Part 76
nion): The Heb word, which is well known to Bible readers in its Aram.-Gr form "Golgotha," expresses the more or less globular shape of the human skull, being derived from a root meaning "to roll." It is often tr'^ in EV by "head," "poll,"
all that a man hath will he give for his life" (2 4). The idea here is, that a man will endure or do the worst, even as it were the flaying of his body, to save his life. The RV has replaced "skin" as the tr of Heb basar by "flesh": "My bones cleave to my flesh" (Ps 102 5). "The bars of his skin" is a poetical expression for "themembersof his body" in Job 18 1.3 m, where the te.xt interprets rather than translates the original.
etc. In the meaning "skull" it is found twice (Jgs 9 53; 2 K 9 35). In the NT the word is found only in connection with Golgotha (q.v.), "the place of a skull" (Mt 27 33; Mk 15 22; Jn 19 17), or "the skull" (Lk 23 3.3).
Skins served for purposes of clothing from an early date (Gen 3 21). In later days they were the raiment of prophets and hermits (Zee 13 4; He 1137). LXX translates fTl'IN , 'adderelk, "the mantle" of Elijah^(l K 19 13.'l9; 2 K 2 8.13 f), with iJ.i)KuTri, melott, i.e. "sheepskin," the word in He being derived from these passages. It is not unlikely that the raiment of John the Baptist made "of camel's hair" and the "leathern girdle about his loins" are identical with the rough garb of OT prophets. The skins of cattle were largely employed
SKY, ski (pniB, shahak, "fine dust" or "cloud,"
apparently from V pHlS , shahak, "to rub," "to pulverize"; Sam Pll'prnp, sh'hakayyah
OT instead of Heb D'^^lB , shdmayim;
i_"'-^, sa/ifc = "cloud," "small dust"): RVhas "skies" for AV "clouds" in Job 35 5; 36 28; 37 21; Ps 36 5; 57 10; 68 34; 78 23; 108 4; Prov 3 20; 8 28, in which passages SDB supports therendering of AV. In Ps 89 6.37 RV has "sky" for AV "heaven." EV has "sky" in Dt 33 26; 2 S 22 12; Job 37 18; Ps 18 11; 77 17; Isa 45 8; Jer 51 9. The word occurs mainly in poetical passages.
for technical uses; "rams' skins and badgers' skins" are esp. mentioned in the construction of the tabernacle as material for the waterproof covering of the roof (E.x 25 5; Nu 4 8.10 ff).
In the NT ovpavbi, ouranos, is tr** "heaven" (AV "sky") in connection with the weather in Mt 16 2.3; Lk 12 56. In He 11 12
RV, rejecting the tr "badgers' skins." substitutes "sealsliins" and adds "porpoise sldns" in the margin. There is littlidoubt that tlie rendering of tlie AV is indeed incorrect. Tlie Heb name of the animal {tahash)
2. In the we find "the stars of heaven" ("the NT sky") as a figure of multitude. The conception, however, that the visible "sky" is but the dome-like floor of a higher world often makes it hard to tell whether "heaven" in certain passages may or may not be identified with the sky. See Heaven; Cosmogony.
is the same as the Arab, iw-^* ^^ . iuhas, which means the
dolphin and the "sea-cow" or halicore of the Red Sea, of wtdch genus there are two species even now extant (H. taheriiaculi Russ, and H. Helprichii Ehr.). It is probable that tlie Jews included various marine animals, seals, porpoises, dolphins and halicores, under the same e-xpression. See Sealskin.
In Ezk 16 10 we find these skins mentioned as material for elegant shoes, and the Arabs of the Red Sea littoral use the same material in the manufacture of sandals. A quaint use was made of skins in the making of skin bottles, the kurheh or kirheh of modern Arabia. We find a great variety of Heb expressions, which possibly designated special varieties, all of which were rendered ao-icis, askos, in LXXandtheNT(nT2n, heineth, Hi?:, mS] , no'dh,
Alfred Ely Day SLANDER, slan'der (subst., n^n, dibbah, "slander"; 8idpo\os, didbolos, "slanderer"; vb.
5?"1 , rdghal, "to slink about" as a talebearer, ']Tpb , Idshan, "to use the tongue," "to slander"; 8iapd\\w, diabdllo, "to calumniate," "to slander"; and other words) : Slander (etymologically a doublet of "scandal," from OFr. esclandre, Lat scandalum, "stumbling-block") is an accusation maliciously uttered, with the purpose or effect of damaging the reputation of another. As a rule it is a false charge (of Mt 5 11); but it may be a truth circulated insidiously and with a hostile purpose (e.g. Dnl 3 8, "brought accusation against," where LXX has diabaUo, "slander"; Lk 16 1, the same Gr word). Warnings, condemnations and complaints in reference to this sin are very frequent, both in the OT and NT. Mischievous "tale-bearing" or "whispering"
rriS; , no'dhah, 233 , nehhel, 535 , nebhel, p^'p^ , bakbuk, 3"1X , 'obh). RV has rendered the Gr askos in the NT by "wineskin" (Mt 9 17; Mk 2 22; Lk 5 37) with the marginal addition "that is, skins used as bottles." These skin bottles were made of the skins of goats, sheep, oxen or buffaloes; the former had more or less the shape of the animals, the holes of the extremities being closed by tying or sewing, and the neck of the skin being closed by a tap or a plug, while the larger ones were sewn together in various shapes. As a rule only the inside of the skin was tanned, the skin turned inside out, and the fluid or .semi-fluid filled in, eg. water, milk, butter, cheese. The hairy inside was not considered as in any way injurious to the contents. Only in the case of wineand oiKskins was it thought advantageous to tan the skins inside and out. H. L. E. Luebinq
is condemned (Lev 19 16; Ezk 22 9). There are repeated warnings against evil-speaking (as in Ps 34 13; Prov 15 28; Eph 4 31; Col 3 8; Jas 4 11; 1 Pet 3 10), which is the cause of so much strife between man and man (Prov 16 27-30), and which recoils on the speaker himself to his destruction (Ps 101 5; 140 11). Esp. is false witness, which is "slander carried into a court of justice," to be condemned and punished (Ex 20 16;
2815 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Skin Slave, Slavery
Dt 19 16-21; cf Prov 12 17; 14 5.25; 19 5; 21 28; 24 28). Special cases of slander more than usually mean are when a wife's chastity is falsely impeached by her husband (Dt 22 13-19), and when one slanders a servant to his master (Prov 30
sex, with a provision for an appeal to the priest in case of uncertainty (ver 8). Twenty shekels is the price set for a young man (ver 5), and this corresponds with the sum paid for Joseph (Gen 37 28).
But in 2 Mace 8 11 the price on the average is 90 for a talent, i.e. 40 shekels each. The ransom
10). Even a land may be slandered as well as persons (Nu 14 36). Slanderers and backbiters are mentioned in some of Paul's darkest catalogues of evildoers (Rom 1 29.30; 2 Cor 12 20; 2 Tim 3
of an entire talent for a single man (1 K 20 39) means that unusual value (far more than that of a slave) was set on this particular captive.
3). To refrain from slander is an important qualification for citizenship in the theocracy (Ps 15 1.3; 24 3.4) and for a place in the Christian church
There were certain limitations on the right of sale (Ex 21 7ff).
(2) Exchange.—Slaves, i.e. non-Heb slaves, might be traded for other slaves, cattle, or provisions.
(1 Tim 3 11; Tit 2 3). Jesus Himself was the victim of slanders (Mt 11 19) and of false testimony (Mt 27 63). The apostles, too, came in for a full share of it (e.g. Acts 24 5 f ; 28 22; 2 Cor 6 8). In the case of Paul, even his central doctrine of justification was "slanderously reported" as if it encouraged immorality (Rom 3 8). The devil
(3) Satisfaction of debt.—It is probable that a debtor, reduced to extremity, could offer himself in payment of his debt (Lev 25 39), though this was forbidden in the Torath Kohdnim; cf 'Ogar Yisra'el,
vii.292b. That a creditor could sell into slavery a debtor or any of his family, or make them his own slaves, has some foundation in the statement of the poor widow whose pathetic cry reached the ears of the prophet Elisha; "Thy servant my husband
( = "the calumniator") is represented as the great accuser of God's people (Rev 12 10), the slanderer par excellence (cf Job 1 9-11; Zee 3 1). See also Crimes; Punishments.
is dead; .... and the creditor is come to take unto him my two children to be bondmen" (2 K 4 1).
D. MiALL Edwards SLAUGHTER, slo'ter, OF THE INNOCENTS. See Innocents, Massacre of.
(4) Gift.—The non-Heb slave, and possibly the Heb slave, could be acquired as a gift (Gen 29 24).
(5) Inheritance.—Children could inherit non-Heb slaves as their own possessions (Lev 26 46).
SLAUGHTER, VALLEY OF: In Jer 7 32; 19 6, a name given to the valley of Hinnom. See HinNOM, Valley of; Jerusalem, III, 2.
(6) Voluntary surrender.—In the case of a slave's release in the seventh year there was allowed a willing choice of indefinite slavery. The ceremony at such a time is interesting: "Then his master shall bring him unto the judges [m], and shall bring him to the door, or unto the door-post; and his master shall bore his ear through with an awl; and he shall serve him for ever" (Ex 21 6). A pierced ear probably meant obedience to the master's voice. History, however, does not record a single instance in which such a case occurred.
SLAVE, Slav, SLAVERY, slav'er-i:
1. Acquiring of Slaves 2. Hebrews as War Captives 3. Freedom of Slaves 4. Rights of Slaves 5. Rights of Slave Masters 6. The NT Conception LiTERATUHE
The origin of the term "slave" is traced to the Ger.
(7) Arrest.—"If the thief be found breaking in, .... he shall make restitution: if he have nothing, then he shall be sold for his theft" (Ex 22 2.3).
sklave, meaning a captive of the Slavonic race who had been forced into servitude (cf Slav) ; Fr. esclave, Dutch slaaf, Swedish slaf, Spanish esclavo . The word "slave" occurs only in Jer 2 14 and in Rev 18 13, where it is suggested by the context and not expressed in the original languages (Heb jflidh bayith,
(8) Birth.—The children of slaves, born within the master's house of a wife given to the slave there, became slaves, and could be held, even if the father went free (Ex 21 4; cf Lev 26 54).
"onebornin the house"; Gr soma, "body"). How-
ever, the Heb word ~l^^ , 'ebhedh, in the OT and the Gr word SoDXos, doulos, in the NT more properly might have been tr'' "slave" instead of "servant"
(9) Capture in war.—Thousands of men, women and children were taken in war as captives and reduced, sometimes, to most menial slavery. Such slavery, however, was more humane than wholesale butchery according to the customs of earUer times (Nu 31 7-35). Males were usually
or "bondservant," understanding though that the
slavery of Judaism was not the cruel system of Greece, Rome and later nations. The prime thought is service; the servant may render free
slain and females kept for slavery and concubinage
service, the slave, obligatory, restricted service. .
(Dt 21 10.11.14). Captive slaves and bought
Scripture statement rather than philological study must form the basis of this article. We shall
slaves, "from nations round about," forced moral ruin into Israel's early civilization. See Siege, 3. The two principal sources of slave supply were poverty in peace and plunder in war.
notice how slaves could be secured, sold and redeemed; also their rights and their masters' rights,
confining the study to OT Scripture, noting in
The Hebrews themselves were held as captive slaves at various times by (1) Phoenicians (the greatest slave traders of ancient
conclusion the NT conception. The word "slave"
in this art. refers to the Heb slave unless otherwise
2. Hebrews times), (2) Philis, (3) Syrians (2 K as War 6 2 ff), (4) Egyptians, and (5) Romans. Captives There must have been thousands subjected to severest slavery. See also Egypt; Israel; Pharaoh; Servant, etc. The freedom of slaves was possible in the follow-
designated.
Slaves might be acquired in the following ways,
(1) Bought.—There are many instances of buying
viz.:
slaves (Lev 25 39 ff). Heb slavery broke into the ranks of every human relationship:
ing ways
1. Acquira father could sell his daughter (Ex 21
(1) By redemption.—Manumission by
ing of 7; Neh 5 5); a widow's children Slaves might be sold to pay their father's debt (2 K 4 1); a man could sell
3. Freedom redemption was common among the
of Slaves Hebrews. The slave's freedom_ might be bought, the price depending on
himself (Lev 25 39.47); a woman could sell her-
(a) the nearness to the seventh year or the Jubilee
self (Dt 15 12.13.17), etc. Prices paid were somewhat indefinite. According to Ex 21 32 thirty
year, (6) the first purchase price, and (c) personal considerations as to age and ability of the one in bondage. A slave could be redeemed as follows:
shekels was a standard price, but Lev 27 3-7 gives a scale of from 3 to 50 shekels according to age and
Slave, Slavery SUp THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2816
a slave was a slave, and there were masters who disobeyed God and even abused their "brothers in
(a) by himself, (b) by his uncle, (c) by his nephew or cousin, (d) or by any near relative (Lev 25 48-
55). The price depended on certain conditions as indicated above.
bonds." As usual the unfortunate
4. Rights female slave got the full measure of of Slaves inhuman cruelty. Certain rights were discretionary, it is true, but many Heb slaves enjoyed valuable individual and social privileges. As far as Scripture statements throw light on this subject, the slaves of OT times might claim the following rights, viz.
(2) By the lapse of time.—The seventh year of service brought release from bondage. "If thou buy a Heb servant [m "bondman"], six years he shall serve : and in the seventh he shall go out free for nothing" (Ex 21 2-4).
(3) By the law of the Jubilee year.—The year of Jubilee was the great year when slaves were no longer slaves but free. "He shall serve with thee unto the year of jubilee: then shall he go out from thee, he and his children .... return unto his own family, and unto the possession of his fathers" (Lev 25 40 f).
(1) Freedom.—Freedom might be gained in any one of the above-mentioned ways or at the master's
will. The non-Hebrew could be held as a slave in perpetuity (Lev 25 44-46).
(2) Oood treatment.—"Thou shalt not rule over him [Heb slave] with rigor, but shalt fear thy God Ye shall not rule, one over another, with rigor" (Lev 25 43.46). The non-Hebrew seemed to be left unprotected.
(4) By injury.—A servant whose master maimed him (or her), in particular by causing the loss of an eye or even a tooth, was thereby freed (Ex 21 26f).
(3) Justice.—An ancient writer raises the query of fairness to slaves. "If I have despised the cause of my man-servant or of my maid-servant, when they contended with me; what then shall I do when God riseth up?" (Job 31 13 f). No doubt the true Heb master was considerate of the rights of his slaves. The very fact, however, that the Heb master could punish a Heb slave, "to within an inch of his life," gave ready opportunity for sham justice. "And if a man smite his servant, or his maid ["bondman or bondwoman"], with a rod, and he die under his hand; he shall surely be punished. Notwithstanding, if he continue a day or two, he shall not be punished; for he is his money" (Ex 21 20 f).
(5) By escape.— CDt 23 15 f; 1 K 2 39). See "Code of IJammurabi" in HDB (extra vol, p. 600) and cf Philem vs 12 ff.
(6) By indifference.—In case of a certain kind of female slave, the neglect or displeasure of her master in itself gave her the right to freedom (Ex 21 7-11; Dt 21 14).
(7) By restitution.—A caught thief, having become a bondsman, after making full restitution by his service as a slave, was set at liberty (Ex 22 1-4).
(8) By the 7tiaster's death.—"And Abram said, .... I go childless, and he that shall be possessor of my house is Eliezer of Damascus .... and,
lo, one born in my house is mine heir" (Gen 15 2 f ) This passage has been mistakenly supposed to indicate that a master without children might give freedom to a slave by constituting the slave an heir to his possessions. But on the contrary, Abram seems to contemplate with horror the possibility that Eliezer will take possession of his goods in the absence of an heir. In view of the fact that adoption, the adrogatio of the Rom law, was unknown both to Bib. and Talmudic law (see Jew Enc, s.v.), thestatement in Gen 15 2 does not seem to indicate any such custom as the adoption of slaves. If any method of emancipation is here suggested, it is by the death of the master without heir, a method thoroughly discussed in the Talm (mithath ha- 'adhon).
(4) Family.—The slave before his release might have his wife and children (Ex 21 5).
(5) Voluntary slavery.—Even when the seventh year came, the slave had a right to pledge himself, with awl-pierced ear, to perpetual service for his master (Ex 21 5 f; Dt 15 16). The traditional interpretation of "for ever" in these passages is "until the next Jubilee year" (cf Kiddushln 21).
(6) Money or property.—Some cases at least indicate that slaves could have money of their own. Thus, if a poor slave "waxed rich" he could redeem himself (Lev 25 49). Cf 1 S 9 5-10, where, however, the Heb throughout calls the "servant" na'ar, "a youth," never 'ebhedh.
(9) By direct cnmynand of Jeh.—"The word that came unto Jeremiah from Jeh, .... that every man should let his man-servant, and .... his maid-servant, that is a Hebrew or a Hebrewess, go free; that none should make bondmen of them .... they obeyed, and let them go" (Jer 34 8-10).
(7) Children.—If married when free, the slave could take wife and children with him when freedom came, but if he was married after becoming a slave, his wife and children must remain in possession of his master. This law led him often into perpetual slavery (Ex 21 3 f).
(8) Elevation.—A chance to rise was allowable in some instances, e.g. Eliezer, a foreign slave in a Heb household, and Joseph, a Heb slave in a foreign household. Each rose to a place of honor and usefulness (Gen 15 2; 39 4).
The nine methods here enumerated may be classified thus: A. By operation of law:
1. By lapse of time. (a) After serving si.x years or other contractual period. See (2) above. (b) Upon the approach of the Jubilee year. See (.3) above. 2. By death of the master without heirs. See (8) above. B. By act of the parties: 1. By an act of the master. (a) Voluntary manumission, including (9) above. (b) Indifference in certain cases. See (6) above. (c) Maiming servant. See (4) above. 2. By act of the servant. (o) Redemption. Sec (1) above.
(9) Religious worship.—After being circumcised, slaves were allowed to participate in the paschal sacrifice (Ex 12 44) and other religious occasions
(Dt 12 12).
(10) Gifts.—Upon obtaining freedom, slaves, at the discretion of masters, were given supplies of cattle, grain and wine (Dt 15 13 f). The rights of a slave master may briefly be stated as follows: (1) to hold as chattel possession his non-Heb slaves (Lev 25 45); (2) to 5. Rights leave such slaves as an inheritance for of Slave his children (Lev 25 46) ; (3) to Masters hold as his own property the wife and children of all slaves who were unmarried at the time they became slaves (Ex 21 4)
(6) Restitution. See (7) above, (c) Escape. See (.5) above. 3. By act of a third party. Redemption— (1) above.
As noted in the beginning of this article, the Heb slaves fared far better than the Grecian, Rom and other slaves of later years. In general, the treatment they received and the rights they could claim made their lot reasonably good. Of course
(4) to pursue and recover runaway slaves (1 K 2 39-41); (.5) to grant freedom at any time to any slave. This is imphed rather than stated. Emanci-
2817 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Slave, Slavery SUp
pation other than at the Sabbatical and Jubilee years was evidently the right of masters; (6) to circumcise slaves, both Jew and Gentile, within his own household (Gen 17 13.23.27); (7) to sell, give away, or trade slaves (Gen 29 24. According to Torath Koh&nim a Heb servant could be sold only under certain restrictions. Seel, [1]); (8) to chastise male and female slaves, though not unto death
tive uses for death (Dt 31 16, etc) and sluggishness (Eph 5 14, etc) are very obvious. See Dreams.
SLEEP, DEEP (H'aTjn, tardemah, vb. D^T, radham, from a root meaning "to be deaf") : The vb. radham has no further meaning than "to be fast asleep" (Jgs 4 21; Jon 1 5), but AV used "deep sleep" as a tr only in Dnl 8 18; 10 9, where a sleep supernaturally caused (a "trance") is meant
(Ex 21 20); (9) to marry a slave himself, or give his female slaves in marriage to others ( 1 Ch 2 35); (10) to marry a daughter to a slave (1 Ch 2 34 f); (11) to purchase slaves in foreign markets (Lev 26 44); (12) to keep, though not as a slave, the runaway slave from a foreign master (Dt 23 15.16. See 3, [5]); (13) to enslave or sell a caught thief (Gen 44 8-33; Ex 22 3); (14) to hold, in perpetuity, non-Heb slaves (Lev 26 46); (15) to seek advice of slaves (1 S 26 14 ff; but the reference here is open to doubt. Sec 4, [6]); (16) to demand service (Gen 14 14; 24). Throughout OT times the rights of both slaves and masters varied, but in general the above may be called the accepted code. In later times Zedekiah covenanted with the Hebrews never again to enslave their own brothers, but they broke the covenant
(cf "dead sleep" in Ps 76 6). RV's insertion of "deep sleep" in place of AV's "fast asleep" in Jgs 4 21 is consequently unfortunate. The noun lardemdh has the same meaning of "trance" in Gen 2 21; 15 12; 1 S 26 12; Job 4 13; 33 15, but in Prov 19 15; Isa 29 10, it is used figuratively of torpor. In Acts 20 9 [hupnos bathus), heavy natural sleep
is meant. Burton Scott Easton
SLEEVES, slevz (Gen 37 3 m). See Dress.
SLEIGHT, slit: No connection with "slight," but from the same root as "sly" and so = "cunning." So in Eph 4 14, "sleight of men," for Kvfiela, ku-
bela, "dice-playing" (cf "cube"), "gamblers' tricks," "trickery."
(Jer 34 8). There were slaves during NT times. The church issued no edict sweeping away this custom of the
SLIME, slim, SLIME PITS, sllm'pits (Tan, hemar; LXX ao-<|)aX.Tos, dsphallos; Vulg bitumen;
old Judaism, but the gospel of Christ
6. NT with its warm, penetrating loveConception message mitigated the harshness of ancient times and melted cruelty into kindness. The equality, justice and love of Christ's teachings changed the whole attitude of man to man and master to servant. This spirit of brotherhood quickened the conscience of the age, leaped the walls of Judaism, and penetrated the remotest regions. The great apostle proclaimed this truth; "There can be neither Jew nor Greek, there can be neither bond nor free ye all are one man in Christ Jesus" (Gal 3 28). The Christian slaves and masters are both exhorted
men"; and cf "1^011, homer, "clay," "mortar"): In
the account of the ark in Gen 6 14, "1E3 , kopher (LXX &<r<f>a\Tos, dsphallos; Vulg hilumen; cf Arab.
JiJ , kufr, "pitch") does not necessarily denote
vegetable pitch, but may well mean bitumen. The same may be said of flSJ , 0ep/ie(/i, "pitch" (cf Arab.
OAiv, zi/<, "pitoh"),inEx 2 3 and Isa 34 9. The
word "slime" occurs in the following passages : "And they had brick for stone, and slime had they for mortar" (Gen 11 3); "Now the vale of Siddim was
in Paul's letters to live godly lives and make Christ-
like their relations one to the other—obedience to masters and forbearance with slaves. "Bondservants [m], be obpdient unto . . . .your masters, .... as bondservants [m] of Christ .... And, ye masters, .... forbear threatening: .... their Master and yours is in heaven, and there is no
full of slime pits" (Gen 14 10, m "bitumen pits"); "She took for him an ark of bulrushes, and daubed
it with slime and with pitch" (Ex 2 3). Bitumen is a hydrocarbon allied to petroleum and natural gas. It is a lustrous black solid, breaking with a conohoidal fracture, burning with a yellow
respect of persons with him" (Eph 6 5-9).
Christ was a reformer, but not an anarchist. His
flame, and melting when ignited. It is probably derived from natural gas and petroleum by a process
gospel was dynamic but not dynamitic. It was
leaven, electric with power, but permeated with love.
of oxidation and evaporation , and its occurrence may be taken as a sign that other hydrocarbons are or have been present in the strata. It is found in small lumps and larger masses in the cretaceous limestone on the west side of the Dead Sea, and there is reason
Christ's life and teaching were against Judaistic
slavery, Rom slavery and any form of human slavery. The love of His gospel and the light of His life were
destined, in time, to make human emancipation earth-wide and human brotherhood as universal as His own benign presence.
to beheve that considerable quantities of it rise to the surface of the Dead Sea during earthquakes. In ancient times it was exported to Egypt to be used in embalming mummies. Important mines
LiTERATUBE.—Nowack, Heb Arch.; 'E-wa.ld.AUerth-ameT, III 280-88; Griinfeld, Die Slellung des Sktaven bei den Juden, nach bibl. und talmud. Quellen. 1886; Mielziner, Die Verhaltnisse der Sklaven bei den alien Hebrdern, 1859; Mandl, Das Sklavenrecht des AT, 1886; Kahn, L'esclavage dans la Bible et le Talmud, 1867 ; Sayce, Sonat Life among the Assyrians and Babylonians; Lane, Manners and Customs of Modern Egyptians. 205; Arabian Nights,
of it exist at Hdsbeiya near Mt. Hermon and in North Syria. Springs of liquid bituminous matter
exist in Mesopotamia, where according to Herodotus and other classical writers it was used as mortar with sun-dried bricks. Various conjectures have been made as to the part played by bitumen in the
I 64 fl; Thomson, iB; McCurdy, //PM, 1894; Trum-
bull, Studies in Oriental Social Life, 1894. There Is a wealth of material in the Talmudic tractate KiddHshin
(pp. 17-22). ^ ^ William Edward Kaffety SLAYING, sla'ing (by spear, dart, or sword). See Punishments.
destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. Diodorus
Siculus calls the Dead Sea 'Mij.vv d<T<pa\TtTis, limne
asphallUis, "lake of asphalt." See Siddim; Cities OF THE Plain. Alfred Ely Day
SLEEP, slep : Represents many words in Heb and
SLING. See Armor, III, 2.
Gr. For the noun the most common are HpilJ
shenah, and tnrvos, hupnos; for the vb., IV^ , yashen,
SLIP: As meaning "a cutting from, a plant," it
a?TB , shakhabh, and KaBeiSu,, katheudo. The figura-
is still good Eng. In this sense in Isa 17 10 for
Slopes Snow THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2818
SMOKE, smok: T'sed figuratively of the Divine jealousy (Dt 29 20) and anger (Ps 74 1); symboUc of the glory of the Divine holiness (Isa 4 5; 6 4; Rev 15 8).
cTllUT
, z'morah, "branch," "twig." For the phrase
"slip of the tongue" cf Sir 14 1; 19 16; 20 18; 21 7; 25 8.
SLOPES, slops. See Ashdoth-pisgah.
SMYRNA, smijr'na (Sjitipva, Smurna) : Smyrna, a large ancient city on the western coast of Asia Minor, at the head of a gulf which
SLOW, slo: Chiefly for ^"IN, 'erekh, lit. "long,"
in the phrase "slow to anger" (Neh 9 17, etc). In Ex 4 10; Lk 24 25; Jas 1 19, for "53, kabhedh;
1. Ancient reaches 30 miles inland, was originally peopled by the Asiatics known as the Lelages. The city seems to have been taken from the Lelages by the Aeolian Greeks about 1100 BC; there
PpaSiis, bradus, both meaning "heavj'," "sluggish," while Sir 7 35 uses "be slow" for 6kv^u>, okiico, "hesitate." In addition, AV uses "slow" for dpyoi,
drgos, "inactive," in Wisd 15 15, "slow to go" (RV "helpless for walking"), and in Tit 1 12, "slow belUes" (RV "idle gluttons"). In Sir 51 24, AV has "be slow" for vaTepiu, hustereo, "he lacking" (soRV).
SLUGGARD, slug'ard: Found only in the OT, and there only in Prov. It is the rendering given the word ^agel everywhere in RV, but in AV onlv in Prov 6 6.9; 10 26; 13 4; 20 4; 26 16 (elsewhere AV translates by "slothful"). The root meaning of
'Sf?; is "to be sluggish," "stupid." The Eng. word "slug" is said to be "allied to slack" (Webster).
SLUICE, sloos (IDil? , sekher, lit. "hire") : In Isa 19 10, AV reads, "all that make sluices and ponds
for fish." RV entirely alters the tr of the whole
Ancient Aqueduct at Smyrna.
verse. It reads, "And the pillars of Egypt shall be broken in pieces; allthey that work for hire [m "that make dams"] shall be grieved in soul."
still remain traces of the Cyclopean masonry of that early time. In 688 BC it passed into the possession of the Ionian Greeks and was made one of the cities of the Ionian confederacy, but in 627 BC it was taken by the I^ydians. During the years 301 to 281 BC, Lysimachus entirely rebuilt it on a new site to the S.W. of the earlier cities, and surrounded it by a wall. Standing, as it did, upon a good harbor, at the head of one of the chief highways to the interior, it early became a great tradingcenter and the chief port for the export trade. In Rom times, Smjrrna was considered the most brilliant city of Asia Minor, successfully rivaling Pergamos and Ephesus. Its streets were wide and paved. Its system of coinage was old, and now about the city coins of every period are found. It was celebrated for its schools of science and medi-
SMELL, smel (Heb and Aram, n"!"! , re'h, as noun, "savor," "scent"; H^l , rWh, as vb., lit. "to breathe," "to inhale," thence "to smell"; ocrnTJ, osmt, the "smell," "savor," ei«8£a, eubdia, "sweet smell," "fragrance," 6o-(t>piio-is, 6sphresis, "the sense of smell"; vb. 6o-^pa(vop.oi, osphralnomai) : "And he came near, and kissed him: and he smelled [wayyarah] the smell [re"h] of his raiment, and blessed him, and said, See, the smell [re"A] of my son is as the smell [re°/i] of a field which Jeh hath blessed" (Gen 27 27) . Idols are described as
' 'gods, the work of men's hands, wood and stone, which neither see, nor hear, nor eat, nor smell' ' (Dt 4 28) . Acceptable
sacrifices and pious conduct are called a "sweet smell" or "savor" (Ex 29 18; Eph 5 2; Phil 4
cine, and for its handsome buildings. Among them was the Homerium, for Smyrna was one of several places which claimed to be the birthplace of the poet. On the slope of Mt. Pagus was a theater which seated 20,000 spectators. In the year 23 AD a temple was built in honor of Tiberius and his mother Julia, and the Golden Street, connecting the temples of Zeus and Cybele, is said to have been the best in any ancient city. Smyi-na early became a Christian city, for there was one of the Seven Churches of the Book of Rev (2 8-11). There Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna, was martyred, though without the sanction of the Rom government. It seems that the .Jews of Smyrna were more antagonistic than were the Romans to the spread of Christianity, for it is said that even on Saturday, their sacred day, they brought wood for the fire in which Polycarp was burned. His grave is still shown in a cemetery there. Like many other
18), well-pleasing to God. The godless life, which dishonors God, is hateful to Him: "I will not smell the savor of your sweet odors" (Lev 26 31). The phrase, "being in bad odor with a person," can be traced to Bib. language: "Ye have made our savor to be abhorred in the eyes of Pharaoh, and in the eyes of his servants" (Ex 5 21). Thus "smell" is occasionally equivalent with "quality," "character" "His [Moab's] taste remain eth in him, and his scent
is not changed" (Jer 48 11). Character or quality
is the most infallible test, the most manifest advertisement of a thing or a person; thus we find the following very instructive passage: "[God] maketh manifest through us the savor [osme] of his knowledge in every place. For we are a sweet savor [euodia] of Christ unto God, in [tetter: "among"] them that are saved, and in [better: "among"] them that perish; to the one a savor [osme] from death unto death; to the other a savor [osme] from life untolife"(2 Cor 2 14-16). See Triumph. In the passage Isa 3 24, AV "sweet smell" (Dffla , besem,, "balsam plant") has been changed to "sweet spices" in RV. H. L. E. Luering
cities of Asia Minor, Smyrna Buffered frequently, esp. during the years 178-80 AD, from earthquakes, but it always escaped entire destruction. During the Middle Ages the city was the scene of many struggles, the most fierce of which was directed by Timur against the Christians. Tradition relates that there he built a tower, using as stones the heads of a thousand captives which he put to death, yet Smyrna was the last of the Christian cities to hold out against the Mohammedans; in 1424 it fell into
SMITH, smith. See Crafts, 10; Tubal-cain.
SMITING BY THE SUN. See Sun Smiting.
2819 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Slopes Snow
the hands of the Turks. It was the discovery of America and the resulting discovery of a sea route to India which ruined the Smyrna trade.
into trouble, and the list of references is a long one,
all of the same nature. See Ex 10 7; IS 18 21; 28 9; Ps 11 6; 18 5, "snares of death"; used symbohcally of anything that may kill: 91 3; 124 7; 140 5; 141 9; Prov 7 23; 13 14; 18 7; 20 25; 22 25; 29 25; Eccl 9 12. "But this is a people robbed and plundered; they are all of them snared in holes, and they are hid in prison-houses: they are for a prey, and none dehvereth; for a spoil, and none saith. Restore" (Isa 42 22). Here
Modern Smyrna is still the largest city in Asia Minor, with a population of about 250,000, of whom
half are Greek and less than one2. Modern fourth are Mohammedans. Its modern name, Ismir, is but a Turkish corruption of the ancient name. Even under the Turkish government the city is progressive, and is the capital of the Aidin vilayet, and therefore the home of a governor. Several railroads follow the courses of the ancient routes into the distant interior. In its harbor ships from all parts of the world may be seen. The ancient harbor of Paul's time has been filled in, and there the modern bazaars stand. The old stadium has been destroyed to make room for modern buildings, and a large part of the ancient city lies buried beneath the modern houses and the 40 mosques of which the city boasts. The better of the modern buildings, belonging to the government and occupied by the foreign consuls, stand along the modern quay. Traces of the ancient walls are still to be found. W. of Mt. Pagus
it is specified that the snare was in a hole so covered as to conceal it. Jer 18 22 clearly indicates that the digging of a pit to take prey was customary, and also the hiding of the snare for the feet. North American Indians in setting a snare usually figure on catching the bird around the neck. Jer 50 24, "I have laid a snare for thee"; Hos 9 8, "Afowler's snare is in all his ways"; Am 3 5 seems to indicate that the snare was set for the feet; Lk 21 34, "But take heed to yourselves, lest haply .... that day come on you suddenly as a snare" ; Rom 11 9, "Let their table be made a snare, and a trap";
1 Cor 7 35, "not that 1 may cast a snare upon you"; 1 Tim 3 7, "the snare of the devil"; also 6 9, "But they that are minded to be rich fall into a temptation and a snare and many foolish and hurtful lusts, such as drown men in destruction and perdition." See Gin; Net; Trap.
is the Ephesian gate, and the Black-gate, as the Turks call it, is near the railroad station. The castle upon Mt. Pagus, 460 ft. above the sea, dates from Byzantine times. The prosperity of Smyrna
Gene Stkatton-Porter SNEEZE, snez pliT, zorer, Po'el-form T^T
is due, not only to the harbor and the port of entry to the interior, but partly to the perfect climate of spring and autumn—the winters are cold and the summers are hot; and also to the fertility of the surrounding country. Figs, grapes, valonia, opium, sponges, cotton and liquorice root are among the chief articles of trade. See also Churches, Seven. E. J. Banks
zarar): "The chUd sneezed seven times, and the child opened his eyes" (2 K 4 35). "Sneezing," better "snorting," is found in the description of Leviathan (the crocodile) : "His sneezings [niC^tjy,
'dtishah] flash forth light, and his eyes are like the eyelids of the morning" (Job 41 18 (Heb 10]). See Neesing.
SNAIL, snal ([1] tDUh , hornet, RV "sand-lizard," LXX o-avpa, saura, "Uzard" [Lev 11 30]; [2] blbaia , shahhHul, LXX Kiipos, herds, "wax" [Ps 58
SNOW, sno (jblB, shelegh, jbri, tlagh [Dnl 7 9]; X"Sv, chion) : (1) Snow is not uncommon in the winter in Jerus, but it never reaches any depth and
8]) : (1) Hornet is 7th in the list of unclean "creeping things" in Lev 11 30, and occurs nowhere else. "Snail" is not warranted by LXX or Vulg. RV has "sand-Uzard." It may be the skink or a species of Lacerta. See Lizard. (2) Shabb'liU is tr^i "snail"
in many winters it is not seen at all. It usually disappears, for the most part, as soon as the sun appears, though it may "hide itself" for a time in the gorge cut by a stream (Job 6 16). On lower
in Ps 58 8: "Let them be as a snail which melteth and passeth away." Mandelkern gives Umax, "slug." Gesenius derives shabh'lul from balal, "to pour"; cf Arab, balla, "to wet," instancing Xer/i^'l,
levels than Jerus there is never sufficient to cover the ground, though often there are some flakes seen in the air. Even at sea-level there is occasionally a sufficient fall of hail to cover the ground. A very exceptional snowfall is related in 1 Mace 13 22 at Adora (near Hebron). It was heavy enough to prevent the movement of troops. (2) The tops of the mountains of Lebanon are white with snov,f
leimax, "snail," or "slug," from Ae()3a), leibo, "to pour." While LXX has keros, "wax," Talm (Mo^edh Katan 66) supports "snail." The ordinary explanation of the passage, which is not very satisfying,
is that the snail leaves a trail of mucus (i.e. it
for most of the year, and snow may be found in large banks in the valleys and the northern slopes
melts) as it moves along. This does not in any way cause the snail to waste away, because its glands
at any time in the summer. Mt. Hermon, 9,200
are continually manufacturing fresh mucus. Two
ft. high, has long streaks of snow in the valleys all the summer. (3) The snow of the mountains is the source of the water of the springs which last throughout the drought of summer. In case the snow fails
large species of snail. Helix aspersa and Helix
pomalia, are collected and eaten, boiled, by the Christians of Syria and Pal, esp. in Lent. The Jews and Moslems declare them to be unclean and do not eat them. Alfred Ely Day
there is sure to be a lack of water in the fountains: "Shall the snow of Lebanon fail .... or shall the
cold waters that flow down from afar be dried up?"
(Jer 18 14). (4) Large quantities of snow are
SNARE, snar (HE, pah; Ta.yk, pagls, but
stored in caves in the mountains in winter and
Ppoxos, brdchos, in 1 Cor 7 35): Over half a dozen Heb words are used to indicate different methods of taking birds and animals, of which the
are brought down to the cities in summer to be used in place of ice for cooling drinks and refriger-
, pah) is mentioned oftener than any other.
snare (IS
ating purposes.
(5) God's power over the elements of Nature is
It was a noose of hair for small birds, of wire for
often brought out in the OT: "For he saith to the snow, Fall thou on the earth" (Job 37 6); but man cannot fathom the works of God : "Hast thou
larger birds or smaller animals. The snares were set
in a favorable location and grain scattered to attract theattention of feathered creatures. They accepted the bribe of good feeding and walked into the snare, not suspecting danger. For this reason the snare became particularly applicable in describing a tempting bribe offered by men to lead their fellows
entered the treasuries of the snow?" (Job 38 22). "The snowy day" (1 Ch 11 22; 2 S 23 20) and
the "fear of snow" (Prov 31 21) are figurative
uses describing winter and cold. "Snow in sum-
Snuffers Solemn THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2820
Literature.—Flinders Petrie, History of Egypt, III, 281 IT; McCurdy, HPM, I, 422; Schrader, COT. I, 261. T. NicoL SOAP, sop (rr^na , horlth; AV sope) : Borlth is
mer" (Prov 26 1) would be most out of place, yet
it might be most refreshing to the tired workmen in the time of harvest.
(6) Snow ig the symbol of purity and cleanness, giving us some of our most beautiful passages of Scripture: "Wash me and I shall be whiter than snow" (Ps 51 7); "Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white as snow" (Isa 1 18). Carrying the figure farther, snow-water might be expected to have a special value for cleansing: "If I wash myself with snow-water" (Job 9 30). The most common use in Scripture is to denote whiteness in color and implying purity as well : "His raiment was white as snow" (Dnl 7 9; Mt 28 3; Mk 9 3; Rev 1 14).
a derivative of 13 , hor, "purity," hence something which cleanses or makes pure. Soap in the modern sense, as referring to a salt of a fatty acid, for example, that produced by treating olive oil with caustic soda, was probably unknown in OT times. Even today there are districts in the interior of Syria where soap is never used. Cooking utensils, clothes, even the body are cleansed with ashes. The ashes of the household fires are carefully saved for this purpose. The cleansing material referred to in Jer 2 22 (cf LXX ad loc, where horlth is rendered by iroia, poia = "grass") and Mai 3 2 was probably the vegetable lye called in Arab, el kali (the origin of Eng. alkali). This material, which
(7) The whiteness of leprosy is compared to snow (Ex 4 6; Nu 12 10; 2 K 5 27).
SNUFFERS, snuf'erz, SNUFFDISHES| snuf-
is a mixture of crude sodium and potassium carbonates, is sold in the market in the form of greyish lumps. It is produced by burning the desert plants and adding enough water to the ashes to agglomerate them. Before the discovery of Leblanc's process large quantities of Ifali were exported from Syria to Europe.
dish-ez (D'^npjb'O , melkdhayim, mnn^ , makldlh) : These two utensils are thrice mentioned in connection with the wilderness tabernacle (Ex 25 38; 37 23; Nu 4 9). ARV prefers to read "snufTers and snuffdishes" in place of "tongs and snufTdishes"
(cf 2 Ch 4 22), the connection between the two utensils being indicated by the fact that both are said to belong to the seven lamps, and were to be made out of the talent of gold which was specified as the weight of the whole (Ex 25 37-39).
For washing clothes the women sprinkle the powdered kali over the wet garments and then place them on a flat stone and pound them with a wooden paddle. For washing the body, oil is first smeared over the skin and then Ifali rubbed on and the whole slimy mixture rinsed off with water. Kali was also used anciently as a flux in refining precious metals
The seven-branched candlestick which stood in the holy place of both tabernacle and temple was surmounted, in each of its arms, by a removable lamp in which olive oil was burnt. From the requirement of keeping these lights brilliantly burning throughout each night of the year, arose the need for snuffers and snuffdishes. By the former, the burnt portions of the wick were removed; in the latter they were deposited previous to removal. The lamps may have required to be trimmed as often as every half-hour. For this purpose a priest would enter the outer chamber "accomplishing the services" (He 9 6). In the time of Solomon's Temple another word than melkahayim was used to describe this utensil.
(cf Mai 3 2). At the present time many Syrian soap-makers prefer the kali to the imported caustic soda for soap-making.
In Sus (ver 17) is a curious reference to "washing balls" (smigmata). James A. Patch
SOBER, so'ber, SOBRIETY, sO-bri'S-ti, SOBERNESS, so'ber-nes (Gr adj. sophron, and its related nouns, sophrosune, sophronismos; vbs. sophroneo and sophronizo; advb. sophrdnos, "of sound mind," "self-possessed," "without excesses of any kind," "moderate and discreet") : In Mk 5 15; Lk 8 35, "sane," said of one out of whom demons had just been cast. In the Pastoral Epp., this virtue is esp. commended to certain classes, because of extravagances characterizing particular periods of life, that had to be guarded against, viz. to aged men, with reference to the querulousness of old age (Tit 2 2); to young men, with reference to their sanguine views of life, and their tendency to disregard consequences (Tit 2 6); enjoined upon young women, with reference to extravagance in dress and speech (Tit 2 5; 1 Tim 2 9); and, in a similar manner, commended to ministers, because of the importance of their judgment and conduct, as teachers and exemplars (1 Tim 3 2), "Words of soberness" (Acts 26 25) are contrasted with the "mania," "madness," that Festus had just declared to be the explanation of Paul's eloquence
It is mipTTG , m'zamm'roth, from a vb. meaning "to prune" or "trim," and is found in 1 K 7 50; 2 K 12 13; 25 14; 2 Ch 4 22; Jer 52 18. In 4 of these passages, the Eng. text reads, "the snufTers and the basins"; the 5th is merely a summary of things taken to Babylon (2 K 25 14). In this constant later association of "basins" and "snuffers" it is seen that the basins referred to were used for the reception of the cast-ofT portions of the wicks of the seven lamps, and took the place of the snuffdishes of an earlier age. See Tongs. W. Shaw Caldecott SO, so (SID , jo', although the Heb might be pointed i^']0 , ^ewe' ; Assyr Sib'u; LXX 2iiY<op,
Segor, SmA, Sod; Manetho, 2evi«xos, Seuechos;
La.t Sevechus: Herod, [ii. 137 ff], SapaKiov, jSabafcon): In all probability the "Sabaeo" of Herodotus, the Shabaka, who founded the Ethiopian dynasty, the XXVth of Egyp kings. His date is given as 71.5-707 BC (Flinders Petrie, History of Egypt, III, 281 S), but we may suppose that before his accession to the throne he was entitled to be designated king, as being actually regent. To this So, Hoshea, king of Israel, made an appeal for assistance to enable him to throw off the yoke of the Assyr Shalmaneser IV (2 K 17 3 ff). But Hoshea's submission to So brought him no advantage, for Shahnaneser came up throughout all the land and
(ver 24).
In a few passages, the Gr vb. nipho and its derivative adj. nephdlios are used in the same sense. The word originally had a physical meaning, as opposed to drunkenness, and is thus used in 1 Thess 6 6.8, as the foundation of the deeper meaning. Used metaphorically also in the Pastoral Epp. and 1 Pet, as sometimes in the classics, for "cool," "unimpassioned." Ellicott, on 1 Tim 3 2.11, distinguishes between the two words by regarding sophron "as pointing to the outward exhibition of the inward virtue" implied in nephalios. H. E. Jacobs
laid siege to Samaria. Not long after the fall of Samaria, So ventured upon an eastern campaign, and was defeated by Sargon, the successor of Shalmaneser, in the battle of Raphia in 720 BC.
SOCHO, so'ko: Occurs in 1 Ch 4 18, RV "Soco." See Socoh.
plllp
t'lTl