Part 20
of Christ. To him Jesus is Christ and Christ is
Jesus. He has no patience with the incipient Cerinthian Gnosticism, nor with the docetic Gnos-
ticism that denied the true humanity of Jesus.
'The real mystery of God is Christ, not the so-called mystery-reUgions. Christ has set us free from the bondage of ceremonial legahsm. We are free from the curse of the law (Gal 3 13). Grace is the dis-
tinctive word for the gospel (Rom 3-5), but it must
lead to sanctification (Rom 6-8), not hcense (Col
3). Paul's Christology is both theocentric and anthropocentric, but it is theocentric first.
_ His notion of redemption is the love of God seeking a world lost in sin and finding love's way, the only way consonant with justice, in the atoning sacrifice
of Jesus Christ His Son (Roni 3 21^31). The
sinner comes into union with God in Christ by faith
in Christ as Redeemer and Lord. Henceforth he
lives to God in Christ by the help of the Holy
historical method, and that has some advantages (cf
Spirit (Rom 8; Gal 5). Paul presents God as
Sabatier, The Apostle Paul). But at bottom Paul
Paul, the Apostle Pauline Theology THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2288
the NT, 1900; Hort, Prolegomena to Rom and Eph, 1895; Harnack, The Acts of the Apostles. 1909. Dale of the Acts andthe Synoptic Gospels, 1911, History of Early Christian Lit. until Eusebius, 1897; Holtzmann, Einleitung^, 1892; James, Genuineness and Authorship of the Pastoral Epp., 1906; Julicher, Intro to the NT, 1903; Lake, Earlier Epp. of St. Paul, 1911; Moflatt, Jntro to the Lit. of the NT, 1911; Peake, Critical Intro to the NT, 1909; Salmon, /7i(ro to the NT, 1892; R. Scott, Epp. of Paul, 1909; Shaw, The Pauline Epp., 1903; von Soden, History of Early Christian Lit., 1906; B. Weiss, Present State of the Inquiry Concerning the Genuineness of Paul'
Father of all in one sense (Eph 4 6), but in a special senseof the believers in Christ (Rom 8 15 f). Jesus Christ is the Incarnation of the Pre-incarnate Son of God (2 Cor 8 9; PhH 2 5-10), who is both God and man (Rom 1 3f). With Paul the agent of creation is Jesus (Col 1 15 f ), who is also the head of the church universal (Col 1 18; Eph 1 22 f). In the work of Christ Paul gives the central place to the cross (1 Cor 1 17f; 2 2; Col 2 20; Eph 2 13-18). Sin is universal in humanity (Rom 1 18—3 20), but the vicarious death of Christ makes redemption possible to all who believe (Rom 3 21 ff; Gal 3 6-11). The redeemed constitute the kingdom of God or church universal, with Christ as head. Local bodies (churches) are the chief means for pushing the work of the kingdom. Paul knows two ordinances, both of which present in symbohc form the death of Christ for sin and the pledge of the behever to newness of life in Christ. These ordinances are baptism (Rom 6 1-11) and the Lord's Supper (1 Cor 11 17-34). If he knew the mystery-religions, they may have helped him by way of illustration to present his conception of the mystic union with Christ. Paul is animated by the hope of the second coming of Christ, which will be sudden (1 Thess 6 1-11) and not probably at once (2 Thess 2), but was to be considered as always imminent (1 Thess 5 2S). Meanwhile, death brings us to Christ, which is a glorious hope to Paul (2 Cor 5 1-10; Phil 1 21 ff; 2 Tim 4 18). But, while Paul was a theologian in the highest and best sense of the term, the best interpreter of Christ to men, he was also an ethical teacher. He did not divorce ethics from religion. He insisted strongly on the spiritual experience of Christ as the beginning and the end of it all, as opposed to mere ritualistic ceremonies which had destroyed the life of Judaism. But all the more Paul demanded the proof of hfe as opposed to mere profession. See Rom 6-8 in particular. In most of the epp. the doctrinal section is followed by practical e.xhortations to holy living. Mystic aa Paul was, the greatest of all mystics, he was the sanest of moralists and had no patience with hypocrites or licentious pietists or ideaHsts who allowed sentimentalism and emotionalism to take the place of righteousness. His notion of the righteousness demanded by God and given by God included both sanctification and justification. In the end, the sinner who for Christ's sake is treated as righteous must be righteous. Thus the image of God is restored in man by the regenerating work of the Spirit of God (2 Cor 3 18). Paul sees God in the face of Christ (2 Cor 4 6), and the vision of Christ brings God to all who see.
Epp., 1897; Zahn, Intro to the NT, 1909.
(3) Commentaries: For exegetical comms. on special epp. see special arts. For the ancients see Chrysostom for the Greeks, and Pelagius for the Latins. For the Middle Ages see Thomas Aquinas. For the later time see Beza, Calvin, Colet, Estius, Grotius, Cornelius a Lapide, Wettstein, Bengel. Among the moderns note Alford, Beet {Rom-Col), Boise, Bible for Home and School, Cambridge Bible for Schools, Cambridge Gr Tes~ lament, New Cent. 5i6^»3; Drummond, Epp. of Paul, Ellicott
(aU but Rom and 2 Cor), Expositor's Bible, Expositor's Gr Testament; Holtzmann, Hand-Conim. zum NT; Jowett (1 and 2 Thess, Rom, Gal), Lightfoot (Gal, Phil, Col, Philem and Notes), Lietzmann, Handbuch zum NT; Meyer (tr, revised Ger. edd), Zahn, Kommentar zum NT.
(4) Lives and Monographs: Albrecht, Paulus der Apostel Jesu C'hristi, 1903: BaCOn, The Story of Paul, 1904; Bartlet, art. in Enc Brit, 11th ed; Baring-Gould, A Study of St. Paul, 1897; Baur, The Apostle PauP, 1845; Beva,n, St. Paul in the Light of Today, 1912;Bird, Paul of Tarsus, 1900; Campbell, Paul the Mystic, 1907; Chrysostom, Homiliae in Laude S. Pauli, Opera, vol II, ed Montf. (more critically in Field's ed); Clemen, Paulus, 1904; Cone, Paul the Man, the Missionary, 1898; Cohu, ,S^ Paul in the Light of Recent Research, 1910; Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epp. of St. Paul (many edd); Deissmann, St. Paul, 1912; Drescher, Das Leben Jesu bei Paulus, 1900; Drury, The Prison Ministry of St. Paul, 1910; 'Eadie, Paul the Preacher, 18.59; Farrar, Life and Work of St. Paul (various edd); Erbes, Die Todestage der Apostel Paulus und Petrus, 1899; Fletcher, A Study of the Conversion of St. Paul, 1911; Forbes, Footsteps of St. Paul in Rome, 1899; Fouard, St. Paul and His Mission, 1894, Last Years of St. Paul, 1897; Gardner, Religious Experience of St. Paul, 1911; Garvie, Life and Teaching of St. Paul, 1909, Studies of St. Paul and His Gospel, 1911; Gilbert, Student's Life of Paul, 1899; Helm, Paulus, 1905; Honnicke, Chronologic des Lebens Pauli, 1904; Iverach, St. Paul, His Life and Time, 1890; Johnston, The Mission of St. Paul to the Rom Empire, 1909; M. Jones, St. Paul the Orator, 1910; Kennedy, St. Paul and the Mystery-Religions, 1913; Kohler, Zum Verstdndnis d. Apostels Paulus, 1908; Lewin, Life and Epp. of St. Paul, 1875; Lock, St. Paul the Master Builder, 1905; Lyttleton, Observations on Saul's Conversion, 1774; Myers, Saint Paul (various edd); Matheson. Spiritual Development of St. Paul, 1891; Means, St. Paul and the Ante-Nicene Church, 1903; Noesgen' Paulus der Apostel der Heiden, 1908; Paley, H ora'e Paulinae, 1790; Ramsay, St. Paul the Traveller, 1896, Pauline and Other Studies, 1906, Cities of St. Paul, 1908[ Luke the Physician and Other Studies, 1908, Pictures of the Apostolic Church, 1910; Renan, St. Paul, 1869A. T. Robertson, Epochs in the Life of Paul, 1909, -The Glory of the Ministry or Paul's Exultation in Preaching 1911; Sabatier, The Apostle Paul, 1896; Selden, In the Time of Paul, 1900; Schweitzer, St. Paul and His Interpreters, 1912; Smith, Voyage and Shipwreck of St Paul>, 1880; Speer, The Man Paul, 1900; Stalker Life of St. Paul, 1889; Taylor, Paul the Missionary, 1882UnderhiU, Divine Legation of St. Paul, 1889; Weinel Paul (tr, 1906): Whyte, The Apostle Paul, 1903; Wilkinson, Epic of Saul, 1891, Epic of Paul, 1897; Wrede Paulus", 1907 (tr); Wright, Cities of Paul, 1907; Wynne' Fragmentary Records of Jesus of Nazareth by a Contemporary, 1887.
Literature.—Out of the vast Pauline lit. the following selections may be mentioned:
(1) General Works : Addis, Christianity and the Rom Empire, 189.3; Bartlet. The Apostolic Age, 1899; Bohlig, Die GeisteskuUur von Torsos, 1913; Clemen, Primitive Christianity and lis Non~ Jewish Sources, 1912; Cumont, Oriental Religions in Rom Paganism, 1911; Deissmann, Light from the Ancient East, 1910; Dewick, Primitive Christian Eschaiology, 1912; Dollinger, Gentile and Jew in the Courts of the Temple of Christ, tr, 1862; Farrar, Early Days of Christianity, 1882, Darkness and Dawn, 1893; Ferrero, Greatness and Decline of Rome, 1908; Friedlander, Rom Life and Manners under the Early Empire; Glover, Conflict of Religions in the Early Rom Empire, 1910; Gunkel, Zum religionsgeschichtlichen Verst. d. NT, 1903; Hausrath, Time of the Apostles, tr; Neander, Planting and Training of the Christian Church, tr; McGiflert, A Hist of Christianity in the Apostolic Age, 1897; Karasay, The Church in the Rom Empire, 1803, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, 1895, The First Christian Cent., 1911; Reitzenstein, Die hellenistischen Mysterienreligionen. 1910; Ropes, The Apostolic Age, 1906; Schtirer, 11J P; Weizsacker, The Apostolic Age in the Christian Church, 1894^95.
(5) Teaching: A. B. D. Alexander, The Ethics of St. Paul, 1910; S. A. Alexander, Christianity of St. Paul 1899; Anonymous, The Fifth Gospel, 1906; R. Allen' Christology of St. Paul, 1912; M. Arnold, St. Paul and Protestantism, 1897; Ball, St. Paul and the Rom Law 1901; Breitenstein, Jesus et Paul, 1908; Bruce, St. Paul's Conception of Christianity, 1898; Briickner, Die Entstehung der Paulinischen Chrislologie, 1903; Bultmann Der Stil der Paulin. Predigt und die kyn. Diatribe, A91o'- Chadwick, Socio! Teaching of St. Paul. 1907, Pastoral Teaching of St. Paul, 1907; M. Dibelius, Die Geislerwelt im Glauben des Paulus, 1909; Dickie, Culture of the Spiritual Life, 1905; Dickson, St. Paul's Use of the Terms Flesh and Spirit, 1883; Du Bose, Gospel according to St Paul, 1907; Dykes, Gospel according to St. Paul, 1888' Everett, Gospel of Paul, 1893; Feine, Paul as Theologian
(tr, 1908); Greenough, Mind of Christ in St. Paul; Goguel L'Apdtre Paul el Jesus Christ, 1904; Harford, The Gospel according to St. Paul, 1912; Hicks, "St. Paul and Hellenism," Stud. Bibl, IV; Holsten, Das Evangelium des Paulus, 1S9H; Jiilicher, Paulus und Jesus, 1907; Kaftan, Jesus und Paulus, 1906; Kennedy, St. Paul's Conceptions of Last Things, 1904; Knowling, Testimony of St. Paul to Christ (3d ed, 1911); A. Meyer, Jesus or Paul f 1909;
(2) Introductions: E. Burton, Chron of St. Paul's Epp.; Clemen, Die Chron der Paulinischen Briefe, 1893, Die Einheitlichkeit der Paulinischen Briefe, 1894; Findlay, Epp. of Paul the Apostle, 1893; Gloag, Jntro to the Pauline Epp., 1876; Gregory, Canon and Text of
2289 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Paul, the Apostle Pauline Theology
Mofifatt, Paul and Paulinism, 1910; Montet, Es^ai sur la chrislologip. de Saint Paul, 1906; Niigeli, Der WurlKfhatz des Apontels Paulas, 1905; Oehler, Paulus und Jesus, 1908; Paterson, The Pauline Theology, 190:3; Pflelderer, Paulinismus, 1873, Influence of the Aposlle Paul on the Development of Christianity, 1885; Prat, La thiologie de Saint Paul, 1907; Ramsay, The Teaching of St. Paul in Terms of the Present Day, 1913; Resch, Paulinismus und die Logia Jesu, 1904; Rostron, The Christolaay of St. Paul, 1912; Simon, Die Psychologie des Apostels Paulus, 1897; Somerville, St. Paul's Conception of Christ, 1897; Stevens, The Pauline Theology, 1894; Thackeray, Relation of St. Paul to Contemporary Jewish Thought, 1900; J. Weiss, Paul and Jesus, 1909; Paul and Justification, 1913; Williams, A Plea for a Reconstruction of St. Paul's Doctrine of Justification, 1912; Wustraann, Jesus und Paulus, 1907; Zahn, Das Gesetz Gotles nach der Lehre des Apostels Paulus^, 1892.
bring from heaven the ".lerus that is above" (Gal 4
26), in which the righteous would spend a blessed eternity. See Pharisees; Messiah; Parousia. Rom 7 7-2.5 throws a further light on Saul's personal beliefs. The OT promised pardon to the sinner who amended his ways, but the
2. Saul acute moral sense of Saul taught him and Sin that he could never expect perfectly to amend his ways. The 10th Commandment was the stumbling-block. Sins of deed and of word might perhaps be overcome, but sins of evil desires stayed with him, despite his full knowledge of the Law that branded them as sinful. Indeed, they seemed stimulated rather than suppressed by the Divine precepts against them. With the best will in the world, Saul's efforts toward perfect righteousness failed continually and gave no promise of ever succeeding. He found himself thwarted by something that he came to realize was ingrained in his very nature and from which he could never free himself. Human nature as it is, the flesh (not "the material of the body"), contains a taint that makes perfect reformation impossible
A. T. Robertson PAUL, VOYAGE AND SHIPWRECK OF. See Paul the Apostle, V, 9; Phoenix.
PAULINE, pol'in, -in, THEOLOGY:
I. The Preparation 1. The Pharisee 2. Saul and Sin 3. Primitive Christianity II. The Conversion
1. Christ 2. The Spirit 3. The Unio Mystica 4. Salvation 5. Justification III. Further De\ elopments
(7 18; cf 8 3, etc). Therefore, as the Law knows no pardon for the imperfectly reformed, Saul felt his future to be absolutely black. What he longed for was a promise of pardon despite continued sin, and that the Law precluded. (Any feeling that the temple sacrifices would bring forgiveness had long since been obsolete in educated Judaism.)
1. Abolition of the Law 2. Cientiles 3. Redemption 4. Atonement 5. jNloral E.^ample 6. Function of the Law IV. Special Topics
There is every reason to suppose that Saul's experience was not unique at this period. Much has been written in recent years about the Jews' confidence in God's mercy, and abundant quotations are brought from the Talra in support of this. But the surviving portions of the literature of the Daniel-Akiba period (165 BC-135 AD) give a different impressio'n, for it is predominantly a literature of penitential prayers and confessions of sin, of pessimism regarding the world, the nation and one's self. In 2 Esd, inparticular, Saul's experience is closely paralleled, and 2 Esd 7 (of course not in AV) is one of the best comms. ever written on Rom 7-
1. The Church 2, The Sacraments
/. The Preparation.—In order to understand the development of St. Paul's theological system, it is necessary to begin with his beUefs as a Pharisee. The full extent of these beliefs, to be sure, is not now ascertainable, for Pharisaism was a rule of conduct rather than a system of dogmas, and great diversity of opinions existed among Pharisees. Yet there was general concurrence in certain broad principles, while some of St. Paul's own statements enable us to specify his beliefs still more closely.
Saul must have come in contact with Christianity very soon after Pentecost, at the latest. Some personal acquaintance with Christ is
3. Primitive in no way impossible, irrespective of Christianity the meaning of 2 Cor 5 16. But no one in Jerus, least of all a man like Saul, could have failed to learn very early that there was a new "party" in Judaism. To his eyes this "party" would have about the following appearance: Here was a band of men proclaiming that the Messiah, whom all expected, would be the Jesus who had recently been crucified. Him the disciples were preaching as risen, ascended and sitting on God's right hand. They claimed that He had sent on all His followers the coveted gift of the Spirit, and they produced miracles in proof of their claim. A closer investigation would show that the death of Jesus was being interpreted in terms of Isa 53, as a ransom for the nation. The inquirer would learn also that Jesus had given teaching that found constant and relentless fault with the Pharisees. Moreover, He had swept aside the tradition of the Fathers as worthless and had given the Law a drastic reinterpretation on the basis of eternal spiritual facts.
Saul the Pharisee believed that God was One, the Creator of all things. In His relation to His world He was transcendent, and governed
1. The it normally through His angels. CerPharisee tain of these angelic governors had been unfaithful to their trust and had wrought evil, although God still permitted them to bear rule for a time (Col 2 1.5; cf En 89 6.5). And
evil had come into humanity through the transgression of the first man (Rom 5 12; cf 2 Esd 7
118). To lead men away from this evil God gave His Law, which was a perfect revelation of duty
(Rom 7 12), and this Law was illumined by the traditions of the Fathers, which the Pharisees felt to be an integral part of the Law itself. God was merciful and would pardon the offender against the Law, if he completely amended his ways. But imperfect reformation brought no certain hope of pardon. To a few specially favored individuals God had given the help of His Spirit, but this was not
This inwardness must have appealed to Saul and he must have envied the joyous enthusiasm of the
for the ordinary individual. The great majority
disciples. But to him Pharisaism was Divine, and he was in a spiritual condition that admitted of no compromises. Moreover, the Law (Gal 3 13;
of mankind (cf 2 Esd 7 49-57), including all
Gentiles, had no hope of salvation. In a very short time the course of the world would be closed. With God, from before the beginning of creation, there was existing a heavenly being, the Son of man of Dnl 7 13, and He was about to be made manifest. (That Saul held the transcendental Messianic doc-
cf Dt 21 23) cursed anyone who had been hanged on a tree, and the new party was claiming celestial Messiahship for a man who had met this fate. The system aroused Saul's burning hatred; he appointed himself (perhaps stimulated by his moral despera-
trine is not to be doubted.) As the world was irredeemably bad, this Messiah would soon appear,
tion) to exterminate the new religion, and in pursuit
of his mission he started for Damascus.
cause the dead to rise, hold the Last Judgment and
Pauline Theology THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2290
Saul must have gained a reasonable knowledge of Christ's teachings in this period of antagonism. He certainty could not have begun to persecute the faith without learning what it was, and in the inevitable discussions with his victims he must have learned still more, even against his will. This fact is often overlooked.
2 4), but St. Paul must at first have known the presence of the Spirit through the assurance of salvation given him, a concept that he never wearies of expressing (Rom 8 16.23; Gal 4 6, etc). The work of the Spirit in producing holiness in the soul needs no comment (see Holt Spirit; Sanctification), but it is characteristic of St. Paul that it is on this part of the Spirit's activity, rather than on the miraculous effects, that he lays the emphasis. "The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace," etc (Gal 5 22) ; the greatest miracles without love are more than useless (1 Cor 13 1-3) ; in such sayings
//. The Conversion.—The immediate content of St. Paul's conversion was the reahzation that the
celestial Messiah was truly Jesus of
1. Christ Nazareth. This was simply the belief of the primitive church and was the truth for which Christ had died (Mk 14 62). But
it involved much. It made Christ the Son of God (Rom 8 32; Gal 4 4, etc), "firstborn of [i.e. "earher than"] all creation" (Col 1 15), "existing in the form of God" (Phil 2 6) and "rich" (2 Cor 8 9). In the Messiah are "all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge hidden" (Col 2 3), to be manifested at the end of time when the Messiah shall appear as the Judge of all (2 Cor 5 10, etc), causing the resurrection of the dead (1 Cor 15 45, etc). All this was given by St. Paul's former beliefs and had been claimed by Christ for Himself. That this Messiah had become man was a fact of the immediate past (the reaUty of the manhood was no problem at this period). As Messiah His sinlessness was unquestioned, while the facts of His life proved this sinlessness also. His teaching was wholly binding
St. Paul touched the depths of the purest teaching of Christ. To be sure, in the Synoptic Gospels the word "Spirit" is not often on Christ's lips, but there
is the same conception of a life proceeding from a pure center (Mt 6 22; 7 17, etc) in entire dependence on God.
Further reflection and observation taught St. Paul something of the greatest importance for Christian theology. In prayer the Spirit appeared distinguished from the Father as well as from the Son (Rom 8 26f; cf 1 Cor 2 10 f), giving three terms that together express the plenitude of the Deity (2 Cor 13 14; Eph 1 3.6.13, etc), with no fourth term ever similarly associated. See Trinity.
(1 Cor 7 10.11; that the writer of these words could have spared any effort to learn the teaching fully is out of the question). The conversion experience was proof sufficient of the resurrection, although for missionary purposes St. Paul used other evidence as well (1 Cor 15 1-11). Faith in this Messiah brought the unmistakable experience of the Holy Spirit (Rom 8 2; Gal 3 2, etc; cf Acts 9 17), demonstrating Chi'ist's Lordship
The indwelling of the Divine produced by the Spirit is spoken of indifferently as the indwelling
of the Spirit, or of the Spirit of Christ,
3. The or of Christ Himself (all three terms in Unio Rom 8 9-11; cf 1 Cor 2 12; Gal Mystica 4 6; Eph 3 17, etc). The variations are in part due to the inadequacy of the old terminology (so 2 Cor 3 17), in part to the nature of the subject. Distinctions made between the operations of the persons of the Trinity on the soul can never be much more than verbal, and the terms are freely interchangeable. At all events, tlu-ough the Spirit Christ is in the beUever (Rom 8 10; Gal 2 20; 4 19; Eph 3 17) or, what is the same thing, the behever is in Christ (Rom 6 11; 8 1; 16 7, etc). "We have become united with him" (Rom 6 5, SMmptetos, "grown together with") in a union once and for all effected (Gal 3 27) and yet always to be made more intimate (Rom 13 14). The union so accomplished makes the man "a new creature" (2 Cor 5 17). St. Paul now saw within himself a dual personality. His former nature, the old man, still persisted, with its impulses, liability 4. Salvation to temptation, and inertnesses. The "flesh" still existed (Gal 6 17; Rom 8 12; 13 14; Eph 4 22; Phil 3 12, etc). On the other hand there was fighting in him against this forrner nature nothing less than the whole power of Christ, and its final victory could not be uncertain for a moment (Rom 6 12; 8 2.10; Gal 6 16, etc). Indeed, it is possible to speak of the behever as entirely spiritual (Rom 6 11.22; 8 9, etc), as already in the Idngdom (Col 1 13), as ah-eady sitting in heavenly places (Eph 2 6). Of course St. Paul had too keen an appreciation of reality to regard believers as utterly sinless (Phil 3 12, etc), and his pages abound in reproofs and exhortations. But the present existence of remnants of sin had no final terrors, for the ultimate victory over sin was certain, even if it was not to be complete until the last day when the power of God would redeem even the present physical frame (Rom 8 11; Phil 3 21, etc).
(1 Cor 12 3; cf Acts 2 33). So "the head of every man is Christ" (1 Cor 11 3; cf Col 1 18; Eph 1 22; 4 15), with complete control of the future (1 Cor 15 25), and all righteous men are His servants ("slaves," Rom 1 1, etc). To Him men may address their prayers (2 Cor 12 8; 1 Cor 1 2, etc; cf Acts 14 23). Further reflection added to the concepts. As the Lordship of Christ was absolute, the power of all hostile beings must have been broken also (Rom 8 38; Phil 2 9-11; Col 2 15; Eph 1 21-23, etc). The Being who had such significance for the present and the future could not have been without significance for the past. "In all things" He must have had "the preeminence" (Col 1 18). It was He who ministered to the Israelites at the Exodus
(1 Cor 10 4.9). In fact He was not only "before
all things" (Col 1 17), but "all things have been created through him" (ver 16). Wisdom and Logos concepts may have helped St. Paul in reaching these conclusions, which in explicit statement are an advance on Christ's own words. But the conclusions were inevitable.
Fitting these data of religious fact into the metaphysical doctrine of God was a problem that occupied the church for the four following centuries. After endless experimenting the only conclusion was shown to be that already reached by St. Paul in Rom 9 5 (cf Tit 2 13, ERV, ARVm), that Christ
is God. To be sure, St. Paul's terminology, carried over from his pre-Christian days, elsewhere reserves "God" for the Father (and cf 1 Cor 15 28). But the fact of this theology admits only of the conclusion that was duly drawn.
A second fact given directly by the conversion was the presence of the Spirit, where the actual experience transcended anything that
As the first man to belong to the higher order, and as the point from which the race could take a fresh start, Christ could justly be termed a new Adam {1 Cor 15 4.5-49; cf Rom 5 12-21). If Cor 15 48 has anv relation to the Philonic doctrine of the two Adams, it is a polemic against it. Such a polemic would not be unlikely.
2. The had been dreamed of. Primarily the Spirit operation of the Spirit was recognized in vividly supernatural effects (Rom 15 19; 1 Cor 12 5-11, etc; cf 2 Cor 12 12; Acts
2291 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Pauline Theology
A most extraordinary fact, to the former Pharisee, was that this experience had been gained without
mystery that God had revealed only in the last days (Col 1 26f; Eph 3 3-6, etc). The struggles of the apostle in defence of this principle are the most familiar part of his career.
conscious effort and even against con-
5. Justifiscious effort (Phil 3 7 f ) . After years cation of fruitless striving a single act of selfsurrender had brought him an assurance that he had despaired of ever attaining. And this act of self-surrender is what St. Paul means by
This consciousness of dehverance from the Law came to St. Paul in another way. The Law was meant for men in this world, but the
3. Redempunion with Christ had raised him out tion of this world and so taken him away from the Law's control. In the Epp. this fact finds expression in an elaborately reasoned form. As Christ's nature is now a vital part of our nature. His death and resurrection are facts of our past as well. "Ye died, and your fife is hid with Christ in God" (Col 3 3). But "the law hath dominion over a man" only "for so long time as he liveth" (Rom 7 1). "Wherefore, my brethren, ye also were made dead to the law through the body of Christ" (ver 4). Cf Col 2 11-13.20, where the same argument is used to show that ritual observance is no longer necessary. In Rom 6 1-14 this argument is made to issue in a practical exhortation. Through the death of Christ, which is our death (ver 4), we, like Him, are placed in a higher world (ver 5) where sin has lost its power (ver 7), a world in which we are no longer under Law (ver 14). Hence the intensest moral effort becomes our duty
"faith," "faith without works." This faith is naturally almost anything in the world rather than a mere intellectual acknowledgment of a fact (Jas 2 19), and is an act of the whole man, too complex for simple analysis. It finds, however, its perfect statement in Christ's reference to 'receiving the kingdom of God as a Uttle child' (Mk 10 15). By an act of simple yielding St. Paul found himself no longer in dread of his sins; he was at peace with God, and confident as to his future; in a word, "justified." In one sense, to be sure, "works" were
still involved, for without the past struggles the result would never have been attained. A desire, however imperfect, to do right is a necessary preparation for justification, and the word has no meaning to a man satisfied to be sunk in complete selfishness (Rom 6 2; 3 8, etc). This desire to do right, which St. Paul always presupposes, and the content given "faith" are sufficient safeguards against antinomianism. But the grace given is in no way commensurate with past efforts, nor does it grow out of them. It is a simple gift of God (Rom 6 23).
(ver 13; cf 2 Cor 5 14 f). This release from the Law, however, does not solve the whole problem. Evil, present and past,
///. Farther Developments.—The adoption by
is a fact. Law or no Law (on Rom 4
St. Paul of the facts given by his conversion (and the immediate conclusions that followed from them) involved, naturally, a readjustment and a reformation of the other parts of his beUef. The process must have occupied some time, if it was ever complete during his life, and must have been affected materially by his controversies with his former core-
4. Atone15b," 5 136; see the comms.), and a ment forbearance of God that simply "passes over" sins is disastrous for man as well as contrary to the righteous nature of God (Rom 3 25 f) . However inadequate the OT sac-
rifices were felt to have been (and hence, perhaps, St. Paul's avoidance of the Levitical terms except in Eph 6 2), yet they offered the only help possible for the treatment of this most complex of problems. The guilt of our sins is "covered" by the death of Christ (1 Cor 15 3, where this truth is among those which were delivered to converts "first of all" ; Rom 3 25; 4 25; 6 6, etc). This part of his theology St. Paul leaves in an incomplete form. He was accustomed, like any other man of his day, whether Jew or Gentile, to think naturally in sacrificial terms, and neither he nor his converts were conscious of any difficulty involved. Nor has theology since his time been able to contribute much toward advancing the solution of the problem. The fatal results of unchecked evil, its involving of the innocent with the guilty, and the value of vicarious suffering, are simple facts of our experience that defy our attempts to reduce them to intellectual formulas. In St. Paul's case it is to be noted that he views the incentive as coming from God (Rom 3 25; 5 8; 8
ligionists and with very many Christians.
Fundamental was the problem of the Law. The Law was perfectly clear that he—and only he who performed it would live. But
1. AboUtion life was found through faith in Christ,
of the Law while the Law was not fulfilled. There could be no question of compromise between the two positions; they were simply incompatible (Rom 10 5f; Gal 2 16; 3 11 f; Phil 3 7). One conclusion only was possible: "Christ
is the end of the law unto righteousness to every one that beheveth" (Rom 10 4). As far as concerned the behever, the Law was gone. Two tremendous results followed. One was the immense simplification of what we call "Christian
ethics," which were now to be determined by the broadest general principles of right and wrong and no longer by an elaborate legalistic construing of God's commands (Rom 13 8-10; Gal 5 22 f, etc;
of Mk 12 29-31). To be sure, the commandments might be quoted as convenient expressions of moral duty (Eph 6 2; 1 Cor 9 9, etc; cf Mk 10 19), but they are binding because they are right, not because they are commandments (Col 2 16). So,
32, etc), because of His love toward man, so that a "gift-propitiation" of an angry deity is a theory the precise opposite of the Pauline. Moreover, Christ's . death is not a mere fact of the past, but through the
"mystical union" is incorporated into the life of every believer.
in St. Paul's moral directions, he tries to bring out always the principle involved, and Rom 14 and
Further developments of this doctrine about Christ's death And in it the complete destruction of whatever remained of the Law (Col 2 14), esp. as the barrier between Jew and Gentile (Eph 2 l.") f). The extension of the effects of the death to the unseen world (Col 2 15; cf Clal 4 9; Eph 4 8) was of course natural.
1 Cor 8 are masterpieces of the treatment of con-
crete problems by this method.
The second result of the abohtion of the Law was overwhehning. Gentiles had as much right to Christ as had the Jews, barring per-
The death of Christ as producing a subjective moral power in the believer is appealed to frequently (cf Rom 8 3; Gal 2 20; Eph
2. Gentiles haps the priority of honor (Rom 3 2,
etc) possessed by the latter. It is
altogether conceivable, as Acts 22 21 imphes, that
5. Moral 5 2.25; Phil 2 5, etc), while the idea Example is perhaps present to some degree even
St. Paul's active acceptance of this result was long delayed and reached only after severe struggles. The fact was utterly revolutionary, and although
in Rom 3 26. From a different point
it was prophesied in the OT (Rom 9 25 f), yet 'the Messiah among you Gentiles' remained the hidden
of view, the Cross as teaching the vanity of worldly things is a favorite subject with St. Paul (1 Cor 1
Pauline Theology Peacemaker THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2292
carrying Christ's message into the world (Pliil 2 15 f, and presupposed everywhere). And to God shall "be the glory in the church and in Christ Jesus unto all generations for ever and ever" (Eph 3 21). As the union with Christ's death is something more than a subjective impression made on the mind by the
22-25; 2 Cor 13 4; Gal 5 11; 6 14, etc). These aspects require no explanation.
There are. accordingly, in St. Paul's view of the death of Christ at least three distinct hnes, the "mystical," the "juristic," and the "ethical." But this distinction is largely only genetic and logical, and the lines tend to blend in all sorts of combinations. Consequently, it is frequently an impossible exegetical problem to determine which is most prominent in any given passage (e.g. 2 Cor 5 14 f).
fact of that death, the references to tlie 9 Tlio union with the death accomplished in c
. baptism in Rom 6 1-7 and Col 2 11 f sacraments are not explained by supposing them to describe a mere dramatic ceremony. That St. Paul was really influenced by the mystery-reUgion concepts has not been made out. But his readers certainly were so influenced and tended to conceive very materialistic views of the Christian sacraments (1 Cor 10 S; 15 29). And historic exegesis is bound to construe St. Paul's language in the way in which he knew his readers would be certain to understand it, and no ordinary gentile reader of St. Paul's day would have seen a purely "symbolic" meaning in either of the baptismal passages. Philo would have done so, but not the class of men with whom St. Paul had to deal. Similarly, with regard to the Lord's Supper, in 1 Cor 10 20 St. Paul teaches that through participation in a sacral meal it is possible to be brought into objective relations with demons of whom one is wholly ignorant. In this light it is hard to avoid the conclusion that through participation in the Lord's Supper the believer is objectively brought into communion with the Lord (1 Cor 10 16), a communion that will react for evil on the believer if he approach it in an unworthy manner (11 29-32): i.e. the union with Christ that is the center of St. Paul's theology he teaches to be established normalhj through baptism. And in the Lord's Supper this union is further strengthened. That faith on the part of the believer is an indispensable prerequisite for the efllcacy of the sacraments need not be said.
•^"'^
Regarding the Law a further question remained, which had great importance in St. Paul's controversies. If the Law was useless for
6. Function salvation, why was it given at all? of the Law St. Paul replies that it still had its purpose. To gain righteousness one must desire it and this desire the Law taught (Rom 7 12.16; 2 IS), even though it had no power to help toward fulfilment. So the Law gave knowledge of sin (Rom 3 20; 7 7). But St. Paul did not hesitate to go beyond this. Familiar in his own experience with the psychological truth that a prohibition may actually stimulate the desire to transgress
it, he showed that the Law actually had the purpose of bringing out all the dormant evil within us, that grace might deal with it effectually (Rom 5 20f; 7 8.2.5; cf 1 Cor 16 56). Thus the Law became our paidagogos "to bring us unto Christ" (Gal 3 24; see Schoolmaster), and came in "besides" (Rom 5 20), i.e. as something not a primary part of God's plan. Indeed, this could be shown from the Law
See, further, God; P.\rousia; Pr.^yer; Predestination; Propiti.ation, etc.
Literature.—See under Paul.
itself, which proved that faith was the primary method of salvation (Rom 4; cf Gal 3 17) and which actually prophesied its own repeal (Gal i. 21-31). With this conclusion, which must have required much time to work out, St. Paul's reversal of his former Pharisaic position was complete.
Burton Scott Easton PAULUS, po'lus, SERGIUS, sur'ji-us (Sep^ios IlaiiXos, Sergios Paulos): The Rom "proconsul" (RV) or "deputy" (AV) of Cyprus when Paul, along with Barnabas, visited that island on his first missionary journey (Acts 13 4.7). The official title of Sergius is accurately given in Acts. Cyprus was originally an imperial province, but in 22 BC it was transferred by Augustus to the Senate, and was therefore placed under the administration of proconsuls, as is attested by extant Cyprian coins of the period. When the two missionaries arrived at Paphos, Sergius, who was a "prudent man" (AV) or "man of understanding" (RV), i.e. a man of practical understanding, "sought to hear the word of God" (Acts 13 7). Bar-Jesus, or Elymas, a sorcerer at the court of Sergius, fearing the influence of the apostles, sought, however, "to turn aside the proconsul from the faith," but was struck with blindness (vs 8-11); and the deputy, "when he saw what was done, believed, being astonished at the teaching of the Lord" (ver 12). 'The narrative indicates that not only the miracle but also the attention with which Sergius hstened to the teaching of Paul (cf ver 7) conduced to his conversion (Bengel). Attempts have been made to trace some connection between the name Sergius Paulus and the fact that Saul is first called Paul in ver 9, but the joint occurrence of the two names is probably to be set down as only a coincidence. C. M. Kerr
IV. Special Topics.—As Christ is the central element in the life of the believer, all believers have this element in common and are so united with each
1 The other (Rom 12 5). This is the basis of p\ , the Pauline doctrine of the church. The i^nurcn ^ge of the word "church" to denote the whole body of believers is not attained until the later Epp. (Col 1 18; Phil 3 6; Eph 1 22, etc) —before that time the word is in the pi. when describing more than a local congregation (2 Thess 14; 1 Cor 7 17; Rom 16 16, etc)—but the idea is present from the first. Indeed, the only terms in Judaism that were at all adequate were "the nation" or "Israel." St. Paul uses the latter term (Gal 6 16) and quite constantly e.xpresses himself in a manner that suggests the OT figures for the nation (e.g. cf Eph 5 25 with Hos 2 19 f)
and time was needed in order to give ekklesia (properly "assembly") the new content.
The church is composed of all who have professed faith in Christ and the salvation of its members St. Paul takes generally for granted (1 Thess 1 4; Kom 1 7; 1 Cor 1 8, etc), even in the case of the incestuous person of 1 Cor 5 5 (cf 3 15; 11 .32). To be sure. 1 Cor 6 11-13 makes it clear that the excommunication of grave sinners had been found necessary, and one may doubt if ,St. Paul had much hope for the "false brethren" of 2 Cor 11 26; Gal 2 4 (cf 1 Cor 3 17, etc). But on the whole St. Paul's optimism has little doubt that every member of the church is in right relations with God. These members, throuf^h their union with Christ, form a corporate, social organism of the greatest possible solidarity (1 Cor 12 26. etc) and have the maximum of responsibility toward one another (Rom 14 15; 1 Cor 8 11; 2 Cor 8 13-15; Gal 6 2; Eph 4 25; Col 1 24, etc). They are utterly distinct from the world around them (2 Cor 6 14-18; 1 Cor 6 12, etc), although in constant intercourse with it (1 Cor 5 10; 10 27, etc). It was even desirable, in the conditions of the times, that the church should have her own courts like Jews in gentile cities (1 Cor 6 5f). The right of the church to discipline her members is taken for granted (1 Cor 5: 2 Cor 2 5-11). According to Acts 14 23 St. Paul made his own appointments of church officers, but the Epp. as a whole would suggest that this practice did not extend beyond Asia Minor. For further details see CHUErH Government; Ministry. A general obedience to St. Paul's own authority is presupposed throughout.
PAVEMENT, pav'ment: In the OT, with the exception of 2 K 16 17, the Heb word is HESn, ripah (2 Ch 7 3; Est 1 6; Ezk 40 17, etc)';' in Sir 20 18 and Bel ver 19 the word is eSa^os, edaphos; in Jn 19 i:3_, the name "The Pavement" (XMarpuTos, lithSslrotos, "paved with stone") is given to the place outside the Praetorium on which Pilate sat to give judgment upon Jesus. Its Heb (Aram.) equivalent is declared to be Gabbatha (q.v.). The identification of the place is uncertain.
The church is, of course, the object of Christ's sanctifying power (Eph 5 25-30) and is so intimately united with Him as to be spoken of as His "body" (1 Cor 12 27; Col 1 18; Eph 1 23, etc), or as the "complement" of Christ, the extension of His personality into the world (Eph 1 22 f). As such, its members have not only their duty toward one another, but also the responsibility of
PAVILION, pa-vil'yun: A covered place, booth, tent, in which a person may be kept hid or secret
(tfO , .jo/cA, Ps 27 5; nSD, .ju/cfca/t—the usual term— Ps 31 20), or otherwise be withdrawn from view.
2293 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Pauline Theology Peacemaker
in the LXX; cf Lk 19 42, RV "If thou hadst known .... the things which belong unto peace"),
The term is used with reference to God (2 S 22 12; Ps 18 11); to kines drinking in privacy (1 K 20 12.16); RV gives pavilion" for AV "tabernacle" in Job 36 29; Isa 4 6; while in Nu 25 8 it substitutes this word, with m "alcove," for AV "tent"
we have still the expectation of "peace" 2. In the through the coming of the Christ (Lk NT 1 74,79; 12 51) and also its fulfilment in the higher spiritual sense.
(kubbah), and Jer 43 10, for "royal pavilion" (shaphrur), reads in m "glittering pavilion."
(1) The gospel in Christ is a message of peace from God to men (Lk 2 14; Acts 10 36, "preaching .... peace by Jesus Christ"). It is "peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ," in Rom 5 1; AV 10 15; peace between Jew and Gentile (Eph 2 14.15); an essential element in the spiritual kingdom of God (Rom 14 17). (2) It is to be cherished and followed by ChristiaiiS. Jesus exhorted His disciples, "Have salt in yourselves, and be at peace one with another" (Mk 9 60); Paul exhorts, "Live in peace: and the God of love and peace shall be with you" (2 Cor 13 11; cf Rom 12 18; 1 Cor 7 15). (3) God is therefore "the God of peace," the Author and Giver of all good ("peace" including every blessing) veryfrequently (e.g. Rom 15 33; 16 20; 2 Thess 3 16, etc, "the Lord of peace"). "Peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ" is a common apostolic wish or salutation
James Obr PAW, p6 (53, kaph, lit. "pahn," n;i, yadh, lit. "hand"): The former (kaph) is applied to the soft paws of animals in contradistinction to the hoofs
(Lev 11 27); the latter is thrice used in 1 S 17 37: "Jeh that delivered me out of the paw [yadh] of the
lion, and out of the paw [yadh] of the bear, he will deliver me out of the hand [yadh] of this Philistine." The vb. "to paw" ("iSn, haphar) is found in the description of the horse: "He paweth [m "they paw"] in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength: he goethoutto meet the armed men [m "the weapons"]"
(Job 39 21). The word is usually tr"* "to delve into," "to pry into," "to explore."
H. L. E. LUERING PE, pa (D, S, D): The 17th letter of the Heb alphabet; transhterated in this Encyclopaedia as p with daghesh and ph (=/) without. It came also to be used for the number 80. For name, etc, see Alphabet.
(cf 1 Cor 1 3; 2 Cor 1 2, etc). (4) We have also "peace" as a greeting (Mt 10 13; Lk 10 5); "a son of peace" (10 6) is one worthy of it, in sympathy with it; the Lord's own greeting to His disciples was "Peace be unto you" (Lk 24 36; Jn 20 19.21.
PEACE, pes (D131B, shalom; elpV'H) eirtne):
26), and ere He left them He gave them specially His blessing of "Peace" (Jn 14 27); we have also frequently "Go in peace" (Mk 6 34; Lk 7 50). In Lk 19 38, we have "peace in heaven" (in the acclamation of Jesus on His Messianic entry of Jerus)
Is a condition of freedom from disturbance, whether
outwardly, as of a nation from war
1. In the or enemies, or inwardly, within the OT soul. The Heb word is shalom (both adj. and subst.), meaning, primarily, "soundness," "health," but coming also to signify "prosperity," well-being in general, all good in relation to both man and God. In early times, to a people harassed by foes, peace was the primary blessing. In Ps 122 7, we have "peace" and "prosperity," and in 35 27; 73 3, shalom is tr"^ "prosperity." In 2 S 11 7 AV, David asked of Uriah "how Joab did" (m "of the peace of Joab"), "and how the people did [RV "fared," lit. "of the peace of the people"], and how the war prospered"
(5) The peace that Christ brought is primarily spiritual peace from and with God, peace in the heart, peace as the disposition or spirit. He said that He did not come
' to send peace on the earth, but a sword," referring to the searching nature of His call and the divisions and clearances it would create. But, of course, the spirit of the gospel and of the Christian is one of peace, and it is a Christian duty to seek to bring war and strife ever3Tvhere to an end. This is represented as the ultimate result of the gospel and Spirit of Christ; universal and permanent peace can come only as that Spirit rules
(lit. "and of the peace [welfare] of the war").
(1) Shalom, was the common friendly greeting, used in asking after the health of anyone; also in farewells (Gen 29 6, "Is it well with him?" ["Is there peace to him?"]; 43 23, "Peace be to you"; ver 27, "He asked them of their welfare [of their peace]"; Jgs 6 23, "Jeh said unto him. Peace be unto thee"; 18 15 [AV "saluted him," m "Heb asked him of peace," RV "of his welfare"]; 19 20, etc). See also Greeting. (2) Peace from enemies (implying prosperity) was the great desire of the nation and was the gift of God to the people if they walked
in men's hearts.
"Peace" In the sense ol silence, to hold one's peace, etc, is in the OT generally the tr ol hdrash, "to be still, or silent" (Gen 24 21; 34 5; Job 11 3); also ol hashdh, "to hush," "to be silent" (2 K 2 3.5; Ps 39 '2), and of other words. InJob 29 10 ("The nobles held their peace," AV), it is kdl, "voice." In the NT we have siopdo, "to be silent," "to cease speaking" (Mt 20 31; 26 63; Acts 18 9, etc); sigdo, "to be silent," "not to speak" (Lk 20 26; Acts 12 17); hesuchdzo, "to be quiet" (Lk 14 4; Acts ll 18); phimdo, "to muzzle or gag" (Mk 1 25; Lk 4 35). In Apoc eirene is frequent, mostly in the sense of peace from war or strife (Tob 13 14; Jth 3 1; Ecclus 13 18; 1 Mace 6 54; 6 49; 2 Mace 14 6, ejis(ci(/ieia = "tranquilUty"). RV has "peace" for "tongue" (Est 7 4; Job 6 24; Am 6 10; Hab 1 13); "at peace with me" for "perfect" (Isa 42 19, m" made perfect" or "recompensed"); "security" instead of "peaceably" and "peace" (Dnl 8 25; 1121.24); "came in peace to the city," for "came to Shalem, acity" (Gen 33 18); "it was for my peace" instead of "for peace" (Isa 38 17); "when they are in peace," lor "and that which should have been for their welfare" (Ps 69 22).
in His ways (Lev 26 6; Nu 6 26, "Jeh hft up his countenance upon thee, and give thee peace"; Ps 29 11; Isa 26 12, etc). To "die in peace" was greatly to be desired (Gen 15 15; 1 K 2 6; 2 Ch 34 28, etc). (3) Inward peace was the portion of the righteous who trusted in God (Job 22 21, "Acquaint now thyself with him, and be at peace [shdlamY'; Ps 4 8; 85 8, "He will speak peace unto
his people, and to his saints"; 119 165; Prov 3 2.
17; Isa 26 3, "Thou wilt keep him in perfect peace [Heb "peace, peace"], whose mind is stayed on thee; because he trusteth in thee"; IMal 2 5); also outward peace (Job 5 23.24; Prov 16 7, etc).
W. L. Walker PEACE OFFERING. See Sacrifice.
_ (4) Peace was to be sought and followed by the righteous (Ps 34 14, "Seek peace, and pursue it"; Zee 8 16.19, "Love truth and peace"). (5) Peace should be a prominent feature of the Messianic times (Isa 2 4; 9 6, "Prince of Peace"; 11 6; Ezk 34 25; Mic 4 2-4; Zee 9 10). In the NT, where eirene has much the same meaning and usage as shalom (for which it is employed
PEACEMAKER, pes'mak-er: Occurs only in the
pi. (Mt 5 9, "Blessed are the peacemakers [eireno-
poioi]: for they shall be called sons of God" [who
is "the God of peace"]). We have also what seems
to be a reflection of this saying in Jas 3 18, "The
fruit of righteousness is sown in peace for [RVm
"by"] them that make peace" {tois poiousin eiri-
nen) . In classical Gr a ' 'peacemaker" was an ambas-
Peacock Pekah THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2294
sador sent to treat of peace. The word in Mt 5 9 would, perhaps, be better rendered "peace-workers," implying not merely making peace between those who are at variance, but working peace as that which
names for "ivory" and "apes" were also the same as the Tamil. The reference to the small, ineffectual wing of the peacock which scarcely will lift the weight of the body and train, that used to be found in Job, is now applied to the ostrich, and is no doubt correct
is the wiU of the God of peace for men.
W. L. Walkeb PEACOCK, pe'kok ("'^SPl, tukklylm [pi,]; Lat Pavo crislatus) : A bird of the genus Pavo. Japan
*'The wings of the ostrich wave proudly; But are they the pinions and plumage of love ?"
is the native home of the plainer peafowl; Siam, Ceylon and India produce the commonest and most gorgeous. The peacock has a bill of moderate size with an arched tip, its cheeks are bare, the eyes not large, but very luminous, a crest of 24 feathers 2 in. long, with naked shafts and broad tips of blue, glancing to green. The neck is not long but proudly arched, the breast full, prominent and of bright blue green, blue predominant. The wings are short and ineffectual, the feathers on them made up of a surprising array of colors. The tail consists of 18 short, stiff, grayish-brown feathers. Next is the lining of the train, of the same color. The glory of this glorious bird lies in its train. It begins on the back between the wings in tiny feathers not over 6 in. in length, and extends backward. The quills have thick shafts of purple and green shades, the eye at the tip of each feather from one-half to 2 in. across, of a deep pecuHar blue, surrounded at the lower part by two half-moon-shaped crescents of green. Whether the train lies naturally, or is spread in full glory, each eye shows encircled by a marvel of glancing shades of green, gold, purple, blue and bronze.
(Job 39 13).
While the peacock wing seems out of proportion to the size of the bird, it will sustain flight and bear the body to the treetops. The wing of the ostrich is useless for flight. Gene Stratton-Porteb
PEARL, purl. See Stones, Pkeciotjs.
PECULIAR, pf-kQl'yar: The Lat peculium means "private property," so that "peculiar" properly = "pertaining to the individual." In modern Eng. the word has usually degenerated into a halfcolloquial form for "extraordinary," but in Bib. Eng. it is a thoroughly dignified term for "esp. one's own"; cf the "peculiar treasiu-e" of the king in Eccl 2 8 (AV). Hence "peculiar people" (AV Dt 14 2, etc) means a people esp. possessed by God and particularly prized by Him. The word in the OT (AV Ex 19 5; Dt 14 2; 26 18; Ps 135 4; Eccl 2 8) invariably represents nsJO' s'ghuUah, "property," an obscure word which LXX usually rendered by the equally obscure irepiovaios, periousioa (apparently meaning "superabundant"), which in turn is quoted in Tit 2 14. In Mai 3 17, however, LXX has TreptTTofTjiris, peripolesis, quoted in
_ When this train is spread, it opens like a fan behind the head with its sparkling crest, and above the wondrous blue of the breast. The bird has the power to contract the muscles at the base of the quills and play a peculiar sort of music with them. It loves high places and cries before a storm in notes that are startling to one not famiUar with them. The bird can be domesticated and will become friendly enough to take food from the hand. The peahen is smaller than the cock, her neck green, her wings gray, tan and broi\Ti—but she has not the gorgeous train. She nests on earth and breeds with difficulty when imported, the young being delicate and tender. The grown birds are hardy when acclimated, and live to old age. By some freak of nature, pure white peacocks are at times produced. Aristophanes mentioned peafowl in his Birds, 11. 102, 269. Alexander claimed that he brought them into Greece from the east, but failed to prove his contention. Pliny wrote that Hortensius was the
1 Pet 2 9. ERV in the NT substituted "own possession" in the two occurrences, but in the OT kept "peculiar" and even extended its use (Dt 7 6; Mai 3 17) to cover every occurrence of ^'ghullah except in 1 Ch 29 3 ("treasure"). ARV, on the contrary, has dropped "peculiar" altogether, using "treasure" in 1 Ch 29 3Eccl 2 8, and "own possession" elsewhere. AV also has "peculiar commandments" (ISios, idios, "particular," RV "several") in Wisd 19 6, and RV has "peculiar" where AV has "special" in Wisd 3 14 for iK\€KTij, eklektt, "chosen out." Burton Scott Easton PEDAHEL, ped'a-hel, p5-da'el (bXn-iS, p'- dhah'el, "whom God redeems"): A prince of ISTaphtali; one of the tribal chiefs who apportioned the land of Canaan (Nu 34 28; cf ver 17).
PEDAHZUR, pg-da'zur ("lianns, p'dhah^ur): Mentioned in Nu 1 10; 2 20; 7 54.59; 10 23 as the fatherof Gamaliel, head of the tribe of Manasseh, at the time of the exodus. See Expos T, VIII, 555ff.
first to serve the birds for food, and that Auiidius Lurco first fattened and sold them in the markets. It was the custom to skin the bird, roast and recover it and send it to the table, the gaudy feathers showing.
The first appearance of the bird in the Bible occurs in a summing-up of the wealth and majesty of Solomon (1 K 10 22: "For the king had at sea a navy of Tarshish with the navy of Hiram : once every three years came the navy of Tarshish, bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks"). (Here LXX translates TreXe/cijroi [s.c. 'kldoi], peleketol [lUhoi] = "[stones] carved with an ax.") The same statement is made in 2 Ch 9 21 "For the king had ships that went to Tarshish with the servants of Huram; once every three years came the ships of TarshLsh, bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks" (LXX omits). There is no question among scholars and scientists but that these statements are true, as the ships of Solomon are known to have visited the coasts of India and Ceylon, and Tarshish was on the Malabar coast of India, where the native name of the peacock was tokei, from which tukkiyim undoubtedly was derived (see Gold, and Expos T, IX, 472). The historian Tennant says that the Heb
PEDAIAH, pg-da'ya, pe-dl'a (^H^nS
, p'dhayahu, "Jeh redeems")
(1) Father of Joel, who was ruler of Western Manasseh in David's reign (1 Ch 27 20). Form iTn^
, p'dhayah (see above)
(2) Pedaiah of Rumah (2 K 23 36), father of Zebudah, Jehoiakim's mother.
(3) A son of Jeconiah (1 Ch 3 18); in ver 19 the father of Zerubbabel. Pedaiah's brother, Shealtiel, is also called father of Zerubbabel (Ezr 3 2; but in 1 Ch 3 17 AV spelled "Salathiel"). There may have been two cousins, or even different individuals may be referred to under Shealtiel and Salathiel respectively.
(4) Another who helped to repair the city wall (Neh 3 25), of the family of Parosh (q.v.). Perhaps this is the man who stood by Ezra at the reading of the Law (Neh 8 4; 1 Esd 9 44, called "Phaldeus").
(5) A "Levite," appointed one of the treasurers
2295 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Peacock Pekah
over the "trcasiiries" of the Lord's house (Neh 13 13).
advance of Assyria. The memory of defeat by Assyria at the battle of Karkar in 753, more than
(6) A Benjamite, one of the rulers residing in Jerus under the "return" arrangements (Neh 11 7). Henry Wallace PEDESTAL, ped'es-tal ( i? , ken) : In two places
100 years before, had never died out. 2. Attitude Tiglath-pileser III was now ruler of of Assyria Assyria, and in successive can}paigns since 745 had proved himself a resistless conqueror. His lust for battle was not yet sati.sfied, and the turn of Philistiaand Syria was about to come. In 735, a coalition, of which Pekah was a prominent member, was being formed to check his further advance. It comprised the princes of Comagene, Gebal, Hamath, Arvad, Ammon, Moab, Edom, Gaza, Samaria, Syria, and some minor potentates, the list being taken from a roll of the subject-princes who attended a court and paid tribute after the fall of Damascus. Ahaz likewise attended as a voluntary tributary to do homage to Tiglathpileser (2 K 16 10). While the plans of the allies were in course of formation, an obstacle was met with which proved
(1 K 7 29.31) RV gives this word for AV "base" (in Solomon's "Sea").
PEDIAS, ped'i-as, pe-dl'as (HeStas, Pedias, A, UaiStCas, Paideias; AV by mistake Pelias): One of those who had taken "strange wives" (1 Esd 9 34) = "Bedeiah" of Ezr 10 35.
PEDIGREE, ped'i-gre (nbtirn , kithyalledh, "to show one'.s birth") : TheEng. word "pedigree" occurs only once in the Bible, according to the concordance. In Nu 1 18, it is said: "They declared their pedigrees"; that is, they enrolled or registered themselves according to their family connections. The same idea is e.xpressed frequently, employing a different term in the Heb, by the common phrase of Ch, Ezr and Neh, "to reckon by genealogy," "to give genealogy," etc (cf 1 Ch 7 5.9; Ezr 2 62 ff; Neh 7 64). These last passages indicate the importance of the registered pedigree or genealogy, esp. of the priests in the post-exilic community, for the absence of the list of their pedigrees, or their genealogical records, was sufficient to cause the exclusion from the priesthood of certain enrolled priests.
insurmountable by the arts of diplo3. Judah macy. This was the refusal of Ahaz, Recalcitrant then on the throne of David, to join the
confederacy. Arguments and threats having failed to move him, resort was had to force, and the troops of Samaria and Damascus moved on Jerus (2 K 16 5). Great alarm was felt at the news of their approach, as seen in the 7th and 8th chapters of Isa.
_ The allies had in view to di.spossess Ahaz of his crown, and give it to one of their own number, a son of Tabeel. Isaiah himself was the mainstay of the opposition to their projects. The policy he advocated, by Divine direction, was thatof complete neutrality. This he urged with passionate earnestness, but with only partial success. Isaiah (probably) had kept back Ahaz from joining the coalition, but could not prevent him from sending an embassy, laden with gifts to Tiglathpileser, to secure his intervention. On the news arriving that the Assyrian was on the march, a hasty retreat was made from Jerus, and the blow soon thereafter fell, where Isaiah had predicted, on Rezin and Pekah, and their kingdoms.
Walter R. Betteridge PEEL, pel, PILL, pil: "Pill" (Gen 30 37.38; Tob 11 13 [RV "scaled"]) and "peel" (Isa 18 2.7 [AV and RVm]; Ezk 29 18 [AV and ERVJ) are properly two different words, meaning "to remove the hair" (pilus) and "to remove the skin" (pellis), but in Elizabethan Eng. the two were confused. In Isa 18 2.7, the former meaning is implied, as the Heb word here (13^13, maraO is rendered "pluck off the hair" in Ezr 9 3; Neh 13 25; Isa 50 6. The word, however, may also mean "make smooth" (so RVm) or "bronzed." This last, referring to the dark skins of the Ethiopians, is best here, but in any case AV and RVm are impossible. In the other cases, however, "remove the skin" (cf "scaled," Tob 11 13 RV) is meant. So in Gen 30 37.38, Jacob "peels" (so RV) off portions of the bark of his rods, so as to give alternating colors (cf ver 39). And in Ezk 29 18, the point is Nebuchadrezzar's total failure in his siege of Tyre, although the soldiers had carried burdens until the skin was peeled from their shoulders (cf ARV "worn").
The severely concise manner in which the writer of K deals with the later sovereigns of the Northern
Kingdom is, in the case of Pekah, 4. Chronsupplemented in Ch by further facts icles Ancilas to this campaign of the allies. The lary to Chronicler states that "a great multiKings tude of captives" were taken to Damascus and many others to Samaria. These would be countrymen and women from the outlying districts of Judah, which were ravaged. Those taken to Samaria were, however, returned, unhurt, to Jericho by the advice of the prophet Oded (2 Ch 28 5-15). The messengers sent from Jerus to Nineveh appear to have arrived when the army of Tiglath-
Burton Scott Easton PEEP, pep (ass, gaphaph; AV Isa 8 19; 10 14 [RV "chirp"]): In 10 14, the word describes the sound made by a nestling bird; in 8 19, the changed (ventriloquistic?) voice of necromancers uttering sounds that purported to come from the feeble dead. The modern use of "peep" = "look" is found in Sir 21 23, as the tr of irapaKiirTui^ parakupto: "A foohsh man peepeth in from the door of another man's house."
pileser was already prepared to march. 5. Fall of The movements of the Assyrians being Damascus; expedited, they fell upon Damascus Northern before the junction of the allies was and Eastern accomplished. Rezin was defeated Palestine in a decisive battle, and took refuge Overrun in his capital, which was closely invested. Another part of the invading army descended on the upper districts of Syria and Samaria. Serious resistance to tlie veteran troops of the East could hardly be made, and city after city fell. A list of districts antl cities that were overrun is given in 2 K 15 29. It comprises Gilead beyond Jordan—already partly depopulated
PEKAH, pe'ka (n]5S
, pekah, "opening" [of the
eyas] [2 K 15 25-31];' ^dKce' Phdkee): Son of Remaliah, and 18th king of Israel.
1. Accession Pekah murdered his predecessor, Pekahiah, and seized the reins of power (ver 25). His usurpation of the throne is said to have taken place in the 52d year of Uzziah, and his reign to have lasted for 20 years (ver 27). His accession, therefore, may be placed in 748 BC (other chronologies place it later, and make the reign last only a few years).
(1 Ch 5 26) ; the tribal division of Naphtali, lying to the W. of the lakes of Galilee and Merom, and all Galilee, as far S. as the plain of Esdraelon and the Valley of Jezreel. Cities particularly mentioned are Ijon (now 'Ayun), Abel-beth-maacah (now ^Ahi),
Pekah came to the throne with the resolution of assisting in forming a league to resist the westward
Pekahiah Pen THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2296
Janoah (now Yamln), Kedesh (now Kados) and Hazor (now Hadtreh).
Jehoram, Zechariah and Shallum). The chief conspirator was Pekah, son of Remahah, one of his captains, with whom, as agejit in the crime, were associated 50 Gileadites. These penetrated into the palace (RV "castle") of the king's house, and put Pekahiah to deiith, his bodyguards, Argob and Arieh, dying with him. The record, in its close adherence to fact, gives no reason for the king's removal, but it may reasonably be surmised that
These places and territories were not merely attacked and plundered.
_ Their inhabitants were removed, with indescribable loss and
6. Deportasuffering, to certain districts in Assyria, tion of the given as Halah, Habor, Hara, and both Inhabitants sides of the river Gozan, an affluent of the Euphrates. The transplantation of these tribes to a home beyond the great river was a new experiment in political geography, devised with the object of welding the whole of Western Asia into a single empire. It was work of immense difficulty and must have taxed the resources of even so great an organizer as Tiglath-pileser. The soldiers who had conquered in the field were, of course, employed to escort the many thousands of prisoners to their new locations. About two-thirds of the Sam kingdom, comprising the districts of Samaria, the two Galilees, and the trans-Jordanic region, was thus denuded of its inhabitants.
it was connected with a league which was at this time forming for opposing resistance to the power of Assyria. This league, Pekahiah, preferring his father's policy of tributary vassalage, may have refused to join. If so, the decision cost him his life. The act of treachery and violence is in accordance with all that Hosea tells us of the internal condition of Israel at this time: "They .... devour their judges; all their kings are fallen" (Hos 7 7). The narrative of Pekahiah's short reign contains but a brief notice of his personal character. Like his predecessors, Pekahiah did not
Left with but a third of his kingdom—humbled but still defiant—Pekah was necessarily unpopular
3. Pekadepart from the system of worship hiah's introduced by Jeroboam, the son of Character Nebat, "who made Israel to sin." Despite the denunciations of the prophets of the Northern Kingdom (Am 5 21-27; Hos 8 1-6), the worship of the calves remained,
with his subjects. In this extremity 7. Death of —the wave of invasion from the N. Pekah having spent itself—the usual solution occurred, and a plot was formed by which the assassination of Pekah should be secured, and the assassin should take his place as a satrap of Assyria. A tool was found in the person of Hoshea, whom Tiglath-pileser claims to have appointed to the throne. The Bib. narrative does not do more than record the fact that "Hoshea the son of Elah made a conspiracy against Pekah the son of Remaliah, and smote him, and slew him, and reigned in his stead" (2 K 15 30). The date given to this act is the 20th year of Jotham. As Jotham's reign lasted but 16 years, this number is evidently an error.
till the whole was swept away, a few years later, by the fall of the kingdom.
After Pekahiah's murder, the throne was seized by the regicide Pekah. W. Shaw Caldecott
PEKOD, pe'kod 0^p$, p'kodh): A name apphedinJer 50 21andEzk 23 23 to the Chaldaeans. EVm in the former passage gives the meaning as "visitation."
PELAIAH, pE-la'ya, pG-h'a (H^Xbs, -p'la'yah)