of Saul—The site of Ziklag
is doubtful, but it eiadently lay in the desert S. of Beersheba (Josh 15 31; 19 5; 1 Ch 4 30; 1 S 27 6-12), far from Gath, so that King Achish did not know whether David had raided the S. of Judah, or the tribes toward Shur. Saul's powder in the mountains was irresistible; and it was for this reason perhaps that his fatal battle with the Philis occurred far N. in the plain near Jezreel. They camped (1 S 28 4) by the fine spring of Shunem [Sulem), and Saul on Gilboa to the S. The visit to Endor {Andur) was thus a perilous adventure, as Saul must have stolen bj' night round the Phili host to visit this place N. of Shunem. He returned to the spur of Gilboa on which Jezreel stands (29 1), and the spring noticed is a copious supply N. of the
(2 S 10 16-18), and was followed by the siege of Rabbath-ammon CAmmdn), E. of Gilead, where we have notice of the "city of w-aters" (12 27), or lower town by the stream, contrasted, it seems, with the citadel which was on the northern hill.
(8) Hehreiv letter-writing.—In this connection we find the first notice of a "letter" (11 14) as WTitten by David to Joab. Writing is of course noticed as early as the time of Moses when—as we now know—the Canaanites wrote letters on clay tablets in cuneiform script. These, however, were penned by special scribes; and such a scribe is mentioned early (Jgs 8 14). David himself may have employed a professional writer (cf 2 S 8 17), while Uriah, who carried his own fate in the letter, w'as probably unable to read. Even in Isaiah's time the art was not general (Isa 29 12), though Heb kings could apparently wTite and read (Dt 17 18; 2 K 19 14); to the present day the accomphshment is not general in the East, even in the upper class. It should be noted that the first e-vidence of the use of an alphabet is found in the early alphabetic Pss, and the oldest dated alphabetic text yet known is later than 900 BC. The script used in the time of Moses may have been cuneiform, which was still employed at Gezer for traders' tablets in 649 BC. The alphabet may have come into use first among Hebrews, through Phoen influence in the time of David; and so far no script except this and the cuneiform has been unearthed in Pal, unless it is to be recognized in signs of the Hittite syllabary at Lachish and Gezer. Another interesting point, as regards Heb civilization in David's time, is the first mention of "mules" (2 S 13 29; 18 9; IK 1 33.38), which are unnoticed in the Pent. They are represented as pack animals on an Assyr basrelief; but, had they been known to Moses, they would probably have been condemned as unclean. The sons of David fled on mules from Baal-hazor
village Zer'iii. Beth-shan (31 12) was at the mouth
of the valley of Jezreel at Beisdn, and here the bodies of Saul and his sons were burned by the men of .Jabesh-gilead ; but, as the bones were preserved (ver 13; 2 S 21 13), it is possible that the corpses were cremated in pottery jars afterward buried under the tree. Excavations in Pal and in Babylonia show that this was an early practice, not only in the case of infants (as at Gezer, and Taanach), but also of grown men. See Palestine (Recext Exploration). The list of cities to which Da\'id sent presents at the time of Saul's death (30 26-31) includes those near Ziklag and as far N. as Hebron, thus referring to "all the places where Da\dd himself and his men were wont to haunt."
(6) WeWiausen s theory of a double narrative.—The study of David's wanderings, it may be noted, and of ttie climatic conditions in tlie Jestiimon desert, does not serve to confirm Wellhausen's theory of a dout)le narrative, based on tlae secret unction and public choice of Saul, on the double visit to Hachilah. and on the fact that the gloomv king had forgotten the name of David's father. The history is not a "pious make-up" without "a word of truth" (WeUhausen, Hist Israel. 248-49;; and David, as a "youth" of twenty years, may yet have been called a "man of war"; while "transparent artifice" (p. 251) will hardly be recognized by the reader of this genuine chronicle. Nor was there any "Aphek in Sharon"
{Tell 'Aslir) "beside Ephraim" (now probably Taiyibeh), N. of Bethel, where Absalom murdered Amnon.
(p. 260). and David did not "amuse himself liy going
first toward the north" from Gibeah (p. 267j; his visit
2217 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Palestine
to one reading—"the Arabs brought him bread and flesh" (17 6) is not known. The site of this great contest with the prophets of the Tyrian Baal is supposed to be at el Mahrakah ("the place of burning") at the southeastern end of the Carmel ridge. Some early king of Israel perhaps, or one of the
(9) Later years of David's reign.—On the rebellion of Absalom David retreated to Mahanaim, apparently by the road N. of the Mount of OUves,
if the Tg of Jonathan (2 S 16 5) is correct in placing Bahurim at Almon {'Almtt), N.E. of Jerus. It is not clear where the "wood of Ephraim," in which Absalom perished, may have been, but it was beyond Jordan in Gilead (17 22; 18 6); and oak woods are more common there than in Western Pal. The latest revolt, after Absalom's death, was in the extreme north at Abel (Abil), in Upper Galilee (20 14), after which Joab's journey is the last incident to be studied in the Books of S. For census purposes he went E. of the Jordan to Aroer (perhaps the city on the Arnon), to the "river of Gad"
{Wddy Nd'ailr) near Jazer, and through Gilead. Tahtim-hodshi (24 6) is believed (on the authority of three Gr MSS) to be a corruption of "the Hittites at Kadesh" (Kades), the great city on the Orontes (see Hittites), which lay on the northern boundary of David's dominions, S. of the kingdom of Hamath. Thence Joab returned to Zidon and Tyre, and after visiting all Judah to Beersheba reached Jerus again within 10 months. The acquisition of the temple-site then closes the book.
(1) Solomon's provinces.—The Books of K contain also some interesting questions of geography.
Solomon's twelve provinces appear to
5. Books answer very closely to the lots of the of Kings twelve tribes described in Josh. They included (1 K 4 7-19) the following:
(a) Ephraim, (6) Dan, (c) Southern Judah (see Josh 12 17), {d) Manasseh, (e) Issachar, (/) Northern Gilead and Bashan, (g) Southern Gilead, (h) Naph-
tali, (i) Asher, (j) part of Issachar and probably Zebulun (the text is doubtful, for the order of ver 17 differs in LXX), {k) Benjamin, (I) Reuben. LXX renders the last clause (ver 19), "and one Naseph [i.e. "officer"] in the land of Judah" probably superior to the other twelve. Solomon's dominions included Philistia and Southern Syria, and stretched along the trade route by Tadmor (Palmyra) to Tiphsah on the Euphrates (vs 21.24;
cf 9 18 = Tamar; 2 Ch 8 4 = Tadmor). Another Tiphsah (now Tafsah) lay 6 miles S.W. of Shechem
(2 K 15 16). Gezer was presented to Solomon's wife by the Pharaoh (1 K 9 16).
(2) Geography of the Northern Kingdom.—-Jeroboam was an Ephraimite (11 26) from Zereda, probably Surdah, 2 miles N.W. of Bethel, but the LXX reads "Sarira," which might be Sarra, IJ miles E. of Shiloh. After the revolt of the ten tribes, "Shishak king of Egypt" (11 40; 14 25) sacked Jerus. His own record, though much damaged, shows that he not only invaded the mountains near
Jerus, but that he even conquered part of Galilee. The border between Israel and Judah lay S. of Bethel, where Jeroboam's calf-temple was erected
(12 29), Ramah (er-Rdm) being a frontier town with Geba and Mizpah (15 17.22) ; but after the Syrian
raid into Galilee (ver 20), the capital of Israel was
fixed at Tirzah (ver 21), a place celebrated for its beauty (Cant 6 4), and perhaps to be placed at
Teia^ir, about 11 miles N.E. of Shechem, in romantic scenery above the Jordan valley. Omri reigned here also for six years (16 23) before he
built Samaria, which remained the capital till 722 BC. Samaria appears to have been a city at least as large as Jerus, a strong site 5 miles N.W. of Shechem, commanding the trade route to its west.
It resisted the Assyrians for 3 years, and when it
fell Sargon took away 27,290 captives. Excava-
tions at the site will, it may be hoped, yield results
of value not as yet published. See next article. The wanderings of Elijah extended from Zarophath (Surafend), S. of Sidon, to Sinai. The posi-
tion of the Brook Cherith (17 3) where—according
Palestine THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2218
about 600 BC, since they could not have reached Edom except from the N., and did not appear in Pal between the time of Amraphel (who only reached Kadesh-bamea) , and of Nebuchadnezzar. It is at
enough to point out here that King Mesha's account on the M S agrees with the OT, even in the minute detail that "men of Gad dwelt in Ataroth from of old" (cf Nu 32 34), though it lay in the lot of Reuben.
least clear (24 1-12) that this great poem was written in a time of general anarchy, and of Arab
The topographical notices in the boolcs irritten after the captivity require but short notice. The Benjamltes built up Lod (Ludd), Ono {Kcfr 'Ana) and 6. PostAijalon (Yalo), wtuch were in the lot of
lawlessness.
In the Pss there are many allusions to the natural phenomena of Pal, but there is very little detailed topog-
exilic Dan (1 Ch 8 12; Neh 11 36), and it is „. . . , worthy of note that Lod (Lydda) is not rlistoncal to be regarded as a new town simply boBooks cause not mentioned in the earlier books; for Lod is mentioned (no. 64) with Ono in the lists of Thothmes III, a century before the Heb conquest of Pal. The author of Ch had access to information not to be found elsewhere in the OT. His list of Rehoboam's fortresses (2 Ch 11 6-10) includes 14 towns, most of which were on the frontiers of the diminished kingdom of Judah, some being noticed (such as Shoco and Adoraim) in the list of Shishak's conquests. He speaks of the "valley of Zephathah" (14 10). now Wdrly ^ifieh, which is otherwise unnoticed, and places it correctly at Marcshah (Mcr'ash) on the edge of the Phili plain. He is equally clear about the topography in describing the attack on Jehoshaphat by the Ammonites, IMoabites and Edomites. They camped at En-gedi (' Ain Jidi), and marched W. toward Tokoa iTeku'a); and the thanksgiving assembly, after the Heb victory, was in the valley of Beracah (2 Ch 20 1.20.26), which retains its name as BreikUt, 4 miles W. of Tekoa.
raphy. " The mountain of Bashan" (Ps 68
•) Rnolr of L5) rises E. of the plateau to 5,700 ft. above i. J30UK ui sea-level; bub Zalmon (ver 14) is an unFsalms known mountain (cf Zalmon, Jgs 9 48). This Ps might well refer to David's conquest of Damascus (2 S 8 6), as Ps 72 refers to the time of Solomon, being the last in the original collection of "prayers of David" (ver 20). In Ps 83 (vs 6-S) we find a confederacy of Edom, Ishmael, Moab and the Hagarenes (or "wanderers" E. of Pal; cf 1 Ch 5 18-22) with Gebal (in Lebanon), Ammon, Amalek, and Tyre,
all in alliance with Assyria—a condition which first existed in 732 BC, when Tiglath-pileser III conquered Damascus. The reference to the "northern" ("hidden") tribes points to this date (ver 3), since this conqueror made captives also in Galilee (2 K 15 29; 1 Ch 5 26; Isa 9 1). In Prov the allusions are more peaceful, but not geographical. They refer to agriculture (3 10; 11 26; 12 11; 25 13), to trade (7 16; 31 14.24) ^ Bnolr nf and to flocks (27 23-27). The most o. ijuuit ui remarkable passage (26 8) reads literaUy. froverDS "As he that packs a stone into the stoneheap, so is he that giveth honor to a fool." Jerome said that this referred to a superstitious custom
IV. Palestine in the Poetic Books of the OT.—
In Job the scene is distinctively Edomite. Uz (Job 1 1; cf Gen 22 21 ERV; Jcr 25 20;
and the erection of stone heaps at graves, or round a pillar (Gen 31 4.5.46), is a widely spread and very ancient custom (still preserved by Arabs) , each stone being the memorial of a visitor to the spot, who thus honors either a local ghost or demon, or a dead man—a rite which was foolish in the eyes of a Hebrew of the age in which this verse was written (see Expos T, VIII, 399, 524).
1. Book Lam 4 21) and Buz (Job 32 2; cf
of Job Gen 22 21) are the Assyr Hazu and Bazu reached by Esarhaddon in 67.3 BC S. of Edom. Tema and Sheba (Job 6 19) are noticed yet earlier, by Tiglath-pileser III, and Sargon, who conquered the Thamudites and Nabataeans. We have also the conjunction of snowy mountains and ice (Job 6 16) with notice of the desert and the 'Arabah valley (24 5), which could hardly apply to any region except Edom. Again, we have a nomad population dwelling close to a city
The geography of Cant is specially important to a right understanding of this bridal ode of the Syrian
princess who was Solomon's first bride.
4. Song of It is not confined, as some critics say Songs it is, to the north, but includes the whole of Pal and Syria. The writer names Kedar in North Arabia (1 5) and Egypt, whence horses came in Solomon's time (19; IK 10 28.29). He knows the henna (AV "camphire") and the vineyards of En-gedi (1 14), where vineyards still existed in the 12th cent. AD. He speaks of the "rose" of Sharon (2 1), as well as of Lebanon, with Shenir (Assyr Saniru) and Hermon (4 8) above Damascus (7 4). He notices the pastoral slopes of Gilead (6 5), and the brown pool, full of small fish, in the brook below Heshbon (7 4), in Moab. The locks of the "peaceful one" (6 13, Vulg pacified) are like the thick copses of Carmel; 'the king is caught in the tangles' (7 5). See Galleey. She is "beautiful as Tirzah [in Samaria], comely as Jerus, terrible to look at" (6 4AV). She
(29 4-7)—perhaps Petra, or Md'an in Edom. There were mines, not only in the Sinaitic desert, but at Punon in Northern Edom (cf 28 2-11). The white broom (30 4) is distinctive of the deserts of Moab and Edom. The wild ass and the ostrich
(39 .5.13) are now known only in the desert E. of Edom; while the stork (39 13 RVm) could have been found only in the 'Arabah, or in the Jordan
valley. The wild ox (39 9 RV), or Bos primi-
genius, is now extinct (LXX "unicorn," Nu 23 22; bt 33 17), though itsbones occurinLebanoncaves.
It was hunted about 1130 BC in Syria by Tiglath-
pileser I (cf Ps 29 6), and is mentioned as late as the time of Isaiah (34 7) in connection with Edom;
its Heb name (f'e-m) is the Assyr rimu, attached
to a representation of the beast. As regards the
is a garden and a "paradise" ("orchard") of spices in Lebanon, some of which spices (calamus, cinnamon, frankincense and myrrh) have come from far lands (4 12-15). Solomon's vineyard—another emblem of the bride— (1 6; 8 11) was in Baalhamon, which some suppose to be Baal-hermon,
crocodile ("leviathan," 41 1), it was evidently well known to the writer, who refers to its strong, musky
smell (ver 31), and it existed not only in Egypt but
in Pal, and is still found in the Crocodile River, N.
of Caesarca in Sharon. Behemoth (40 1.5), though commonly supposed to be the hippopotamus, is more probably the elephant (on account of its
still famous for its vineyards. He comes to fetch her from the wilderness (3 6); and the dust raised by his followers is like that of the whirlwind pillars which stalk over the dry plains of Bashan in summer. The single word "paradise" (4 13 m) is hardly evidence enough to establish late date, since though used in Pors—its etymology and origin are unknown. The word for "nuts" (Heb 'eghoz) is also not Pors (6 11), for the Arab, word y=>-\, jauz,
long tail, its trunk, and its habit of feeding in mountains, vs 17.20.24); and the elephant was known to the Assyrians in the 9th cent. BC, and was found wild in herds on the Euphrates in the 16th
cent. BC. The physical allusions in Job seem
clearly, as a rule, to point to Edom, as do the geo-
graphical names; and though Christian tradition
in the 4th cent. AD (St. Silvia, 47) placed Uz in Bashan, the LXX (42 IS) defines it as lying "on
is Sem, and means a "pair," applying to the walnut which abounds in Shechem. The "rose of Sharon" (2 1), according to the Tg, was the white "narcissus"; and the Heb word occurs also in Assyr {haha^illatu), as noted by Delitzsch (quoting WAI, V, 32, no. 4), referring to a white bulbous plant.
the boundary of Edom and Arabia." None of these
allusions serves to fix dates, nor do the peculiarities
of the language, though they suggest Aram, and
Arab, influences. The mention of Babylonians (1
17) {Kasdim) as raiders may, however, point to
2219 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Palestine
S'wmieh, 2 miles S.W. of Heshbon (Hesbdn)—is said to have had vines reaching to Jazer {Sa'aur, 6 miles to the N.) ; and rock-cut wine presses still remain at Sibmah (Isa 16 8; Jer 48 32). The Bozrah mentioned with Edom (Isa 34 6; 63 1; Jer 49 13.22; Mio 2 12) is probably BuKeirah, near the southern border of Moab. In the last-cited passage there is a play on the words haQrah ("fortress") and bograh for "sheepfold."
Sharon in spring is covered still with wild narcissi, Ara,b. bu^eil (cf Isa 35 1.2). There is perhaps no period when such a poem is more likely to have been written than in the time of Solomon, when Israel "dwelt safely, every man under his vine and under his fig-tree" (1 K 4 25); when the roe and the fallow deer (Cant 2 17; 1 K 4 23) abounded; and when merchants (Cant 3 6) brought "powders" from afar; when also the dominion included Damascus and Southern Lebanon, as well as Western Pal
In Jer (1 1), Anathoth {'Andta) is mentioned as a
priests' city (cf 1 K 2 26). The "place" or shrine of Shiloh was deserted (Jer 7 12), but
with Gilead and Moab. See also Song of Songs. V. Palestine in the Prophets.—Isaiah (1 8) likens Zion, when the Assyr armies were holding
2. Jeremiah the town seems still to have been inhabited (41 5). The "pit" at Mizpah (vs 6-9) may have been the great rock reservoir S. of Tell en-Nasheh. The Moabite towns noticed (48 l-.5.20-24.:31-45; 49 3) with Rabbah ('AmTjidn) have been mentioned as occurring in the parallel passages of Isa. The numerous petty kings in Edom, Moab, Philistia, Phoenicia, and Arabia (25 20-24)
Samaria, Moab and Phihstia, to "a 1. Isaiah booth in a vineyard, a lodge in a garden of cucumbers." He refers no doubt to a "tower" (Mt 21 33), or platform, such as is to be found beside the rock-cut wine press in the deserted vineyards of Pal ; and such as is still built, for the watchman to stand on, in vineyards and vegetable gardens.
recall those named in Assyr lists of the same age. Lam 4 3 recalls Job 39 14 in attributing to the
The chief topographical question (10 28-32)
Pilgrims Bathing in the Jordan.
refers to the Assyr advance from the north, when
ostrich want of care for her young, because she endeavors (like other birds) to escape, and thus draws away the hunter from the-hest. This verse should not be regarded as showing that the author knew that whales were mammals, since the word "sea-monsters" (AV) is more correctly rendered "jackals" (RV) or "wild beasts."
the outposts covered the march through Samaria
(whether in 732, 722, or 702 BC) to Philistia. They extended on the left wing to Ai (Haydn), Michmash
(Mukhrnds), and Geba, S. of the Michmash valley
iJeba'), leading to the flight of the villagers, from Ramah {er-R&m) and the region of Gibeah—which
In Ezk (ch 27), Tyre appears as a city with a very widespread trade extending from Asia Minor
included Ramah, with Geba (1 S 22 6) and Mi-
gron (1 S 14 2) or "the precipice." They were alarmed also at Gallim {Beit Jdla), and Anathoth
to Arabia and Egypt, and from Assyria
3. Ezekiel to the isles (or "coasts") of the Mediterranean. The "oaks of Bashan" (27 6; Isa 2 13; Zee 11 2) are still found in the S.W. of that region near Gilead. Judah and Israel then provided wheat, honey, oil and balm for export as in the time of Jacob. Damascus sent white wool and the wine of Helbon (Helbon), 13 miles N., where fine vineyards still exist. The northern border described (47 15-18) is the same that marked that of the dominions of David, running along the Eleutherus River toward Zedad (Sudud)
CAndta), near Jerus; yet the advance ceased at Nob (cf Neh 11 32) where, as before noted, the
first glimpse of Zion would be caught if Nob was
at or near Mizpah (Tell en Na^beh), on the mam
north road leading W. of Ramah.
Another passage refers to the towns of Moab (Isa
15 1-6), and to Nimrim ( Tell Nimrtn) and Zoar ( Tell
esh ShdghUr) in the valley of Shittim. The ascent
of Luhith (ver 5) is the present Tal'at el Heilh, on
the southern slope of Nebo {Jehel Neba). The
curious term "a heifer of three years old" (cf Jer
It is described also in Nu 34 8-11 as passing Riblah
48 34 m) is taken from LXX, but might better be
(Riblah) and including Ain (el 'Ain), a village on the western slopes of the Anti-Lebanon, E. of Rib-
rendered "a round place with a group of three" (see Eglath-shelishiyah) . It is noticed with the "high
lah. In this passage (as in Ezk 47 IS) the Hauran
places" of Moab (Isa 15 2; Jer 48 35), and prob-
(or Bashan plain) is excluded from the land of
ably refers to one of those large and ancient stone
Israel, the border following the Jordan valley, which seems to point to a date earlier than the time when the Havvoth-jair (Nu 32 41; .Dt 3 14; Josh
circles, surrounding a central group of three rude
pillars, which still remain m Moab {bhl , I, 1»'.
203, 233) near Nebo and Zoar. Sibmah—probably
Palestine THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2220
13 30; Jgs 10 4; 1 K 4 13; 1 Ch 2 23), in Gilead and Bashan, were conquered or built possibly after the death of Joshua. The southern border of the land is described by Ezekiel (47 19) as reaching from Kadesh (-barnea)—probably Petra —to Tamar, which seems to be Tamrah, 6 miles N.E. of Gaza.
of Judas Maccabaeus (2 15), where his brother Simon erected seven monuments visible from the sea (9 19; 13 25-30), was above the plain in which o 1 -fjfarro Cedron (Katrah, 5 miles E. of Jamnia) o. ± ividCLdgjQ^^ (,jg- ^Q^j ^g ^ gj ^^^ jg clearly Dees the present viUage el Midieh on the low hills with a sea view, 17 miles from Jerus and 6 miles B. of Lydda, near which latter Eusebius (Onom s.v. "Modeim") places Modin. The first victory of Judas (3 24) was won at Beth-horon, and the second at Emmaus (' Amwds) by the Valley of Aijalon—the scenes of Joshua's victories also.
In the Minor Prophets there are fewer topographical notices. Hosea (12 11) speaks of the altars of Gilead and Gilgal as being 4. Minor "as heaps in the furrows of the fields." Prophets He perhaps alludes to the large dolmenfields of this region, which still characterize the country E . of the Jordan . He also perhaps speaks of human sacrifice at Bethel (13 2). In Joel (1 12) the apple tree (Heb tappWh, Arab, tuffah)
The Greeks next attempted to reach Jerus from the S. and were again defeated at Beth-zur (4 29), now Beit-siir, on the watershed, 15 miles S. of Jerus, where the road 'runs through a pass. Judas next (after cleansing the temple in 165 BC) marched 8. of the Dead Sea, attacking the Edomites at Arabattine (perhaps Akrabbim) and penetrating to the Moab plateau as far N. as Jazar (5 3-8). On his return to Judaea the heathen of Gilead and Bashan rose against the Israelites of Tubias (ver 13) or Tob (Taiyibeh), and the Phoenicians against the Galilean Hebrews who were, for a time, withdrawn to Jerus untd the Hasmoneans won complete independence
is noticed (cf Cant 2 3.5; 8 5), and there seems to be no reason to doubt that the apple was cultivated, since el Mukaddasi mentions "excellent apples" at Jerus in the 10th cent. AD, though
(11 7.59). In the regions of Northern Gilead and Southern Bashan (5 26.36.37) Judas conquered Bosor (Bu.y), Alema (Kefr el-ma), Casphon (Khisfln), Maged (perhaps el Mejd, N. of 'Amm&n), and Camaim (Ashteroth-karnaim), now Tell
it is not now common in Pal. The sycamore fig (Am 7 14), which was common in the plains and in the sh'phelah (1 K 10 27), grew also near Jericho
' A shierah. The notice of a "brook" at the last-named place (ver 42) is an interesting touch, as a fine stream runs S. from the west side of the town. In 162 BC Judas was defeated at Bathzacharias (6 32), now Beit Skdria, 9 miles S. of Jerus. but the cause was saved by a revolt in Antioch ; and in the next year he defeated Nicanor near Caphar-salama (perhaps Selmeh, near Joppa), and slew him at Adasah (' Adaseh), 8 miles S.E. of Beth-horon (7 31.40.45). The fatal battle in which Judas was killed (9 6.15) was fought also near Beth-horon. He camped at Eleasa (Il'asa), close by, and defeated the Greeks on his right, driving them to Mt. Azotus (or Beth-zetho. according to Jos [Ani. XII, xi, 2]), apparently near Bir-ez-Zeit, 4 miles N.W. of Bethel; but the Greeks on his left surrounded him during this rash pursuit.
(Lk 19 4), where it is still to be found. In Mic
(1 10-15), a passage which appears to refer to Hezekiah's reconquest of the sh'phelah towns and attack on Gaza before 702 BC (2 K 18 8; 2 Ch 28 18) gives a list of places and a play on the name of each. They include Gath (Tell es Safi), Saphir (es Sdfir), Lachish (Tell d-Hesy), Achzib CAin Kezbeh), and Mareshah (Mer'ash) : "the glory of Israel shall come even unto Adullam" CAid-el-ma) perhaps refers to Hezekiah himself (Mic 1 15). After the captivity Philistia (Zee 9 5) was still independent. See Philistines. The meaning of the "mourning of Hadadrimmon in the Valley of Megiddon" (Zee 12 11) is disputed. Jerome (see Beland, Pal Illusir.,
On the death of Judas, Bacchides occupied Judaea and fortified the frontier towns (9 50.51) on all sides. Simon and Jonathan were driven to the marshes near the Jordan, but in 159 BC the Greeks made peace with Jonathan who returned to Michmash (ver 73) and 7 years later to Jerus (10 1.7). Three districts on the southern border of Samaria were then added to Judaea
II, 891) says that the former of these names referred to a town near Jezreel (Maximiauopolis, now Rummaneh, on the western side of the plain of Esdraelon), but the mourning "for an only son" was probably a rite of the Syrian god called Hadad, or otherwise Rimmon, like the mourning for Tammuz
(10 30; 11 34), namely Lydda, Apherema (or Ephraim) now Taiyibeh, and Ramathem (er-Rdm); and Jonathan defeated the Greeks in Philistia (10 69; H 6). Simon was "captain" from the "Ladder of Tyre" (Rds en Nakdrah), or the pass N. of Accho, to the borders of Egypt (11 59); and the Greeks in Upper GalUee were again defeated by Jonathan, who advanced from Gennesaret to the plain of Hazor (Hazzur), and pursued them even to Kedesh Naphtali (Kedes), northward (vs 63.73). He was victorious even to the borders of Hamath. and the Eleutherus River (Nahr el Kebtr), N. of Tripolis, and defeated the Arabs, called Zabadeans (probably at Zebddny in Anti-Lebanon), on his way to Damascus (12 25. 30.32). He fortified Adida (HadUheh) in the shopheldh (ver 38), W. of Jerus, where Simon awaited the Gr usurper Tryphon (13 13.20). who attempted to reach Jerus by a long detour to the S. near Adoraim (Dura), but failed on account of the snow in the mountains. After the treacherous capture of Jonathan at Accho, and his death in Gilead (12 48; 13 23), Simon became the ruler of all Pal to Gaza (13 43), fortifying Joppa, Gezer and Ashdod (14 34) in 140 BC. Five years later he won a final victory at Cedron (Katrah), near Jamnia (Yebnah), but was murdered at' Dok (16 15), near Jericho, which site was a small fort at 'Ain Duk, a spring N. of the city. The second Book of Mace presents a contrast to the first in which, as we have seen, the geography is easily understood. Thus the site of Caspis 4. 2 Macca- "'*'' i*'^ l^^^e (12 13.16) is doubtful. It hppo seems to be placed in Idumaea, and Charax "CCS may be the fortress of Kerak in Moab (ver 17). Ephron. W. of Ashterothkarnaim (vs 26.27), is unknown; and Beth-shean is called by Its later name Scythopolis (ver 29), as in the LXX (Jgs 1 27) and in Jos (Ant, XII, viii, 5; vi, 1). A curious passage (13 4-6) seems to refer to the Pers burial towers (still used by Parsees). one of which appears to have existed at Berea (Aleppo), though this was not a Gr custom. See Asmoneans.
(Ezk 8 14).
VI. Palestine in the Apocrypha.—The Book ot Jth is regarded by Renan {Evangiles, 1877, 29) as a Haggddhd^
or legend, written in Heb in 74 AD. It is remarkable, however, that its geographical allusions are very correct. Judith was apparently of the tribe of Manasseh (8 2.3) ; and her husband, who bore this name, was buried between Dothaim (Tell Dolhin) and Balamon (in W&dy Belameh), E. of Dothan. Her home at Bethulia was thus probably at Mithilieh, on a high hill (6 11.12), 5 miles S.E. of Dothan (SWP, II, 156), in the territory of Manasseh. The requirements of the narrative are well met; for this village is supplied only by wells (7 1.3.20), though there are springs at the foot of the hUl to the S. (7 7.12), while there is a good view over the valley to the N. (10 10), and over the plain of Esdraelon to Nazareth and Tabor. Other mountains surround the village (15 3). The camp of the invaders reached from Dothan to Belmaim (Balamon) from W. to E., and their rear was at Cyamon (Tell KeimHn), at the foot of Carmel. The Babylonians were allied with tribes from Carmel, Gilead and Galilee on the N. with the Samaritans, and with others from Betane (probably Beth-anoth, now Beit 'Ainun, N". of Hebron), Chellus (Klalash—the later Elusa—8 miles S.W. of Beersheba), and Kades (' Ain Kadis) on the way to Egypt. Among Samaritan towns S. of Shechem, Ekrebel ('Akraheh) and Chusi (KHzah) are mentioned, with "the brook Mochmur" (Wddu el Humr) rising N. of Ekrebel and running E. into the Jordan.
1. Book of Judith
The philosophical Book of Wisd has no references to Pal; and in Ecclus the only allusions are to the palm of
En-gaddi (24 14), where palms still exist, and to the "rose plant in Jericho" (24 14; cf 39 13; 60 8); the description of the rose as "growing by the brook in the field" suggests the rhododendron (Tristram, NHB, 477), which flourishes near the Jordan and grows to great size beside the brooks of Gilead.
VII. Palestine in the NT.—We are told that Our Lord was born in "Bethlehem of Judaea"; and
2. Book of Wisdom
the theory of Neubauer, adopted by 1. Synoptic Griitz, that Bethlehem of Zebulun Gospels (Josh 19 15)—which was the present Beil-Lahm, 7 miles N.W. of Nazareth is to be understood, is based on a mistake. The
Judas Maccahaeus.—The flr.st Book of Mace is a valuable history going down to 13.5 BC, and its geographical allusions are sometimes important. Modin, the home I
2221 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Palestine
Jews expected the Messiah to appeur in the home of David (Mic 5 2) ; and the Northern Bethlehem was not called "of Nazareth," as asserted by Rix {Tenl and Teslmnent, 258); this was a conjectural readmg by Neubauer {Geog. du Talm, 189), but the Talm (Talm Jerus, M'ghillah 1 1) calls the place Beihlehem-.frUh (or "of balm"), no doubt from the storax bush (Styrax officinalis) or stacto (Ex 30 34), the Arab, 'ahhar, which still abounds in the oak wood close by.
unnoticed in the OT, or by Jos, while even a Galilean (Jn 1 46) could hardly believe that a prophet could come thence. Jerome (Onom s.v.) calls it a "village"; but today it is a town with 4,000 Christians and 2,000 Moslems, the former taking their Arab, name (Nasarah) from the home of their Master.
(3) Capernaum (Mt 4 13; 9 1) lay on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, apparently (Mt 14 .34; Jn 6 17) in the little plain of Gennesaret, which stretches for 3 miles on the northwest side of the lake, and which has a breadth of 2 miles. It may have stood on a low cliff (though this is rendered doubtful by the Sin. MS rendering of Mt 11 23— "Shalt thou be exalted unto heaven?"), and it was a military station where taxes were levied (9 9), and possessed a synagogue (Mk 1 21; Lk 4 3.3; Jn 6 59). Christian tradition, since the 4th cent. AD, has placed the site at Tell Htlm, where ruins of a synagogue (probably, however, not older than the 2d cent. AD) exist; but this site is not in the plain of Gennesaret, and is more probably K'phar 'Ahim (Talm Bab, M'naholk 85a). Jewish tradition (Midhrash Koheleth, vii.20) connects Capernaum with minim or "heretics"—that is to say Christians—whose name may yet linger at ^Ain Minyeh at the north end of the plain of Gennesaret. Jos states {BJ, III, x, 8) that the spring of Capernaum watered this plain, and contained the catfish
(1) Galilean scenery.—The greater part of the life of Jesus was spent at Nazareth in Zebulun, and the ministry at Capernaum in Naphtali (cf Mt 4 13-15; Isa 9 1), with yearly visits to Jerus. The Gospel narratives and the symbohsm of the para-
{coracinus) which is still found in 'Aire el Mudawwerah ("the round spring"), which is the principal source of water in the Gennesaret oasis.
(4) The site of Chorazin (Kerdzeh) has never been lost. The ruined village lies about 2j miles N. of Tell Hum and possesses a synagogue of similar character. Bcthsaida ("the house of fishing")
Traditional Mount of the Precipitation near Nazareth.
is once said to have been in Gahlee (Jn 12 21), and Ileland (Pal Illuslr., II, 553-55) thought that there were two towns of the name. It is certain that the other notices refer to Bethsaida, called Julias by Herod Philip, which Jos {Ard, XVIII, ii, 1; iv,
bles constantly recall the characteristic features of Galilean scenery and nature, as they remain unchanged today. The "city set on a hill" (Mt 5
14) may be seen in any part of Pal; the lilies of the field grow in all its plains; the "foxes have holes" and the sparrows are still eaten; the vineyard with its tower; the good ploughland, amid stony and thorny places, are all still found throughout the Holy Land. But the deep lake surrounded by precipitous cliffs and subject to .sudden storms, with its shoals of fish and its naked fishers; the cast nets and drag nets and small heavy boats of the Sea of Galilee, are more distinctive of the Gospels,
6; BJ, III, x, 7) and Pliny {NH, v.l5) place E. of the Jordan, near the place where it enters the Sea of Galilee. The site may be at the ruin ed Dikkeh ("the platform"), now 2 miles N. of the lake, but probably nearer of old, as the river deposit has increased southward. There are remains of a synagogue here also. The two miracles of feeding the 5,000 and the 4,000 are both described as occurring E. of the Jordan, the former (Lk 9 10) in the desert
since the lake is but briefly noticed in the OT.
(of Golan) "belonging to the city called Bethsaida" (AV). The words (Mk 6 45 AV), "to go to the other side before unto Bethsaida," may be rendered without any straining of grammar, "to go to the side opposite to Bethsaida." For the disciples are not said to have reached that citj'; but, after a voyage of at least 3 or 4 miles (Jn 6 17.19), they arrived near Capernaum, and landed in Gennesaret
(2) Nazareth wa.s a little village in a hill plateau N. of the plain of Esdraelon, and 1,000 ft. above it.
(Mk 6 53), about 5 miles S.W. of the Jordan.
(5) The place where the swine rushed down a
•steep place into the lake (Mt 8 32; Mk 5 1; Lk 8 26) was in the country of the Gerasenes (see Vat. MS), probably at Kersa on the eastern shore oppo-
site Tiberias, where there is a steep slope to the water.
It should be noted that this was in Decapolis (Mk 5 20), a region of "ten cities" which lay (except Scythopolis) in Southwest Bashan, where a large number of early Gr inscriptions have been found, some of which (e.g. Vogiie-Waddington, nos. 2412, 2413) are as old as the 1st cent. AD. There was evidently a Gr jjopulation in this region in the time of Our Lord; and this accounts for the feeding of swine, otherwise distinctive of "a far country" (Lk 15 13.15); for, while no Hebrew would have tended the unclean beast in Pal, the Greeks were swineherds from the time at least of Homer.
Plowing near Nazareth.
The name (Heb nagdrdh) may mean "verdant," and it had a fine spring, but it is connected (Mt 2
23) in the Gospels with the prophecy of the "branch"
(neQcr, Isa 11 1) of the house of David. Its popula-
tion was Hebrew, for it possessed a synagogue (Lk
4 16). The "brow of the hill whereon their city was built" (4 29) is traditionally the "hill of the
leap" (Jebel Kafsi), 2 miles to the S.—a cliff over-
looking the plain. Nazareth was not on any grciit highway; and so obscure was this village that it is
(6) The site of Magadan-Magdala (Mejdel) was
Palestine Pal (Exploration) THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2222
it 20 Rom miles N. of Jerus, where the village Taiyiheh looks down on the desert of Judah.
on the west shore at the S.W. end of the Gennesaret plain (Mt 15 39). In Mk 8 10 we find Dalmanutha instead. Magdala was the Heb mighdol ("tower"), and Dalmanutha may be regarded as the Aram, equivalent {D''almanfdha) meaning ' 'the place of high buildings'
In the Book of Acts the only new site, unnoticed before, is that of Antipatris (23 31). This stood at the head of the stream (Me-jarkon)
3. Book which runs thence to the sea N. of
' ; so that there is no necessary discrepancy between the two accounts. From this place Jesus again departed by ship to "the other side," and reached Bethsaida (Mt 16 5; Mk 8 13.22), traveling thence up the Jordan valley to Caesarea Philippi (Mt 16 13; Mk 8 27), or BdniCis, at the Jordan springs. There can be little doubt that the "high mountain apart" (Mt 17 1) was Hermon. The very name signifies "separate," applying to its solitary dome; and the sudden formation of cloud on the summit seems to explain the allusion in Lk 9 34.
of Acts Joppa, and it was thus the half-way station between Jerus and the seaside capital at Caesarea. The site is now called Rds el 'Am ("head of the spring"), and a castle, built in the 12th cent., stands above the waters. The old Rom road runs close by {SWP, II, 258). Caesarea was a new town, founded by Herod the Great about 20 BC {SWP, II, 13-29). It was even larger than Jerus, and had an artificial harbor. Thence we may leave Pal with Paul in 60 AD. The reader must judge whether this study of the country does not serve to vindicate the sincerity and authenticity of Bible narratives in the OT and the NT alike.