Part 41
Your wants shall be His care." But while it is true that God has promised to make our wants His care, we should remember that He has promised this only to that devout and godly number of pious, graying souls who "seek first the kingdom of God, and
The problem of Divine providence has its utmost
is righteousness." His general providence is alike to all, by which "he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust." But it is only "to them that love God" that it is promised that "all things work together for good" and the proof of love is not in one's profession, but in his obedience and service.
significance, not in its bearing on the laws of physi-
cal nature, but in that phase of it
4. Divine which concerns God's dealings with Providence moral agents, those creatures who and Human may, and often do, act contrary to Free Will His will. God governs men as a father governs his children, as a king governs his free subjects; not as a machinist works
(4) Special providence as related to human cooperation. —The words of Clirist concerning the heavenly Father's watchful and loving providence do not mean that the children of God are not in any sense to take thought for food and raiment, and ial^or daily to obtain the necessities of life. Labor, both mental and physical, is as mucli a duty as prayer. The prayer, "Give us this day our daily bread," does not render it unnecessary that they who offer it should work for their own daily bread. Nothing could be more hurtful to healthful Christian activity than to interpret Our Lord's insistence, in the Sermon on the Mount and elsewhere, upon trust in the heavenly Father's watchful providence as a justification of thoughtlessness, idleness, and improvidence: seeing that its purpose is simply to warn us against that needless and hurtful anxiety about the future which is not only inconsistent with trust in God, but which is utterly destructive of man's best efforts in his own behalf.
his machine, or as a hypnotist controls his mesmer-
ized victims. A father in his family and a sovereign
in his realm may each do as he pleases within certain limits, and God infinitely more: "He doeth according to his will in the army of heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth ; and none can stay his hand, or say unto him. What doest thou?" (Dnl 4 3.5). He setteth up one andputteth down another. Nevertheless, even God acts within
limits; He limited Himself when He created free
agents. As a mere matter of power God can predetermine man's volitions and necessitate his acts, but He can do so only by making of him a kind of
(5) General and special providence both equally
Divine.—While the Scriptures appear to us to malce a real and true distinction between God's natural and His supernatural order, and between His general and His special providence, yet to truly pious and
rational machine, and destroying his true freedom. But Scripture, reason and consciousness all unite
in teaching man that he is morally free, that he is an agent, and not something merely acted on. God's providential government of men, therefore, is based on their freedom as rational a,nd moral beings, and consists in such an administration and guidance by the Holy Spirit of the affairs of men as shall encourage free moral agents to virtue, and discourage them from sin. God's providence must needs work upon and with two kinds of wills—willing wills and opposing wills.
wisely discerning souls all is alike Divine, the natu-
ral as well as the supernatural, general as well as
special providence. So far as God's faithful and
loving children are concerned, general and special providence blend into one. The only real and im-
portant distinction between the two is that made by the free wills of men, by virtue of which some
are in loving accord with the Divine plans concern-
ing them, and others are at enmity with God and
(1) Divine providence as related to willing wills.—The apostle declares that God works in believers
oppose the purpose of His love concernmg them
If all men wore, and had always been, alike trustful and loving children of the heavenly Father^ there would perhaps never have been any occasion for making a distinction between the general and the
' both to will and to do of his good pleasure." If God's special providence over and in behalf of His children may involve an intervention of His Divine power within the realm of physical law, much more, it would seem, will it Involve a similar intervention within the realm of the human mind and the htmian will. Spiritual guidance is one of the most precious privileges of believers, but it is
special providence of God. The only distmction we should have needed to recognize in that case would have been as to the varieties of Divme provi-
difficult to conceive how the Holy Spirit can effectually guide a believer without finding some way of controlling
dence, in view of the fact that the all-loving Father would cause widely different events to happen to
his will and determining his voUtions that is compatible with free agency. While most of man's thoughts, erno-
His different children. If anyone, therefore, is m-
tions and voUtions are self-determined in their origin, being due to the free and natural workings of his own mind and heart and will, yet there are also thoughts,
clined to deny the distinction which we have here made between general and special providence, and
Providence Province THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2484
emotions and volitions that are Divinely produced. Even a sinner under conviction of sin has thoughts and emotions that are produced by the Holy Ghost. Much more has the believer Divinely produced thoughts and feeUngs; and if Divinely produced thoughts and feelings, there may be, in like manner, it would seem. Divinely produced volitions. Does this seem irreconcilable with the fact of moral free agency ? We think not ; it is no more subversive of human free agency for God to influence effectively a man's voUtions and secure a certain course of action than it is for one man effectively to influence another. No volition that is Divinely necessitated can be a free moral volition; for moral volitions are such as are put forth freely, in view of motives and moral ends. The element of necessity and compulsion would destroy ail true freedom in, and moral accountability for, any particular volition, so that it could not be either virtuous or vicious. But—and here is the crucial point—^whcn a man, by an act of his own will, freely commits the ordering of his life to God, and prays God to choose for him what is best, working in him both to will and to do. that act of self-commitment to God involves the very essence of moral freedom, and is the highest exercise of free agency. "Our wills are ours to make them Tliine," the poet has truly said. In other words, the highest moral act of man's free will is the surrender of itself to the Divine will; and whatever control of man's will on God's part results from and follows this free act of selfsurrender is entirely consistent with perfect moral freedom, even though it should involve Divinely produced voUtions. Does a perplexed child cease to be free when in the exercise of his freedom he asks a wise and loving father to decide a matter for him, and be his guide in attaining a certain desired end? Surely not; and this Intervention of parental wisdom and love is none the less effective if It should work, as far as possible, through the mind and wiU of the child, rather than allow the child to be entirely passive. So God works effectually through the mind and will of every soul who unreservedly commits himself to the Divine will—commits himself not once simply, but continually. God cannot under the Divinely appointed laws of freedom work in and through the sinner *' both to will and to do," because the sinner's will is bent on evil, and hence opposed to the Divine will. God's wiU can work, not with, but only against, a sinful will; and if it should so work and necessitate his volitions, that would destroy his true freedom. But, if God should work in and through an obedient and acquiescent will that is seeking Divine guidance, that would be an exercise of Divine power in no way incompatible with the true moral freedom of men. Such is the influence, as we conceive it, of the Divine upon the human will in providence. God's providence works effectively only through willing wills.
correcting moral evil and for working out moral and spiritual good to fallen and sinful men, adniits
of easy demonstration. For the exist-
5. Divine ence in the world of moral evil (sin), Providence man, the moral free agent, is wholly as Related responsible. God could prevent moral
to Natural free agents from sinning only by not and Moral creating them, or else by placing Evil their wills under irresistible Divine restraint and compulsion. But the latter method of controlling them would virtually destroy their real and true freedom ; and if this were done, then not only all sin, but all virtue and holiness as attributes of free beings would be thereby rendered impossible in men; for only such beings can put forth free holy volitions as can put forth free sinful
volitions. If man had never sinned, there would probably have never been such a large providential use of natural or physical evil as at present prevails; and this because of the fact that an unfallen and holy race of beings would not have needed the presence of natural evil to secure their highest moral development. But a fallen and sinful race does need such an agency to bring it back to God and to develop holy character and the highest moral service. It is not true that sin is now always or even generally the immediate cause of an individual's suffering physical evil, or that extraordinary suffering is a proof of extraordinary sin. "Master, who did sin," asked the disciples, "this man, or his parents, that he was born blind? Jesus answered, Neither hath this man sinned, nor his parents: but that the works of God should be made manifest in him" (Jn 9 2.3AV). Human suffering is for man's spiritual good and for the Divine glory, as shown in working good out of evil—this is the explanation which the Master gives as to why natural evil is permitted or sent by God. It is not only a powerful, but, in a world like ours, a necessary agency for the correction and cure of moral evil and for the spiritual development of fallen man. *'Before I was afflicted I went astray; but now I observe thy word It is good for me that I have been afflicted; that I may learn thy statutes" (Ps 119 67.71); "Every branch that beareth fruit, he cleanseth it, that it may bear more fruit" (Jn 15 2). The saintly and eminently useful men and women of history have, as a rule, had to undergo a severe discipline and to endure many and severe trials, and were made perfect only by their sufferings. Divine providence thus turns much of the world's natural and physical evil into moral good.
(2) Divine providence as related to sinful free will.— But God's providence encounters opposing as well as willing wills. Not every unconverted man, however, represents an equally antagonistic will—there are different degrees of opposition. That God's gracious and special providence in behalf of an individual often antedates his forsaking sin and his acceptance of Christ as a personal Saviour is manifest to every student of Christian biography. Tvluch of the best training that many a "chosen vessel" ever receives for his life-work turns out to be that unconscious providential preparation which he was receiving under a Father's guidance before he consciously consecrated himself to his Divine Master. "I girded thee, though thou hast not known me," said God to Cyrus—and on this text Horace BushneU preached one of the greatest of modern sermons on Divine providence, taking as his theme, "Every man's life a plan of God." If this be true of a Christian man, that even before his conversion the Holy Spirit was seeking him, and even preparing him. as far as was then possible, for fulfilling the "plan of God" in his life, is it not in aU probability equally true that the Hol;^ Spirit and the good providence of God were working in behalf of other sinners who persisted to the end in rebellion against God ? Such is the power of moral free agency with which God has endowed man that the created free agent can defeat the plan of Infinite Love concerning his life, and frustrate the workings of providence in his behalf (Jer 18). Whether a free moral agent, then, shall allow God's providential plans to be wrought out for him or not, depends upon his own free will. It is said of the Divine Christ that He could not do many mighty works in a certain city because of their imbelicf aiid opposition. In like manner Divine providence is conditioned and Umited by a sinful free will.
Many of the things that befall the children of God are directly due to the sins of other men. That good men, even the very best of men. suffer many 6 Evil things at the hands of wicked men admits p* . , of no question; and yet these ills are J^roviuenamong the
' all things " which are declared tially Overby the apostle to work together for good ruled for ^^ them that love God. The good that ^ J may ensue to good men from the evil conijooa duct of the wicked is certainly not due to the intrinsic power in sin to work good to those against whom it is maliciously directed; it can only be due to the fact that God overrules it for the good of the innocent. "As for you," said Joseph, "ye meant evil against me; but God meant it for good" (Gen 50 20); "The things which happened unto me," said Paul, "have fallen out rather xmto the progress of the gospel" (Phil 1 12). God, though foreknowing the evil that wicked men areplanning to work against His children, may not preventit; and this because He can and will overrule it for His glory and for their good, if they abide faithful. But, suppose a good man is not simply injured, but killed by the wicked, as in the case of the martyrs that died at the stake—does the principle still hold good ? It does, we answer; the saint who dies in the discharge of duty and because of his fidehty to duty is not only assured, by all the promises of revelation, of a happy immortaUty, but he has the rare privilege of serving to advance the kingdom of God by his death as well as by his life. God's kingdom is advanced in manifold ways by the death of good men. Is not "the blood of the martyrs the seed of the church" ? But we need
That the Bib. writers do not regard the existence of evil as a valid objeotion to Divine providence ia evident to every student of the Scriptures. Indeed,
it is in working good out of what the world accounts evil that Divine providence accomplishes many of
its most salutary and beneficent ends in behalf of the good. That natural or physical evil (poverty, sickness, suffering, etc) is one of the mightiest agencies in the hands of God for restraining and
2485 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Providence Province
here again to remark that it is not material and temporal, but moral and spiritual good, that God has guaranteed to His holy, loving and faithful children. If sin had an intrinsic power to worl< good, thoy would be right who maintain that " the end justiflos the means, and one, may do evil when good will come of it" (cf Rom 3 8); and they also would be right who maintain that God is the author of evil, seeing that evil is, on that supposition, only disguised good—propositions which are thoroughly vicious and subversive of all that is good in man or Gocl. The Scriptures, rightly interpreted, nowhere lend themselves to such false and misleading etliics (cf Isa 45 7). To what extent may we, having studied God's providential methods as revealed in the Scriptures, in Nature,
service and sacrifice, to a holy land of promise, the goal of a gracious providence ; and they who journey along this highway bear this seal: "The Lord knoweth them that are his: And, Let everyone that nameth the name of Christ depart from iniquity"
(2 Tim 2 19 AV). They who bear this seal are the Divinely chosen instruments and agents of that larger and wider providence that is ever working to establish a perfect kingdom of righteousness in the whole earth, that kingdom of God, to inaugurate which, in its Messianic form. Our Lord became incarnate, and to consummate which, in its final and perfect form. He reigns from heaven and will continue to reign until, having "put all enemies under his feet," He shall "deliver up the kingdom to God, even the Father"—when the poet's vision shall be realized of
in human history, and in personal expe7. Interpretrionce, venture to interpret providence as :„„ Provi ^^ applies to current events in our own lives "•6 -^'"viand in the lives of others ? Experienceand aence observation will warn us both against haste and against too great confidence in our interpretations of providence. Hasty misinterpretations of providence in its bearing on present passing events frequently become fruitful sources of skepticism for the future. Some people are much given to interpreting providence. Certain ills or misfortunes come to a bad man; they are quick to assert that it is a Divine judgment sent upon him in view of his sin. Certain blessings come to a good man; they are sure the blessings arc heaven-sent in view of his extraordinary piety. A whiskey merchant's store bums down: it is, say they, a Divine judgment, in view of his ill-gotten gains. But presently the property of an unquestionably pious and consecrated man is swept away by the flames: where now is the providence? The "oracles" fail to explain; and so they do in innumerable other cases: as, for example, when two meuia saint and a sinner, are prostrated on beds of sickness. The former, in spite of prayer and piety, continues to grow worse, and perliaps dies ; while the other, without piety or prayer, is restored to health. God has not made us interpreters of His providences except lor our.selves ; and even much of that which we sincerely beheve comes to us in a graciously providential manner we can well afford to keep as a sacred secret between ourselves and our God, seeing that God has not furnished us with any means of absolutely proving that what has happened to us might not have happened, under similar circumstances, even to sinful men. Many a Christian man comes to see that the ill that has happened to him—the loss of property, the terrible spell of sicl^- ness, and the like—things that, at the time, he would not interpret as providential—are among the best things that were ever sent upon him, in that they made him holier and more useful (cf Jn 13 ?)
" That God who ever lives and loves;
One God, one law, one element. And one far-off Divine event, To which the whole creation moves."
Literature.—James Orr, The Christian View of God and ike World; A. B. Bruce, The Providential Order of the World; James McCosh, The Method of Divine Government; James Hinton, The Mystery of Pain; John Telford, Man's Partnership with Divine Providence; .W. N. Clarke, The Christian Doctrine of God and An Outline of Christian TheoloQy; W. B. Pope, Compendium of Christian Theology; A. L. Lilley, Adventus Regni; Oehler, Theology of the OT; Wendt, The Teaching of Jesus; George B. Stevens, The Pauline Theology; B. P. Gould, The Bib. Theology of the NT; T. Jackson, The Providence of God Viewed in the Light of the Holy Scripture; H. M. Gwatkin, The Knowledge of God; Lux Mundi: Preparation in History for Christ; J. Flavell, Divine Conduct, or the Mystery of Providence; O. D. "VVatldns, The Divine Providence; Borden P. Bowne, The Immanence of God,
Wilbur F. Tillbtt PROVINCE, prov'ins (nj'i'lTa, m'dhinah, "juris-
diction"; ewapxta, eparc/iia [EV province] [Acts 23 M; 25 1]):
Meaning of the Term 2. Roman Provincial Administration
(1) First Period
" Blind unbelief is sure to err.
(2) Second Period
And scan His work in vain; God is His own interpreter
(3) Third Period 3. Division of Provinces 4. Province of Judaea 5. Revenue Literature
And He will make it plain." There are, however, many evident truths "writ large" on the pages of liistory, in the rise, decline and fall of kingdoms and nations, which he who runs may read. And to him who truly believes in the God and Father of Our Lord Jesus Christ and who will duly consider all the facts and lessons of life, in himself and others, in individuals and in nations, and not for a day merely but patiently as the years come and go, it will be made plain that "God's in His heaven—All's right with the world," and that all things work together for the spiritual good of those who love God and who prove their love for Him by serving their feUow-men.
Province {prouincia) did not originally denote a
territorial circumscription in Rom usage, since the
employment of the word was much
1. Meaning more ancient than any of the con-
of the Term quests of the Romans outside of Italy.
In the most comprehensive official
sense it signified a magistrate's sphere of adminis-
trative action, which in one instance might be the
We conclude, then, that there is, according to the
direction of jurisdiction at Rome, in another the management of military operations against a par-
Scriptures, an ever-watchful providence exercised by the heavenly Father over His
ticular hostile community. Wben the imperium was conferred upon two consuls at the beginning
8. Conclufaithful and loving children, which is
sion ceaselessly working to secure their
of the Republic, and upon a praetor in 367 BC, and
ever-increasing holiness and usefulness
finally upon a second praetor in 241 BC, it became necessary in practice to define their individual competence which was unlimited in theory. When the Romans extended their control over lands situated outside of Italy, it became expedient to fix terri-
here, and their perfect happiness in a future state of
existence. To prepare rational and immortal free
agents through holiness and usefulness here for
happiness hereafter is the aim and end of this allembracing providence of God, which includes within
torial limits to the exercise of authority by the magistrates who were regularly sent abroad, so that provincia signified henceforth in an abstract
its loving care every human being except such as
exclude themselves therefrom by their own wilful and persistent sinning. And in the accomplishment of this end, what the world counts as the mis-
sense the rule of the governor, and in a concrete
sense the specified region intrusted to his care; and with the development and consolidation of the Rom system of administration, the geographical meaning o£ the word became more and more sig-
fortunes and ills of life often contribute far more
than what, in the estimation of men, are accounted
the greatest earthly blessings. There is no provi-
dential highway to a state here that is free from life s
ills, and that abounds in temporal and earthly
nificant.
The history of Rom provincial adrninistration
blessings to the good. But there is a royal and holy
in the more definite sense commences in 227 BC, when four praetors were elected for the first time,
highway, along which moves a providential pillar
of cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night, leading
of whom two were assigned to the government of
the children of the covenant, through lives of loving
Province Psalms, Book of THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2486
Ant, XIX, viii, 2). The Rom administration waa
the provinces. Three periods may be distinguished
in the hands of the procurators (see Procurators) who resided at Caesarea (Jos, BJ, II, xv, 6; Acta 23 23.33; 25 1) in the palace of Herod the Great
in tlie history of the system of provincial adminis-
tration: (1) from 227 BC to Sulla, (2)
2. Roman from Sulla to Augustus, and (3) the Provincial Empire. Adminis- (1) First period.—During the first tration period, provision was made for the government of the provinces by means of special praetors, or, in exceptional circumstances, by consuls, during their term of office. Accordingly, the number of praetors was increased from four in 227 BC to eight at the time of Sulla.
(Acts 23-35). The procurators of Judaea were subject to the authority of the imperial governors
of Syria, as is evident from the deposition of Pontius
Pilate by Vitellius (Jos, Ant, XVIII, iv, 2; Tac.
A7in. vi.32). The procurator was competent to
exercise criminal jurisdiction over the provincials
in cases involving a capital sentence (Jos, BJ, II,
viii, 1), but he was bound to grant an appeal by Rom citizens for trial at Rome (Acts 25 11). A death sentence by the Sanhedrin required the sanction of the procurator, as appears in the process against the Saviour. Under Rom rule cities like Caesarea, Sebaste, and Jerus became organs for
(2) Second period.—In accordance with the reforms of Sulla all the consuls and praetors remained at Rome during their year of office, and were intrusted with the administration of provinces a subsequent year with the title proconsul (pro consule) or propraetor {pro praetore). The proconsuls were sent to the more important provinces. The senate determined the distinction between consular and praetorian provinces and generally controlled the assignment of the provinces to the ex-magistrates. Julius Caesar increased the praetors to sixteen, but Augustus reduced them to twelve.
local government, like the urban communities in other parts of the Empire.
The revenue of Pal under Claudius is said to have been 12,000,000 denarii (about $2,400,000, or £500,000; of Jos, Ant, XIX, viii, 2).
5. Revenue In addition to the ground tax, the amount of which is not known, a variety of indirect contributions were collected on auctions,
(3) Third period.—In 27 BC, Augustus as commander-in-chief of the Rom army definitely assumed the administration of all provinces which required the presence of military forces and left the other provinces to the control of the senate. There were then twelve imperial and ten senatorial provinces, but all provinces added after 27 BC came under imperial administration. The emperor administered his provinces through the agency of personal delegates, legati Augusti of senatorial, and prae-
salt, highways, bridges, etc, which constituted, no doubt, the field of activity in which the publicans gained their unenviable reputation.
LiTEHATnRE.—The reader may be directed to Marquardt, ffomisoAe Staatsveriealtung, I, 497-502, 517-57, for a general discussion of the Rom system of provincial administration, and to the same volimie, pp, 405-12, for the provincial government of Pal.
George H. Allen PROVOCATION, prov-6-ka'shun, PROVOKE, pr5-vok': "Provoke," lit. "to call forth," hence to excite or stir up, whether in a good or bad sense, appears frequently in the OT as the tr of Piel, or Hiph. of CyS , ks'as (noun, C^S , /ca'o.s), in the sense
fecti or procuratores of equestrian, rank. The term
of their service was not uniform, but continued usually for more than a single year. The sena-
torial administration was essentially a continuation of the post-SuUan, republican regime. The sena-
of "to make' angry" (Dt 4 25; 9 18;'l K 14 9.15, etc); sometimes of "T^P , marah (Isa 3 8), and of other words. In the NT we have irapafTjXiw, parazeloo, "to make jealous" (Rom 10 19; 11 11.
torial governors were called proconsuls generally, whether they were of consular or praetorian rank; but Africa and Asia alone were reserved for exconsuls, the eight remaining senatorial provinces being attributed to ex-praetors. The financial administration of each imperial province was intrusted to a procurator, that of each senatorial province to a quaestor.
14); irapopyl'^u, parorgizo, "to make angry" (Eph 6 4; cf Col 3 21); with TrapaTiKpahui, parapikraino, "to embitter" (He 3 16; cf in 1 Esd 6
15), and other Gr words. "Provocation" in He 3 8.15 (quoting Ps 95 8) is parapikrasmos, LXX for Heb m'rihhah. An example of the good sense of the word is in He 10 24, "Consider one another to provoke [lit. "to the provoking," here paroxusmds] unto love and good works."
The provinces were divided into smaller circumscriptions [civitates) for the purposes of local govern-
ment. In the older provinces these
3. Division districts corresponded generally with of Provinces the urban communities which had been
For "provoke" RV has "despise" (Nu 14 11; Dt 31 20), "rebel against" (Ps 78 40); for "provoked," "despised" (Nu 14 23; 16 30; Isa 1 4), "moved" (Dt 32 16; 1 Ch 21 1), "rebelled against" (Ps 78 56). "were rebellious" (106 33.43); for "provoking" (Ps 78 17), "to rebel against"; for "provoked" (2 Cor 9 2), "stirred up"; "provoked within" for "stirred in" (Acts 17 16); "provoked" for "limited" (Ps 78 41m, "limited"); "provoketh" for "emboldeneth" (Job 16 3); instead of "Provoke not your children to anger" (Col 3 21), "Provoke not your children."
the units of sovereignty before the advent of the Romans. Under Rom rule they were divided into different classes on the basis of their dignity and prerogatives, as follows:
(1) Coloniae: Rom or Lat colonies established after the model of the Italian commonwealths.
(2) Ctvitates foederatac: C'ommunitios whose independence had been guaranteed by a formal treaty with Rome.
(:i) Civitates liherae: Communities whose independence the Romans respected, although not bound to do so by a formal obligation.
W. L. Walker PRUDENCE, proo'dens, PRUDENT, prdo'dent: In the OT "prudence" is the tr of np"iy, 'ormah (Prov8 12); also in AV of bDTS , sekhel {2 Ch 2 12, RV "discretion"); and "prudent" is the tr of 0^137, 'arum, "subtle" (Prov 12 16,23; 13 16, etc; 'cf Gen 3 1; Job 5 12), and of T^?, bin (1 S 16 18, RVm "skilful"; Prov 16 21; 18 15; Isa 5 21; 10 13, ARV "understanding," etc), with other words. In the NT "prudence" occurs once as the tr of 't>pkvT)<Tis, phronesis (Eph 1 8); "prudent"
(4) Ciuitates sii-pendiariar: Communities which had surrendered to the discretion of the Romans and to which limited powers of local government were granted by the conquerors as a matter of convenience.
The civitates stipendiariae. and in some cases the colonics, paid taxes to the Rom government, the greater part of which was in the form either of a certain proportion of the annual products of the soil, such as a fifth or tenth, or a fixed annual payment in money or kind.
Judaea became a part of the province of Syria in 63 BC, but was assigned in 40 BC as a kingdom
to Herod the Great, whose sovereignty
is in AV the tr of awerks, simctos, changed in RV to "understanding" (Mt 11 25; Acts 13 7); in
4. Province became effective three years later. of Judaea The provincial regime was reestablished in 6 AD, and was broken only during the years 41-44 AD, when Herod Agrippa was granted royal authority over the land (Jos,
1 Cor 1 19, ARV has "the discerning," ERV retains "prudent." In its etymological sense of seeing beforehand (contraction of "providence"), "prudence"
2487 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Province Psalms, Book of
Thus for the greater part of the Psalter the Heb enumeration is one number in advance of that in the Gr and Lat Bibles.
does not occur in the NT. As forethought, foresight, prudence was reckoned one of the cardinal virtues by the ancient ethical writers. See the remarks of Coleridge on its lower and higher character in his Aids to Reflection, Aphor. 29.
The existing division in the Heb text has been called in question at various points. Pss 42 and 43 are almost certainly one poem (see refrain in 42 5.11: 43 5); and
it is probable that Pss 9 and 10 were originally one, as in LXX. On the other hand, it is thought by some that certain pss were composed of two originally separate poems. We may cite as examples Ps 19 1-6.7-14; 24 1-6.7-10; 27 1-6.7-14; 36 1-4. .5-12. It is evident that such combinations of two different poems into one may have taken place, for we have an example in Ps 108, which is composed of portions of two other pss (57 7-11; 60 5-12).
W. L. Walker PRUNING-HOOK, proon'ing-hook. See Hook,
(3); Vine.
PSALMS, siimz, BOOK OF (Di^nn, t'hillim,
"praises," D'^sHp 1BD
, ^epher t'hilUm, "book of praises"; ^aX|jio6, Psalmoi, '^aXT'^piov, Psalttrion):
(1) Value of the superscriptions.—It is the fashion among advanced critics to waive the titles of the pss out of court as wholly worthless
I. Introductory Topics 1. Title 2. Place in the Canon 3. Number of Pss 4. Titles in the Hebrew Text Authorship and Age of the Pss 1. David as a Psalmist 2. Psahnody after David Growth of the Psalter 1. Division into Five Books 2. Smaller Groups of Pss Poetry of the Psalter The Speaker in the Pss The Gospel in the Psalter 1. The Soul's Converse with God 2. The Messiah 3. Problem of Sin 4. Wrestling with Doubts 5. Out of the Depths 6. Ethical Ideals 7. Praving against the Wicked 8. The Future Life Literature
4. Titles in and misleading. This method is as the Hebrew thoroughly unscientific as the older Text procedure of defending the superscriptions as part of an inspired text. These titles are clearly very old, for the LXX, in the 2d cent. BC, did not understand many of them. The worst that can be said of the superscriptions
II.
III.
IV.
is that they are guesses of Heb editors and scribes
V. VI.
of a period long prior to the Gr version. As to many of the musical and liturgical titles, the best learning of Heb and Christian scholars is unable to recover the original meaning. The scribes who pre-
fixed the titles had no conceivable reason for writing nonsense into their prayerbook and hymnal. These superscriptions and subscriptions all had a worthy meaning, when they were first placed beside individual pss. This indisputable fact of the great antiquity of these titles ought forever to make it impossible for scientific research to ignore them Grant, for the sake of argument, that not one of them came from the pen of the writers of the Pss, but only from editors and compilers of exilic or
/. Introductory Topics.—The Heb title for the Psalter is sepher t'hilllm, "book of praises." When we consider the fact that more than
1. Title 20 of these poems have praise for their keynote, and that there are outbursts
of thanksgiving in many others, the fitness of the Heb title dawns upon us. As Ker well says, "The book begins with benediction, and ends with praise —first, blessing to man, and then glory to God." Hymns of praise, though found in all_ parts of the
post-exilio days, it would still be reasonable to give attention to the views of ancient Heb scholars, before considering the conjectures of modem critics on questions of authorship and date. Sources of information, both oral and written, to which they had access, have long since perished. _ In estimating the value of their work, we have a right to use the
Psalter, become far more numerous in Books IV and V, as if the volume of praise would gather itself up into a Hallelujah Chorus at the end.
In the Gr version the book is entitled in some MSS Psalmoi, in others Psallerion, whence come our Eng. titles "Psalms," and "Psalter." The Gr word psalmos, as well as the Heb mizmor, both of which are used in the superscriptions prefixed to many of the separate pss, indicates a poem sung to
best critical processes known to us; but it is un-
scientific to overlook the fact that their proximity
to the time of the composition of the Pss gave them an advantage over the modem scholar. If it be said by objectors that these ancient scribes formed
their conclusions by the study of the life of David
the accompaniment of stringed instruments. The
as portrayed in the historical books of _K and Ch, the reply is ready that several historical notices
title mizmor is found before 57 pss. The Psalter was the hymnal of the Jewish nation. To indi-
in the titles cannot be thus explained. Who was Cush? Who was Abimelech? (Pss 7 and 34). A
vidual pss other titles are sometimes prefixed, such
ass/iir, "song"; t'hillah, "praise" ; t'phillah, "pray-
careful weighing of the facts concerning the super-
er," etc. The Psalter was both prayerbook and hymnal to the Jewish people. It was also a manual
scriptions will make it seem highly improbable that
the earUest of these titles does not reach back into
preexilic times. We almost certainly have in them the results of the labors of Heb scribes and compilers
for the nurture of the spiritual life in private as well
as public worship.
stretching over several centuries. Some of the
The Pss were placed in the k'thiibhim or "Writings.'' the third group of the Heb Scriptures. As the chief book of the knhuhhim. the Psalter appears 9 Plarp flrstin the great majority of Gerrnan MSS,
titles may have been appended by the psalmists themselves.
We are far from claiming that the titles are always
5'''*'-"= though the Spanish MSS place Pss after in tne Qj and the Tahn puts Ruth before Pss. Canon There has never been any serious question as to the right of the Psalter to a place
intelligible to us, or that, when understood, they are always correct. The process of constructing
titles indicative of authorship had not ceased in the 2d cent. BC, the LXX adding many to pss that were anonymous in the Heb. The view expressed nearly 50 years ago by Perowne is eminently sane:
in the Canon of Scripture. The book is possibly more
highly esteemed among Christians than by the Jews.
If Christians were permitted to retain only one book in
the OT, they would ahnost certainly choose Pss. By
100 BC, and probably at a much earher date, the Book
' 'The inscriptions cannot always be reUed on. They
of Pss was completed and recognized as part of the Hagiographa, the 3d division of the Heb Bible
are sometimes genuine, and really represent the most ancient tradition. At other times, they are due to the caprice of later editors and collectors,
According to the Heb text, toUo"!''''! by modern VSS
there are 150 separate poems m the Psalter. _ Ihe Gr version has an additional ps, m which
Q TViP David describes his victory over Gohath;
the fruits of conjecture, or of dimmer and more un-
^T T^ c but this is expressly said to be outside Number OI ^he number." The LXX, followed by Psalms Vulg. combined Pss 9 and 10, and also 114 and 115, into a single ps. On the other hand they divide Pss 116 and 147 each into two poems.
certain traditions. In short, the inscriptions of the
Pss are like the subscriptions to the Epp. of the NT. They are not of any necessary authority, and their
Psalms, Book of THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2488
occurs in connection with Selah in Ps 9 16. RV translates the word in Ps 92 3, "a solemn sound," and in Ps 19 14, "meditation." It is probably a musical note equivalent to largo. U) Y'dhuthun: In the title of Ps 39, Jeduthun might well be identical with the Chief Musician. In Pss 62 and 7'f RV renders "after the manner of Jeduthun." We know from 1 Ch 16 41; 25 3 that Jeduthun (q.v.) was a choir leader in the days of David. He perhaps Introduced a method of conducting the service of song which ever afterward was associated with his name.
value must be weighed and tested by the usual
critical processes."
(2) Thirlle's theory.—J. W. TMrtle {The Titles of the Pss. 1904) advances the hypothesis that both superscriptions and subscriptions were incorporated in the Psalter, and that in tlie process ot copying the Pss by hand, the distinction between the superscription of a given ps and the subscription of the one immediately preceding it was finally lost. When at length the different pss were separated from one another, as in printed edd, the subscriptions and superscriptions were all set forth as superscriptions. Thus it came about that the musical subscription of a given ps was prefixed to the literary superscription of the ps immediately following
(/t) Yonath 'elem r'hokim (Ps 56): We have already called attention to the fact that as a subscript to Ps 55 "the dove of the distant terebinths," or "the silent dove of them that are afar off," would have a point of contact with Ps 55 6-8.
it. The prayer of Habakkuk (Hab 3) was taken by Thirtle as a model or normal ps ; and in this instance the superscription was literary.
(0 Mahdlath (Ps 53), Malfilath V'annoth (Ps 88): Perhaps Thirtle's vocalization of the Heb consonants as meholoth, "dancings," is correct. As a subscript to Ps 87, m'holoth may refer to David's joy at the bringing of the ark to Zion (2 S 6 14.15). (m) Maskil (Pss 32, 42-45, 52-55, 74, 78, 88, 89, 142): The exact meaning of this common term is not clear. Briggs suggests "a meditation," Thirtle and others "a ps of instruction," Kirkpatrick "a cunning ps." Some of the 13 pss bearing this title are plainly didactic, while others are scarcely to be classed as pss of instruction.
' A prayer of Habakkuk the prophet upon Shigionoth," while the subscription is musical, " For the Chief Musician, on my stringed instruments." The poem of Hezekiah in celebration of his recovery (Isa 38 9-20) seems to support Thirtle's thesis, the superscription stating the authorship and the occasion that gave birth to the ps, while ver 20 hints at the musical instruments with which the ps was to be accompanied in public worship. If now the musical notes be separated from the notes of authorship and date that follow them, the musical notes being appended as subscriptions, while the literary notes are kept as real superscriptions, the outcome of the separation is in many instances a more intelligible nexus between title and poem. Thus the subscript to Ps 55, "The dove of the distant terebinths," becomes a pictorial title of vs 6-8 of the ps. The appHcation of the rule that the expression
(n) Mikhtdm (Pss 16,56-60): Following the rabbinical guess, some translate "a golden poem." The exact meaning is unknown.
(o) Math lahben: The title is generally supposed to refer to a composition entitled "Death of the Son." Possibly the melody to which this composition was sung was the tune to which Ps 9 (or 8) was to be sung. Thirtle translates "The Death of the Champion," and regards it as a subscription to Ps 8, in celebration of the victory over Goliath.
' for the Chief Musician" is always a subscript removes the difficulty in the title of Ps 88. The superscription of Ps 88, on Thirtle's hypothesis, becomes "Maschil of Heraan the Ezrahite." Ps 87 thus has a subscript that repeats the statement of its superscription, but with an addition which harmonizes vdth the content of the poem. "MahalathLeannoth," with a slight correction in vocalization, probably means " Dancings with Shoutings," and ver 7 of Ps 87 s'peaks of both singing and dancing. The tone of Ps 87 is exceedingly cheerful; but Ps 88 is the saddest in the entire Psalter. The application of Thirtle's hypothesis also leaves Ps 88 with a consistent literary title, whereas the usual title ascribes the ps first to the sons of Korah and then to Heman the Ezrahite.
(p) On''N'ghindth" occms&t (Pss 4, 6, 54, 55, 67, 76), and means "with stringed instruments." N^ghlnath (Ps 61) may be a slightly defective writing for N'ghindth. Perhaps stringed instruments alone were used with pss having this title. According to Thirtle's hypothesis, the title was originally a subscript to Pss 3, 5, 63, 54, 60, 66, 75. (g) N'^hUoth (Ps 5). possibly a subscript to Ps 4, is supposed by some to refer to "wind instruments," possibly flutes.
(3) Meaning of the Hebrew titles.—Scholars have not been able to come to agreement as to the meaning and application of a goodly number of words and phrases found in the titles of the Pss. We append an alphabetical list, together with hints as to the probable meaning
(r) yjielah, though not strictly a title, may well be discussed in connection with the superscriptions. It occurs 71 t in the Pss and 3 t in Hab. It is almost certainly a technical term whose meaning was well known to the precentor and the choir in the temple. The LXX always, Symmachus and Theodotion generally, render didpsalma, which probably denotes an instrumental interlude. The Tg Aquila and some other ancient VSS render "forever." Jerome, following Aquila, translates it " always." Many moderns derive §eldh from a root meaning "to raise," and suppose it to be a sign to the musicians to strike up with a louder accompaniment. Possibly the singing ceased for a moment. A few think it is a hturgical direction to the congregation to "lift up" their voices in benediction. It is unwise to dogmatize as to the meaning of this very common word. See Selah. (s) Sh'minith (Pss 6, 12), meaning "the eighth," probably denotes the male choir, as distinguished from
(a) ' Ayelelh ha-Shahar (Ps 22) means "the hind of the morning," or possibly "the help of the morning." Many think that the words were the opening line of some familiar song.
(b) ',.1/amoi/i (Ps 46) nieans "maidens." The common view is that the ps was to be sung by soprano voices.
Some speak of a female choir and compare 1 Ch 15 20: Ps 68 11.24 f. According to Thirtle, the title is a subscript to Ps 45, which describes the marriage of a princess, a function at which it would be quite appropriate to have a female choir.
' Al-tashheth (Pss 57-59; 75) means " destroy not, and is quite suitable as a subscript to Pss 56-58 and 74 (cf Dt 9 26). Many think this the first word of a vintage song (cf Isa 65 8). (d) "Ascents, Song of" (Pss 120-134): RV translates the title to 15 pss "A Song of Ascents," where AV has "A Song of Degrees.
(c)
' Alamoth, the maidens' choir. That both terms are musical notes is evident from 1 Ch 15 19-21.
(/) ShiggdySn. (Ps 7) is probably a musical note. Some think it denotes " a dithyrambic poem in wild ecstatic wandering rhythms, with corresponding music."
' The most probable explanation of the meaning of the expression is that these 1.5 pss were sung by bands of pilgrims on their wav to the yearly feasts in .lerus (Ps 122 4). Pss 121-23, 125, 127, 128 and 13234 are well suited for use on such occasions (see, however. Expos T, XII, 62). (e) "For the Chief Musician": 55 pss are dedicated to the precentor or choir leader of the temple. "To the Chief Musician" might mean that the precentor was the author of certain pss, or that there was a collection of hymns compiled by him for use in temple worship, or that certain pss were placed in his hands, with suggestions as to the character of the poems and the music which was to accompany them. It is quite likely that there was an official collection of pss for public worship in the custody of the choir master of the temple.
_ (u) SAosftan/iim (Pss 45, 69) means "lilies." Shoshanmm 'edhuth (Ps 80) means "lilies, a testimony." Shushan 'edhuth (Ps 60) may be rendered "the lily of testimony." Thirtle represents these titles as subscripts to Pss 44, 69, 68, 79, and associates them with the spring festival, Passover. Others regard them as indicating the melody to which the various pss were to be sung.
(») "Song ot Loves" (Ps 45) is appropriate as a literary title to a marriage song.
(4) Testimony of the titles as to authorship.— (a) Ps 90 is ascribed to Moses, (b) To David 73 pss are ascribed, chiefly in Books I and II. (c) Two are assigned to Solomon (Pss 72, 127). (d) 12 are ascribed to Asaph (Pss 50, 73-83). (e) 11 are assigned to the sons of Korah (Pss 42-49, 84, 85, 87). (/) Ps 88 is attributed to Heman the Ezrahite. {g) Ps 89 bears the name of Ethan the Ezrahite. In most cases it is plain that the editors meant to indicate the authors or writers of the pss. It is possible that the phrase "to David" may sometimes have been prefixed to certain pss, merely to indicate that they were found in a collection which contained Davidic pss. It is also possible that the titles "to Asaph" and "to the sons of Korah" may have originally meant that the pss thus designated belonged to a collection in the custody of these temple singers. Ps 72 may also be a prayer for Solomon rather than a ps by Solomon. At the same time, we must acknowledge, in the light of the titles describing the occasion of composition, that the most natural interpretation of the various superscriptions is that they indicate the supposed authors of the various poems to which they are
(/) "Dedication of the House" (Ps 30): The title probably refers to the dedication of Jeh's house: whether m the days of David, in connection with the removal of the ark to Jerus, or In the days of Zerubbabel, or in the time of Judas Maccabaeus, it is impossiljle to say positively. If Ps 30 was used on any one of these widely separated occasions, that fact might account for the Insertion of the caption, " a Song at the Dedication of the
House."
(g) "Degrees": see "Ascents'* above. (k) Gittitk (Pss 8, 81, 84) is commonly suppased to refer to an instrmnent invented in Gath or to a tune that was used in the Phili city. Thirtle emends slightly to gittoth. "wine presses." and connects Pss 7, 80 and 83 with the Feast of Tabernacles.
(i) HigguyCin: This word is not strictly a title, but
2489 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Psalms, Book of
prefixed. Internal evidence shows conclusively that some of these titles are incorrect. Each superscription should be tested by a careful study of the ps to which it is appended.
consider the references to David as a writer of hymns and the organizer of the temple choirs as tiie pious imaginings of late chroniclers. Robertson well says: "This habit of refusing to admit complexity in the capacities of Bib. characters is exceedingly hazardous and unsafe, when history is so full of instances of the combination in one person of qualities the most diverse. We not only have poets who can harp upon more than one string, but wo have religious leaders who have united the most fervent piety with the exercise of poorly developed virtue, or the practice of very questionable policy. A critic, if he has not a single measure of large enough capacity for a historical character, should not tliink himself at liberty to measure him out in two halfbushels, making one man of each" {Poetry and Religion of the Pss, 332). Among kings, Charlemagne and Gonstantine the Great have lieen likened to David; and among poets, Robert Burns. There were contradictory elements in the moral characters of all these gifted men. Of Constantino it has been said that lie "was by turns the docile believer and the cruel despot, devotee and murderer, patron saint and avenging demon." David was a many-sided man, with a character often at war with itself, a man with conflicting impulses, the flesh lusting against the spirit and the spirit against the flesh. Men of fiesh and blood in the midst of life's temptations have no diflBcuity in understanding the David of the Bible.
(5) Titles describing the occasion of writing.—There are 13 of these, all bearing the name of David, (a) Pss 7, 59, 56, 34, 53, 67, 142, 64 are assigned to the period of his persecution by Saul. (6) During the period of his reign over all Israel, David is credited with Pss 18, 60, 51, 3 and 63.
//. The Authorship and Age of the Pss.—Ps 90
is ascribed to Moses. It is the fashion now to denythat Moses wrote anything. A careful study of Ps 90 has brought to hght nothing inconsistent with Mosaic authorship. The dignity, majesty and pathos of the poem are worthy of the great lawgiver and intercessor.
(1) The age of David offered fruitful soil for the growth of religious poetry.— (a) The pohtical and religious reforms of Samuel created a 1. David as new sense of national unity, and kina Psalmist died the fires of religious patriotism.
(6) Music had a large place in the life of the prophetic guilds or schools of the prophets, and was used in public reUgious exercises (1 S 10 5f). (c) The victories of David and the internal expansion of the life of Israel would inevitably stimulate the poetic instinct of men of genius; cf the Elizabethan age and the Victorian era in Eng. literature, (d) The removal of the ark to the new capital and the organization of the Levitical choirs would stimulate poets to compose hymns of praise to Jeh (2 S 6; 1 Ch 16, 16, 25).
(c) David was a man of deep feeling and of imperial imagination. Think of his love for Jonathan, his grateful appreciation of every exploit done in his behalf by his mighty men, his fondness for Absalom. His successful generalship would argue for imagination, as well as the vivid imagery of the elegy, (d) David was an enthusiastic worshipper of Jeh. All the records of his life agree in representing him as devoted to Israel's God. In the midst of life's dangers and disappointments, "David strengthened himself in Jeh his God" (1 S 30 6). We should have been surprised had no trace of religious poetry come from his pen. It would be
It is the fashion in certain critical circles to blot out the Mosaic era as unhistoric, all accounts of it being considered legendary or mythical. It is easy then to insist on the elimination of all the higher religious teaching attributed to Samuel. This leaves David "a rude king in a semi-barbaric age," or, as Cheyne puts it, "the versatile condottiere, chieftain, and liing." It would seem more reasonable to accept as trustworthy the uniform tradition of Israel as to the great leaders, Moses, Samuel and David, than to rewrite Israel's history out of the tiny fragments of historical material that are accepted by skeptical critics as credible. It is often said ttiat late writers read into their accounts of early heroes their own ideas of what would be fitting. James Robertson's remark in reply has great weight: "This habit of explaining the early as the backward projection of the late is always liable to the_ objection that it leaves the late itself without explanation" {Poetry and Religion of the Pss, 332).
difficult to imagine Milton or Cowper or Tennyson as confining himself to secular poetry. "Comus," "John Gilpin," and the "Charge of the Light Brigade" did not exhaust their genius; nor did the elegy over Saul and Jonathan and the lament over Abner relieve David's soul of the poetry that clamored for expression. The known facts of his life and times prepare us for an outburst of psalmody under his leadership, (e) The varied experiences through which David passed were of a character to quicken any latent gifts for poetic expression.
James Robertson states this argument clearly, and yet with becoming caution: " The vicissitudes and situations in David's life presented in these narratives are of such a nature that, though we may not be able to say precisely that such and such a ps was composed at such and such a time and place, yet we may confidently say. Here is a man who has jjassed through certain experiences and borne himself in such wise that we are not surprised to hear that, being a poet, lie composed this and the other pss. It is very doubtful whether we should tie down any lyric to a precise set of circumstances, the poet being like a painter, who, having found a fit landscape, sits down to transfer it to canvas. I do not think
(2) David's qualijicalions for composing pss.—
(a) He was a skilful musician, with a sense of rhythm and an ear for pleasing sounds (1 S 16 15-23). He seems to have invented new instruments of music (Am 6 5). (b) He is recognized by critics
of all schools as a poet of no mean ability. The genuineness of his elegy over Saul and Jonathan
(2 S 1 19-27) is commonly accepted; also his lament over Abner (3 33 f). In the elegy over Saul and Jonathan, David displays a magnanimity and tenderness that accord with the representations
it likely that David, finding himself in some great perplexity or sorrow, called for writing materials in order to describe the situation or record liis feelings. But I do think it probaliie that the vicissitude-s through which he passed made such an impression on his sensitive heart, and became so inwrought into an emotional nature, that when he soothed himself in his retirement with his lyre, they came forth spontaneously in the form of a psalm or song or prayer, according as the recollection was sad or joyful, and as his singing mood moved him" {Poetry and Religion of the Pss, 343 f).
of S as to his treatment of Saul and of Jonathan. No mere rough border chieftain could have composed a poem full of the tenderest sentiment and the most exemplary attitude toward a persecutor. The moral elevation of the elegy has to be accounted
for. If the author was a deeply religious man, a man enjoying the friendship of God, it is easy to account for the moral dignity of the poem. Surely
The Bib. writers, both early and late, agree in affirming that the Spirit of Jeh rested upon David, empowering him for serviceof the highest order (1 S 16 13; 2 S 23 1-3; Mt 22 43; Acts 2 29-31). The gift of prophetic inspiration was bestowed upon Israel's chief musician and poet.
it is only a step from the patriotism and magnanimity and devoted friendship of the elegy to the reli-
gious fervor of the Pss. Moreover, the poetic skill
displayed in the elegy removes the possible objection
(3) External evidence for Davidic pss.— (a) In the NT David is named as the author of certain
that hterary art in the days of David had not at-
tained a development equal to the composition of poems such as the Pss. There is nothing more
pss. Thus Ps 110 is ascribed to David by Jesus in His debate with the Pharisees in the Temple (Mt 22 41-45; Mk 12 3.5-37; Lk 20 41-44). Peter teaches that David prophesied concerning Judas (Acts 1 16), and he also refers Pss 16 and 110 to
Ijeautiful and artistic in the entire Psalter.
Radical critics saw the David of the Bible asunder. They contrast the rough border chieftain with the pious Psalmist. Though willing to beUeve every statement that reflects upon the moral character of David, tbcy
Psalms, Book of THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2490
We come next to two statements that would settle the question ol David's pss, if critics would only accept them as the work of an author living within a generation or so of the time of David. tJnfortunately 2 S 21-24
David (Acts 2 25-34). The whole company of the disciples in prayer attribute Ps 2 to David (Acts 4 25 f). Paul quotes Pss 32 and 69 as Davidic (Rom 4 6-8; 11 9f). The author of He even refers Ps 95 to David, following the LXX (He 4 7), From the last-named passage many scholars infer that any quotation from the Pss might be referred to David as the chief author of the Pss. Possibly this free and easy method of citation, without any attempt at rigorous critical accuracy, was in vogue in the l.st cent. AD. At the same time, it
is regarded by most critical scholars as an appendix to the early narrative of David's career. There is no agreement as to the exact date of the composition of these chapters. NaturaUy the burden of proof is on the critic who tries to disintegrate a document, and suspicion of bias is inevitable, if by the disintegration he is able to escape the force of a disagreeable argument. Happily, we live in a free country, every man having a right to hold and to express his own opinion, for whatever it may be worth. It seems to the present writer that 2 S 21-24 may well have come from the pen of the early narrator who told the story of David's reign in such a masterly fashion. Even if these chapters were added by a later editor as an appendix, there is no sufficient reason for putting this writer so late as the exile. His statements cannot be set aside as imrehable, simply because they run counter to the current theory as to the date of the Pss. 2 S 22 pm-ports to give the words of a song which David spake to Jeh, when he had been dehvered from Saul and from all his enemies. Ps 18 is evidently a different recension of the same poem. The differences between 2 S 32 and Ps 18 are not much greater than the differences in the various edd of "Rock of Ages." Only the most advanced critics deny that David wrote this glorious song. 2 S 23 1-7 must not be omitted, for here David claimed prophetic inspiration as the sweet Psalmist of Israel. This original and striking poem is worthy of the brilliant royal bard, (g) The titles of the Pss are external evidence of real value for determining the date and authorship of the Pss; and these ascribe 7.3 to David. A sweeping denial of all the forms of external evidence for Davidic pss ought to be buttressed by convincing arguments from internal evidence. Unverified conjectures will not answer.
is evident that the view that David was the chief author of the Pss was accepted by the NT writers.
(6) In 2 Mace 2 13 (RV), in a letter purporting to have been \^Titten by the Jews of Pal to their brethren in Egypt, about 144 BC, occurs the following: "And the same things were related both in the public archives and in the records that concern Nehemiah; and how he, founding a Hbrary, gathered together the books about the kings and prophets, and the books of David, and letters of kings about sacred gifts." We do not know the exact date of 2 Mace, but it was almost certainly in the 1st cent. BC. The author regards David as the author of books in the sacred library gathered together by Nehemiah.
(c) Jesus the Son of Sirach, who wrote not later than 180 BC, and possibly a good deal earlier, thus describes David's contribution to pubhc worship: "In every work of his he gave thariks to the Holy One Most High with words of glory ; with his whole heart he sang praise, and loved him that made him"(Ecclus 47 8f RV)- David's fame as a psalmist and the organizer of choirs for the sanctuary was well known to Ben Sira at the beginning of the 2d cent. BC. (d) The author of Ch, writing not later than 300 BC, and probably much earlier, represents David as making provision for a service of song before the ark of God and in connection with its removal to the city of David (1 Ch 15, 16). It seems to be imagined by some scholars that the Chronicler, whose historical accuracy is severely attacked by certain critics, is responsible for the idea that David was a great writer of hymns. On the contrary', he has less to say about David as a poet and psalmist than the author of S. Only in 2 Ch 29 30 is there explicit mention of David as the author of praises to Jeh. The Chronicler speaks repeatedly of the instruments of David and of his organization of the choirs. And so in the kindred books of Ezr and Neh there is mention of the style of worship introduced by David (Ezr 3 10; Neh 12 24.36). The author of the Book of K refers repeatedly to David as a model king (1 K 11 4; 2 K 14 3; 20 5 f, etc). He becomes a witness for the high reputation of David for uprightness and religious zeal, (e) Amos refers incidentally to David's great skUl as an inventor of musical instruments
(4) Internal evidence for Davidic pss.—The fact that many of the pss ascribed to David correspond in tone and temper and in historical allusions with incidents in his life, while not in itself convincing proof that David wrote them, certainly reenforces the external evidence in favor of Davidic pss. We must refer the reader to the commentaries of Delitzsch, Kirkpatrick, Perowne and others for the evidence discovered in individual pss. In many pss the evidence is strongly in favor of the superscriptions, in which David is named as the writer. See esp. Pss 18, 23, 32, 3.
(5) Number of Davidic pss.—Opinion varies among conservative scholars all the way from 3 or 4 to 44 or 45. It has come to pass that a critic who acknowledges even Ps 18 to be David's is called conservative. In fact, the more radical critics regard a scholar as conservative
if he assigns even a small group of pss to the period before the exile. We must not allow ourselves to be deterred from ascribing to David any ps that seems to us, on the basis of both external and internal evidence, to come from his pen. DeUtzsch and Kirkpatrick are safer guides than Cheyne and Duhm. Maclaren also has made a close and sympathetic study of David's life and character, and accepts the results of sane criticism. W. T. Davison [HDB, IV) speaks out clearly and strongly for Davidic authorship of Pss 7, 11, 17, 18, 19 (first haU), 24 and a few other pss or parts of pss, though he makes large concessions to the present tendency to bring down the pss to a later date. He stands firmly for a large body of preexilic pss. Ewald assigned to David Pss 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 18, 19, 24, 29, 32, 101; also 60 8-11 and 68 14-19. Hitzig ascribed to David Pss 3-19, with the exception of 5, 6 and 14. If one follows the titles in the Heb text, except where internal evidence clearly contradicts the superscriptions, it will be easy to follow Delitzsch in attributing 44 or 45 pss to David.
(Am 6 5). The same prophet is a witness to the fact that songs were sung in worship at Bethel to the accompaniment of harps or viols (Am 5 23). (/) The earliest witness, or witnesses, if the narrative be composite, we find in 1 and 2 S. David is described as a wonderful musician and as one on whom the Spirit of Jeh rested mightily (1 S 16 13-23). He
(1) Pss of Asaph (73-83, ako 50).—The prophetic spirit throbs in most of the pss ascribed to Asaph (q.v.). God is pictured as a 2. Psalrighteous Judge. He is also pictured as mody after the Shepherd of Israel. Ps 73 holds David fast to God's righteous rule of mankind, in spite of the prosperity of the wicked. Ps 60, which is assigned by many to the time of Hosea and Isaiah, because of its powerful prophetic message, may well have come from Asaph, the contemporary of David and of Nathan. Some of the Asaph group, notably 74 and 79, belong to the period of the exile or later. The family of Asaph continued for centuries to lead in the service of song (2 Ch 35 15; Neh 7 44). Inspired poets were raised up from age to age in the Asaph guild.
is credited with the beautiful elegy over Saul and Jonathan (2 S 1 17-27) and the brief lament over Abner (2 S 3 33 f). He is said to have danced with joy before the ark, and to have brought it up to Jerus with shouting and with sound of trumpet
(2 S 6 12 ff). He is credited with the pious wish that he might build a temple for Jeh and the ark^ and
is said to have poured forth a prayer of thanksgiving to Jeh for the promise of a perpetual throne (2 S 7) David dedicated to Jeh much wealth taken from his enemies (2 S 8 11). Both the good and the bad in David's hfe and character are faithfully set forth in the vivid narrative.
2491 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Psalms, Book of
(2) Pss of the sons of Korah {42-49, 84, 85, 8 7) —This family of singers was prominent in the temple-worship in the days of David and afterward. Several of the most beautiful poems in the Psalter are ascribed to members of this guild (see Pss 42, 43, 45, 46, 49, 84). We are not to think of these poems as having been composed by a committee of the sons of Korah; no doubt each poem had an individual author, who was willing to sink his personaUty in the ps he was composing. The privileges and blessings of social worship in the sanctuary are greatly magnified in this group of pss.
as follows: Book I, P.ss 1-41; Book II, Pss 42-
72; Book III, Pss 73-89; Book IV, Pss 90-106;
. ^. . . Book V, Pss 107-60. 1. Division intn Five * '^ possible that this division into five mtu rivc books may have been already made before Books the Chrorilcler composed his history of Judah (cf 1 Ch 16 36 with Ps 106 48). At the end of Book II appears a subscript which is significant in the history of the Psalter. It is said in Ps 72 20: "The prayers of David the son of Jesse are ended." It would seem from this note that the editor who appended it meant to say that in his collection he had included all the pss of David known to him. Singularly enough, the subscript is attached to a ps ascribed to Solomon. Pss 51-70, however, lie near at hand, all of which are attributed to David. Ps 71 is anonymous, and Ps 72 might possibly be considered a prayer /or Solomon. There is a further difficulty in the fact that the Second Book of Pss opens with nine poems ascribed to the sons of Korah and to Asaph. It Is a very natural conjecture that these nine pss were at one time united with Pss 73-83. .With these removed, it would be possible to unite Pss 51-70 with Book I. Then the subscript to Ps 72 would be a fitting close to a roll made up of pss ascribed to David. It Is impossible at this late date to trace fully and accurately the history of the formation of the Psalter.