Part 14
list of 30 proper names all but three have Bib. equivalents. "They are the earliest specimens of Heb writing which have been found, and in amount they exceed by far all known ancient Heb inscriptions; moreover, they are the first Palestinian records of this natmre to be found" (see esp. Lyon, op. cit., I, 70-96; II, 102-13; III, 136-38; IV, 136-43; Reisner, ib, 111,248-63; also Theol. Liiera-
still retaining traces of color. A few Gr graffiti were found near here, and 1.50 "Rhodian" stamped amphora handles and many fragments of Lat inscriptions. A complete inscription on a large stele proved to be a dedication from some Pannonian soldiers (probably 2d or 3d cent. AD) to "Jupiter Optimus Maximus." Near this was found a torso of heroic size carved in white marble, which is much finer than any ever before discovered in Pal, the work "bringing to mind the Vatican Augustus"
turblatt, 1911, III, 4; Driver, as above; MNOP, 1911, 23-27; Rev. Ublique, VI, 435-45).
(3) 'Ain Shems (Beth-shemesh, 1 S 6 1-21; 2 K 14 11).—In a short but important campaign, during 1911-12, in which from 36 to 167 workmen were employed, Dr. D. Mackenzie uncovered a massive double gate and primitive walls 12-15 ft. high, with mighty bastions, and found in later deposits Egyp images, Syrian Astartes, imported Aegean vases and a remarkable series of inscribed royal jar-handles "dating from the Israelite monarchy" (Vincent), as also what seemed to be an ancient Sem tomb with fagade entrance. The proved Cretan relations here are esp. important. The town was suddenly destroyed, probably in the era of Sennacherib {PEFS, 1911, LXIX, 172; 1912, XII, 145).
(Vincent), though not equal to it. Close to the statue was a Rom altar (presumably Herodian)
c 13 by 7 ft., rising in six courses of stone to a height of 6 ft. Beneath the Rom city was a Seleu-
cid to\\TQ (c 300-108 BC), with its fortifications, gateway, temples, streets, and great public build-
ings and a complex of private houses, in connection with which was a large bath house, with mosaic
(4) Gezer (Palestine Exploration Fund). Tell ej-Jezer occupies a conspicuous position, over 250
floor, hot and cold baths, water closet, etc, which was heated by a furnace. Underneath the Gr
ft. above the plain, and 750 ft. above the sea, on a ridge of hills some 20 miles N.W. of Jerus, overlooking the plain toward Jaffa, which is 17 miles distant. It is in plain sight of the two chief trade caravan roads of Southern Pal which it controlled. The ancient Gezer was well known from many references to it on the Egyp records, the names of several governors of Gezer being given in letters dating from c 1400 BC and Menephtah (c 1200 BC) caUing himself "Binder of Gezer," etc. The discovery of the boundary stones of Gezer (see above) positively identified it. It was thoroughly excavated by R. A. Stewart Macalister in 1902-5, 1907-9, during which time 10,000 photographs were made of objects found. No explorations have been so long continued on one spot or have brought more unique discoveries or thrown more light upon the development of Palestinian culture and religion, and none have been reported as fully {Excavations of Gezer,
walls, which were connected with the well-known
red-figured Gr ware of c 400 BC, were brick struc-
tures and very thick fortress walls built in receding courses of small stones in the Bab style. In the
filling of the construction trench of this Bab wall were found Israelite potsherds and a Heb seal with seemingly Bab pecuUarities, and one fragment of a cuneiform tablet. Below these Bab constructions
"there is a series of massive walls beautifully built
of large limestone blocks founded on rock and form-
ing a part of one great building, which can be no
other than the Jewish palace." It consisted of
"great open courts surrounded by small rooms, comparable in plan and even in size with the Bab
palaces and is certainly royal in size and archi-
tecture." Its massive outUnes which for the first
time reveal to the modern world the masonry of
an Israelite palace show that unexpected material
resources and technical skill were at the command
1912, 3 vols; Hist of Civilization in Pal, 1912). Ten periods are recognized as being distinctly marked in the history of the mound—which broadly
of the kings of Israel. An even greater discovery was made when on the palace' hill was found an
Pal (Exploration) THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2232
almost or quite reaches its culmination. The Hyksos scarabs found here prove that under their rule (XVIth and XVIIth Dynasties) there was close intercourse with Pal, and the multitudes of Egyp articles show that this was also true before and after the Hyksos. The Cretan and the Aegean trade, esp. through Cyprus, introduced new art ideas which soon brought local attempts at imitation. Scribes' implements for writing in wax and clay begin here and are found in all strata hereafter.
speaking represents the development in all parts of Pal: (a) pre-Sem period (c 3000-2500 BC), to the entrance of the first Semites; (6) first Sem city
(c 2500-1800 BC), to the end of the Xllth Egyp Dynasty; (c) second Sem city (c lSOO-1400 BC), to the end of the XVIIIth Egyp Dynasty; (d) third Sem city (o 1400-1000 BC), to the beginning of the Heb monarchy; (e) fourth Sem city (c 1000550 BC), to the destruction of the monarchy and the Bab exile; (/) Pers and Hel period (550-100 BC), to the beginning of the Rom dominion; (g) Rom (100 BC-350 AD); (/i) Byzantine (350-6C)0 AD); (i) and (j) early and modern Arabian (350 AD to the present). The last four periods have left few important memorials and may be omitted from review.
(a) The aboriginal non-Sem inhabitants of Gezer were troglodytes (cf Gen 14 6) living in the caves which honeycomb this district (cl ZDPV, 1909, VI, 12), modifying these only slightly for home purposes. They were a small race 5 ft. 4 in. to 5 ft. 7 in. in height, slender in form, with rather broad heads and thicli sliulls, who hunted, kept domestic animals (cows, sheep, goats); had lire and cooked food; possessed no metals ; made by hand a porous and gritty soft-baked pottery which they decorated with red lines; and were capable of a rude art—the oldest in Pal—in which drawings of various animals are given. They prized certain bars of stone (possibly phallic); they probably offered sacrifices; they certainly cremated their dead, depositing with the ashes a few food vessels. The crematory found was 31 ft. long by 24 wide, and in it the bodies were burned whole, without regard to orientation. Many cup marks in the rocks suggest possible religious rites ; in close connection with these marldngs were certain remains, including bones of swine (cf Lev 11 7).
Interments in the Second Burial Cave at Gezer.
"While the pottery is elaborately painted, it is but little molded. The older "combed" ornament practically disappears, while burnished ornament reaches high-water marli. Animal figures are common, the eyes often being elaborately modeled and stuck on; but it is infantile art. Burials still occur in natural caves, but also in those hewn artificially; the bodies are carelessly deposited on the floor without coffins, generally in a crouching position, and stones are laid around and over them without system. Drink offerings always and food offerings generally are placed with the dead. Scarabs are found with the skeletons, and ornaments of bronze and silver, occasionally gold and beads, and sometimes weapons. Lamps also begin to be deposited, but in small numbers.
(b) The Semites who displaced this population were more advanced in civilization, having bronze tools and potter's wheels, with finer and more varied pottery; they were a heavier race, being 5 ft. 7 in. to 5 ft. 11 iri. tall, larger-boned, thicker-skulled, and with longer faces. They did not burn but buried their dead carelessly upon the floor of the natural caves. The grave deposits are the same as before; occasionally some beads are found with the body. The former race had surrounded their settlement with a wall 6 ft. high and 8 ft. thick, mostly earth, though faced with selected stones; but this race built a wall of hammered stones, though irregularly cut and laid, the wall being 10 ft. thick, and one gateway being 42 ft. wide, flanked by two towers. While huts were always the common residences (as in later eras), yet some buildings of stone were erected toward the close of this period and one large palace was found, built of stone and ha\ing a row of columns down the center, and containing a complex of rooms, including one rectangular hall, 40 ft. long by 25 ft. wide. IMost remarkable of all were their works of engineering. They hewed enormous constructions, square, rectangular and circular, out of the soft chalk and limestone rocks, one of which contained 60 chambers, one chamber being 400 by 80 ft. The supreme work, however, was a tunnel which was made c 2000 BC, passing out of use c 14501250 BC, and which shows the power of these early Palestinians. It was 200-250 ft. long and consisted of a roadway cut through the hill of rock some 47^ ft. to an imposing archway 2:3 ft. high and 12 ft. 10 in. broad, which led to a long sloping passage of equal dimensions, with the arch having a vaiilted roof and the sides well plumb. This led into a bed of much harder rock, where dimensions were reduced and the workmanship was poorer, but ultimately reached, aV)out 130 ft. below the present surface of the ground, an enormous living spring of such depth that the excavators could not empty it of the soft mud with which it was filled. A well-cut but well-worn and battered stone staircase, over 12 ft. broad, connected the spring with the upper section of the tunnel 94 ft. above. Beyond the spring was a natural cave 80 by 25 ft. Dr. Macalister asks, "Did a Canaanite governor plan and Canaanite workmen execute this vast work ? How did the ancient engineers discover the spring?" No one can answer; but certainly the tunnel was designed to bring the entrance of the water passage within the courtyard protected by the palace walls.
(d) During this period Menephtah "spoiled Gezer," and Israel established itself in Canaan. The excavations have given no hint of Menephtah's raid, unless it be found in an ivory pectoral bearing his cartouche. About 1400 BC a great wall, 4 ft. thick, was built of large and well-shaped stones and protected later by particularly fine towers, perhaps, as Macalister suggests, by the Pharaoh who captured Gezer and gave it as a dowry to his daughter, wife of King Solomon. A curious fact, which seemingly illustrates Josh 16 10, is the large increase of the town shortly after the Heb invasion.
"The houses are smaller and more crowded and the sacred area of the high place is built over." "There is no indication of an exclusively Israelite population around the city outside" (Macalister, V. Driver, Modern Research, 69). That land was taken for building purposes from the old sacred enclosure, and that new ideas in building plans and more heavily fortified buildings were now introduced have been thought to suggest the entrance among the ancient population of another element with different ideas. The finest palace of this period with very thick walls (3-9 ft.) carefully laid out at right angles, and certainly built near "the time of the Heb invasion," was perhaps the residence of Horam (Josh 10 33). At this period seals begin (10 being found here, as against 28 in the next period, and 31 in the Hellenistic) and also iron tools; the use of the carpenter's compass is proved, the bow drill was probably in use, bronze and iron nails appear (wrought iron being fairly common from c 1000 BC) ; a cooking-pot of bronze was found, and spoons of shell and bronze ; modern methods of making buttons and button holes are finest from this period, pottery buttons being introduced in the next city. One incidental Bible reference to the alliance between Gezer and Lachish (Josh 10 33) finds unexpected illustration from the fact that a Ivind of pottery pecuhar to Lachish, not having
Another great reservoir, 57 by 46 ft., at another part of the city was quarried in the rock to a depth of 291 ft., and below this another one of equal depth but not so large, and narrowing toward the bottom. These wore covered with two coats of cement and surrounded by a wall; they would hold 60,000 gals.
(c) The second Sem city, built on the ruins of the first, was smaller, but more luxurious. There were fewer buildings but larger rooms. The potter's wheel was worked by the foot. Pottery becomes much finer, the styles and decoration reaching a climax of grace and refinement. Foreign trade begins in this period and
2233 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Pal (Exploration)
been found in any other of the Southern Palestinian towns, was found at Gezer. The pottery here in general shows the same method of construction as in the 3d stratum, but the decoration and shapes deteriorate, while there is practically no molding. It shows much the same foreign influence as before, the styles being affected from Egypt, Crete, the Aegean, and esp. Cyprus. From this period come 218 scarabs, 68 from the period previous and 93 from the period following. Ornamental colored specimens of imported Egyp glass also occur, clear glass not being found till the next period. Little intercourse is proved with Babylon at this era: as against 16 Bab cylinders found in the previous period, only 4 were found in this and 15 in the next period. There is no marked change in the method of disposing of the dead, but the food vessels are of smaller size and are placed in the graves in great numbers, most of these being broken either through the use of poor vessels because of economy or with the idea of liberating the spirit of the object that it might serve the deceased in the spirit world. Lamps are common now in every tomb but there is a marked decrease in the quantity and value of ornamental objects. Religious emblems occur but rarely. The worship of Astarte
(i) those containing personal names, such as Azariah, Haggai, Menahem, Shebaniah, etc, (ii) those which are confined to four names, often repeated—Hebron, Socoh, Ziph, Mamshith—in connection with a reference to the king, e.g. "For [or Of] the king of Hebron." These latter date, according to Dr. Macalister's final judgment, from the
Stamped Jar-Handles Excavated at Gezer.
Pers period. He still thinks they represent the names of various potters or potters' guilds in Pal
(of 1 Ch 2, 4, 5, and see esp. Bible Side-Lights from Gezer, 150, etc), but others suppose these narnes
to represent the local measures of capacity, which
(see Ashtoheth), the female consort of Baal, is most popular at this era, terra cotta figures and plaques of this goddess being found in many types and in large numbers. It is suggestive that these grow notably less in the next stratum. It is also notable that primitive idols are certainly often intentionally ugly (Vincent). So to this day Arabs ward off the evil eye.
differed in these various districts; others that these represented different tax-districts where wine jars would be used and bought. At any rate, we cer-
tainly have here the work of the king's potters
referred to in 1 Ch 4 23. Another very curious Heb tablet inscription is the so-called Zodiacal Tablet, on which the signs of the Zodiac are figured with certain other symbols which were at first supposed to express some esoteric magical or religious meaning, but which seem only to represent the ancient agricultural year with the proper months indicated for sowing and reaping—being the same as the modern seasons and crops excepting that flax was cultivated anciently. An even more important hterary memorial from this period
(e) This period, during which almost the entire prophetic lit. was produced, is of peculiar interest. Gezer at this time as at every other period was in general appearance like a modern Arab village, a huge mass of crooked, narrow, airless streets, shut
inside a thick wall, with no trace of sanitary con-
veniences, with huge cisterns in which dead men could lie undetected for centuries, and with no
consists of two cuneiform tablets written about threequarters of a century after the Ten Tribes had been
sewers. Even in the Maccabean time the only sewer found ran, not into a cesspool, but into the ground, close to the governor's palace. The mor-
carried to Assyria and foreign colonies had been thrown into Israelite territory. This collapse of the Northern Kingdom was not marked by any
tality was excessively high, few old men being found in the cemeteries, while curvature of the
local catastrophe, so far as the ruins indicate, any more than the collapse of the Can. kingdom when
spine, syphilis, brain disease, and esp. broken, unset bones were common. Tweezers, pins and
Israel entered Pal ; but soon afterward we find an Assyr colony settled in Gezer "using the Assyr language and letters .... and carrying on busi-
needles, kohl bottles, mirrors, combs, perfume boxes,
scrapers (for baths) were common in this stratum and in all that follow it, while we have also here
ness with Assyr methods." In one tablet (649 BC), which is a bill of sale for certain property, contain-
silver earrings, bracelets and other beautiful ornaments with the first sign of clear glass objects;
ing description of the same, appeared the narne of the
tools also of many kinds of stone, bronze and iron, an iron hoe just like the modern one, and the first known pulley of bronze. The multitude of Heb
buyer, seals of seller and signature of 12 witnesses, one of whom is the Egyp governor of the new town, another an Assyr noble whose name precedesthat
weights found here have thrown much new light on
of the governor, and still another a Western Asiatic,
the weight-standards of Pal (see esp. Macahster,
the others being Assyrian. It is a Hebrew "Netha-
Gezer, II, 287-92; E. J. Pilcher, PEFS, 1912; A.
niah," who the next year, as the other tablet shows,
R. S. Kennedy, Expos T, XXIV).
sells his field, his seal bearing upon it a lunar stellar emblem. Notwithstanding the acknowledged lit-
The pottery was poor in quality, clumsy and
coarse in shape and ornament, excepting as it was
erary work of high quality produced in Pal during
imported, the local Aegean imitations bemg un-
this period, no other hint of this is found clear down
worthy. Combed ornament was not common,
to the Gr period except in one neo-Bab tablet.
and the burnished as a rule was limited to random
The burials in this period were much as pre-
scratches. Multiple lamps became common, and
viously, excepting that the caves were smaller and toward the end of the period shelves around the
a large variety of styles in small jugs was intro-
duced The motives of the last period survive,
walls received the bodies. In one Sem tomb as many as 150 vessels were found. Quite the most
but in a degenerate form. The bird friezes so
characteristic of the 3d Sem period disappear. The scarab stamp goes out of use, but the impres-
astonishing discovery at this level was that of
several tombs which scholars generally agree to
sions of other seals "now become fairly common as
be "Philistine." They were not native Canaanite,
potter's marks." These consist either of simple
but certainly Aegean intruders with relations with
devices (stars, pentacles, etc) or of names in Old Heb script. These Heb-mscribed stamps were
Crete and Cyprus, such as we would expect the
Philis to have (see Philistines). The tombs were
found at many sites and consist of two classes.
Pal (Exploration) Palm Tree THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2234
upper part of his body deposited. Before the coming into Pal of the Israelites, a lamp began to be placed under the walls and foundations, probably symbolically to take the place of human sacrifice. A lamp and bowl deposit under the threshold, etc, begins in the 3d Sem period, but is rare till the middle of that period. In the 4th Sem period it
oblong or rectangular, covered with large horizontal slabs, each tomb containing but a single body, stretched out with the head to the E. or W. One tomb was that of a girl of 18 with articles of alabaster and silver about her, and wearing a Cretan silver mouth plate; another was a man of
is common, though not universal; in the Hellenic
it almost disappears. Macalister suspects that these bowls held blood or grape juice. In one striking case a bronze figure was found in place of a body. Baskets full of phalli were carried away from the high place. Various types of the Astarte were found at Gezer. When we see the strength and popularity of this religion against which the prophets contended in Canaan, "we are amazed at the survival of this world-religion," and we now see "why Ezra and Nehemiah were forced to raise the 'fence of the law' against this heathenism, which did in fact overthrow all other Sem religions" (George Adam Smith, PEFS, 1906, 288).
^ ^ —
(/) During the Maccabean epoch the people of Gezer built reservoirs (one having a capacity of 4,000,000 gals.), used well-paved rooms, favored complex house plans with pillars, the courtyard becoming less important as compared with the rooms, though domestic fowls were now for the first time introduced. The architectural decorations have
High Place of the Cave-Dwellers at Gczer.
40 with agate seal of Assyr design, a two-handled glass vessel, etc; another was a woman surrounded by handsome ornaments of bronze, lead, silver and gold, with a basalt scarab between her knees. The richest tomb was that of a girl whose head had been severed from the body; with her was a hemispher-
ical bowl, ornamented with rosette and lotus pattern, and a horde of beautiful things. The iron in these tombs was noticeable (cf 1 S 17 7), and in one tomb were found two ingots of gold, one of these being of the same weight almost to a fraction as that of Achan (Josh 7 21). The most impressive discovery was the high place. This began as early as 2.500-2000 BC, and grew by the addition of monoliths and surrounding buildings up to this
era. The eight huge uncut pillars which were founil standing in a row, with two others fallen (yet cf Benzinger, Heh Archaeology, 320), show us the actual appearance of this ancient worshipping-place so famous in the Bible (Dt 16 22; 2 K 17 9.11; 23 8). The top of one of these monoliths had been worn smooth by kisses; another was an importation, being possibly, as has been Buggested, a captured "Aril"; another stone, near by, had a large cavity in its top, nearly 3 ft. long and 2 ft. broad and 1 ft. 2 in. deep, which is differently interpreted as being the block upon which the 'dsherah, so often mentioned in connection with the magQc-
Lamp and Bowls Discovered at Gezer.
all been annihilated (as elsewhere in Pal) excepting a few molded stones and an Ionic volute from a palace, supposed to be that of Simon Maccabaeus because of the references in Jos and because of a scribbled imprecation found in the courtyard: "May fire overtake [?] Simon's palace." This is the only inscription from all these post-exilic centuries, to which so much of the beautiful Bible lit.
bholh, may have been erected, or as an altar, or perhaps a laver for ritual ablutions. Inside the sacred enclosure was found a small bronze cobra (2 K 18
4), and also the entrance to an ancient cave, where probably oracles were given, the excavators finding that this cave was connected with another by a small, secret passage—through which presumably the message was delivered. In the stratum underlying the high place was a cemetery of infants buried in large jars. "That the sacrificed infants were the firstborn, devoted in the temple, is indicated by the fact that none were over a week old" (Macalistcr). In all the Sem strata bones of children were also found in corners of the houses, the deposits being identical with infant burials in the high place; and examination showed that these were not stillborn children. At
is ascribed, excepting one grotesque animal figure on which is scrawled a name which looks a little like "Antiochus." Only a few scraps of Gr bowls, some Rhodian jar-handles, a few bronze and iron arrow heads, a few animal figures and a fragment of an Astarte, of doubtful chronology, remain from these four centuries. The potsherds prove that foreign imports continued and that the local potters followed classic models and did excellent work. The ware was always burnt hard; combed ornament and burnishing were out of style; molded ornament was usually confined to the lojje design; painted decorations were rare; potter's marks were generally in Gr, though some were in Heb, the letters being of late form, and no names appearing similar to those found in Scripture. The tombs were wellcut square chambers, with shafts hewn in the rock for the bodies, usually nine to each tonjb, which were run into them head foremost. The doorways were well cut, the covers almost alwa3's being mov-
least some of the burials under the house thresholds and under the foundation of walls carry with them the mute proofs of this most gruesome practice. In one place the skeleton of an old woman was found in a corner where a hole had been left just
large enough for this purpose. A youth of about IS had Ijeen cut in two at the waist and only tlie
2235 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Pal (Exploration) Palm Tree
able flat slabs, though in one case a swinging stone door was found—circular rolUng stones or the ''false doors" so often found in the Jerus tombs being unknown here. Little shrines were erected above the forecourt or vestibule. When the body decayed, the bones in tombs having these kukhin, shafts, were collected into ossuaries, the inscriptions on these ossuaries showing clearly the transition from Old Heb to the square character. After the Maccabean time the town was deserted, though a small Christian community lived here in the 4th cent. AD. Sec also Gezer. LiTERATtiHE.—Most important recent monographs: Publications of Palestine Exploration Fund, esp. Survey of Western Pal (9 vols, 1884); Survey of Eastern Pal (2 vols, 1889); "Pal Pilgrim's Text Society's Library" (13 vols) and the books of W. M. Flinders Petrie, F. J. Bliss and R. A. S. MacaUster; also Bliss, Development of Pal Exploration (1906), and Macalister, Bible Side-Lights from the Mound of Gezer (1906); Ernst Sellin, Tell Ta'annek (1904); Erne Nachlese auf dem Tell Ta'annek (1905); C. Steuernagel, Tell el-Mutesellim (1908); Mommert, Topog. des alien Jerus (1902-7); H. Guthe, Bibelatlas Most important periodicals: PEFS; ZDPV: Mitteilungen und Nachrichten des deutschen Paldstina-VereinsPatastina-Jahrbuch (MNDPV); Revue Biblique. Mostimportant general -works : L. B.Paton, Early History of Syria and Pal (1902); Cuinet, Syrie, Liban el Pal (1896-1900); H. V. Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible Lands during the 1.9th Cent. (190:3); P. H. 'Vincent, Canaan, d'apris V exploration recente (1907); G. A. Smith, Jerus (1908); S. R. Driver, Modern Research as Illustrating the Bible (1909).
Dt 34 3; Jgs 1 16; 3 13; 2 Ch 28 15; Neh 8
15; Ps 92 12; Cant 7 7 f ; Joel 1 12]; Ta'P
, tomer, Deborah "dwelt under the palm-
1. Palm tree" [Jgs 4 5]; "They are like a palmTrees tree [m "pillar"], of turned work" [Jer
10 5]; rribri, tlmomh [only in pi.], the palm tree as an architectural feature [1 K 6
' ''% 1
Camden M. Cobern PALLU, pal'il, PALLUITES, pal'a-Its (X'lJS,
palla', "distinguished"): A son of Reuben (Gen 46 9 ["Phallu"]; Ex 6 14; Nu 26 5.8; 1 Ch 6 3). Perhaps Peleth of Nu 16 1 is the same. Palluites, the patronymic, occurs in Nu 26 5.
PALM, pam (OF THE HAND) (DS , kaph) : The Heb word which is used in a variety of senses (see Hand; Paw) is usually tr'^ "hand" in EV, but the tr "palm" is found in 5 passages of the OT, in 3 of which the Heb text adds the word T' , yadh ("hand,"
1 S 5 4; 2 K 9 35; Dnl 10 10). ' It would properly mean the "hollow hand" (root kaphaph, "to bend," "to curve"), which receives or grasps things. It is therefore used in reference to filling the priest's hands with sacrificial portions (Lev 14 15.26). The palms of the hands of Dagon are mentioned as cut off, when the idol was found mutilated in the presence of the ark of .Jch (1 S 5 4), from which may be inferred that this idol probably was represented with hands spread out in blessing, as we find in numerous Bab representations of divinities.
In a beautiful metaphor God answers the repentant people of Jerus, who thought Jeh had forgotten and forsaken them: "Behold, I have graven thee upon the palms of my hands" (Isa 49 16; see also Ecclus 18 3). Daniel is touched upon the palms of his hands to wake him from sleep (Dnl 10 10). In the NT we find the phrase, "to smite with the palms of the hands," as a tr of the Gr vb. /iaTrifw, rhapizo (Mt 26 67; see also 5 39 and LXX Hos 11
4; 1 Esd 4 30), and, derived from the same vb.,
p&irta-fiaj rhdpisma, a blow of the palm on the cheek,
etc (Mk 14 65; Jn 18 22; 19 3, where, however,
in EV the word "palm" has not been given). The marginal tr "to smite or strike with rods" (Mt 26
67; Jn 18 22; 19 3) and "strokes of rods" (Mk 14 65 m) does not seem to be applicable to the Gr
text of the OT and NT, while it is a frequent meaning of the words in classical language. It would therefore be better to eliminate these marginal
additions. H. L. E. Luehing
PALM TREE, pilm'tre (TOW, idmdr, same as
the Aram, and Ethiopic, but in Arab. = "date"
4>o£vi.|, phoinix [Ex 15 27; Lev 23 40; Nu 33 9;
Palmer-Worm Paphos THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2236
lutikos or of the part, of the vb. paraluomai. The disease is one characterized by extreme loss of the power of motion dependent on some affection either
In Pal today the palm is much neglected; there are few groves except along the coast, e.g. at the bay of Akka, Juffa and Gaza; solitary
of the motor centers of the brain or of the spinal
2. Their palms occur all over the land in the Ancient courtyards of mosques (cf Ps 92 13) Abundance and houses even in the mountains. in Palestine Once palms
cord. It is always serious, usually intractable, and generally sudden in onset (1 Mace 9 55 f). Miracu-
lous cures by Our Lord are related in general
terms, as in Mt 4 24; Acts 8 7. Aeneas (Acts 9
flourished upon the Mount of Olives (Neh 8 15), and Jericho was long known as the "city of palm-trees"
33) was probably a paralytic eight years bedridden. Though the Lord addressed the paralytic let down through the roof (Mt 9 6; Mk 2 3; Lk 5 18) as "son," it was not necessarily a proof that he was young, and though He prefaces the cure by declaring the forgiveness of sin, we need not infer that the
(Dt 34 3; Jgs 1 16; 3 13; 2 Ch 28 15; Jos, BJ, IV, viii, 2-3), but today the only palms are scarce and small; under
disease was the result of an evil life, although it may have been. Bennett conjectures that the cen-
turion's palsied servant grievously tormented was
its name Hazazon-tamar
suffering from progressive paralysis with respiratory spasms (see Pain). The subst. paralusis is only once used in the LXX in Ezk 21 10, but here it
(2 Ch 20 2), En-gedi would appear to have been as much a place of palms in ancient days as we know it was in later history. A city, too, called Tamar ("date palm") appears to have been somewhere near the southwestern corner of the Dead Sea (Ezk 47 19; 48 28). Today the numerous saltencrusted stumps of wild palm trees washed up all along the shores of the Dead Sea witness to the existence of these trees within recent times in some of the deep valleys around.
Coin of Vespasian Repre-
sentl ng Juclaea Mourning lor Her Captivity.
refers to the loosing of the sword, not to the disease.
Alex. Macalister PALTI, pal'tl C^'pS, paltl, "Jeh delivers"):
(1) One of the "searchers" of Canaan sent by Moses (Nu 13 9), representing Benjamin in the expedition (ver 9).
(2) The man to whom Saul gave Michal, David's
wife, after the estrangement (1 S 25 44). He is "the captain of the people" of 2 Esd 5 16 ("Phal-
tiel," m "Psaltiel"). In 2 S 3 15, he is named "Phaltiel" (AV), "Paltiel" (RV), and is there mentioned in connection with David's recovery of Michal.
Branches of palms have been symbohcally associated with several different ideas. A palm branch
is used in Isa 9 14; 19 15 to signify
3. Palm the "head," the highest of the people. Branches as contrasted with the rush, the "tail," or humblest of the people. Palm branches appear from early times to have been associated with rejoicing. On the first day of the Feast of Tabernacles the Hebrews were commanded to take branches of palms, with other trees, and
PALTIEL, pal'ti-el (bxiybs
, paltl' el, "God's
deliverance");
(1) A prince of Issachar (Nu 34 26).
(2) SameasPALTi, (2) (q.v.).
PALTITE, pal 'tit CP^S, paltl [as Paltl]; LXX
rejoice before God (Lev 23 40; cf Neh 8 15; 2 Mace 10 7). The palm branch still forms the
B, Ke\w9e(, Keloihel, A, 'ieX-XwveC, Phelldnei): The description occurs but once in this form and is then applied to Helez, one of David's 30 valiant men
chief feature of the luldbh carried daily by every pious Jew to the synagogue, during the feast. Later
(2 S 23 26). Helez' name, however, occurs in
it was connected with the idea of triumph and vic-
1 Ch 11 27 and 27 10 as the "Pelonite." Doubt-
tory. Simon Maccabaeus entered the Akra at Jerus after its capture, "with thanksgiving, and branches of palm trees, and with harps, and cymbals, and with viols, and hymns, and songs: because there was destroyed a great enemy out of Israel" (1 Mace 13 51 AV; cf 2 Maco 10 7). The.sameidea comes out in the use of palm branches by the multitudes who escorted Jesus to Jerus (Jn 12 13) and also in the vision of the "great multitude, which no man could number .... standing before the .... Lamb, arrayed in white robes, and palms in their hands" (Rev 7 9). Today palms are carried in every Moslem funeral procession and are laid on the new-made grave.
less there is some confusion of words. The word may be given as a patronymic of Palti, or it may designate a native of the village of Beth-pelet mentioned in Josh 15 27 and Neh 11 26 as being in Lower Judah. Helez, however, is described as "of the children of Ephraim" in 1 Ch 27 10.
PAMPHYLIA, pam-fil'i-a (na(i.<}>vX[a, Pamphu-
lla) : A country lying along the southern coast of
Asia Minor, bounded on the N. by
1. Physical Pisidia, on the E. by Isauria, on the Features S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the W. by Lycia (Acts 2 10; 27 5). In the earliest time Pamphylia was but a narrow strip of low-lying land between the base of the mountains and the sea, scarcely more than 20 miles long and half as wide. A high and imposing range of the Taurus Mountains practically surrounds it upon three sides, and, jutting out into the sea, isolates it from the rest of Asia Minor. Its two rivers, the Cestrus and the Cataractes, are said by ancient writers to have been navigable for several miles inland, but now the greater part of their water
See also Tamab as a proper name.
E. W. G. Mastebman PALMER-WORM, piim'er-wtlrm (013, gazam.; LXX KdiiiirT], kdmye [Am 4 9; Joel 14; 2 25]): "Palmer-worm" means "caterpillar," but the in-
sect meant is probably a kind of locust. See Insect; Locu.ST.
PALSY, pol'zi, PARALYSIS, pa-ral'i-sis (irapi-
X\j<ris, pardlusis) : The Eng. word "palsy" is derived from the OFr. paralesie, which in Middle Eng. was shortened into palesie, the form in which it appears
is diverted to the fields for irrigating purposes, and the general surface of the country has been constantly changed by the many rapid mountain streams. The level fertile coast land is therefore well watered, and the moist air, which is excessively hot and enervating, has always been laden with fever. Several roads leading from the coast up the steep mountain to the interior existed in ancient
in Wyclif's version. In the 16th cent, it appears
as "palsy," the form used in AV. This, however,
is seldom used at the present day, the Latinized Gr form "paralysis" being more frequently employed, both in modern literature and in colloquial Eng. "Sick of the palsy" is the tr either of the adj. para-
2237 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Palmer-Worm Paphos
(5) nilS, parilr, "pan" in Nu 11 8 AV, "pot" RV (see Pot).
times; one of them, called the Kimax or the Ladder, with its broad stair-like steps 2,000 ft. high, may
still be seen. Beyond the steps is the high land which was once called "Pisidia," but which the Romans, in 70 AD, made a part of Pamphylia.
(6) nnbs, ^elahah (2 Ch 35 13). Some kind
of dish or pot. Slightly different forms of the same root are rendered "cruse" (2 K 2 20 [('lohith]), "dish" (2 K 21 13 [gallahalh]); and also in RV in Prov 19 24; 26 15, instead of the probably incorrect "bosom" of AV.
Pamphylia, unless in pre-historic times, was never an independent kingdom; it was subject successively to Lydia, Persia, Macedonia, 2. ImPergamos and Rome. Because of its portance comparatively isolated position, civilization there was less developed than in the neighboring countries, and the Asiatic influence was at most times stronger than the Gr. As early as the 5th cent. BC a Gr colony settled there, but the Gr language which was spoken in some of its cities soon became corrupt; the Gr inscriptions, appearing upon the coins of that age, were written in a peculiar character, and before the time of Alexander the Great, Gr ceased to be spoken. Perga then became an important city and the center of the Asiatic religion, of which the Artemis of Perga, locally known as Leto, was the goddess. Coins were struck also in that city. Somewhat later the Gr city of Attalia, which was founded by Attains III Philadelphus (159-138 BC), rose to importance, and until recent years has been the chief port of entry on the southern coast of Asia Minor. About the beginning of our era, Side became the chief city, and issued a long and beauti-
(7) X^(37,s, Lebes, tr-^ "pan" in 1 Esd 1 12 AV (RV "cauldron").
(8) Triyavop, teganon, 2 Mace 7 3.5, with the vb.
T-qyavl'(w, teganizo, ver 5, is the usual Gr word for "frying-pan," but here a large sheet of metal must be meant (cf 4 Mace 8 13; 12 10.20). LiTEBATUBE.—WhitehousG, Primer of Hebrew Antiqui-
ties, 76, 77; Benzinger, Hehrdische Archdologie, 70, 71; Nowack. Hebrdische Archdologie, I, 144.
Walter R. Betteridge PANNAG, pan'ag (533
, pannagh; Kao-Ca, kasia; Ezk 27 17 m, "Perhaps a kind of confection"): One of the articles of commerce of Judah and Israel. The kasia of the LXX is said to be a shrub similar to the laurel. Nothing is known of the nature
of pannag. Cheyne {EB, 3555) thinks the Heb
letters have got misplaced and should be IDS
gephen, "vine," and he would join to it the ICQI
d'bhash, "honey," which follows in the verse, giving a tr "grape honey," the ordinai-y dibbs of Pal—an extremely likely article of commerce. See Honey.
ful series of coins, possibly to facilitate trade with the pirates who found there a favorable market for their booty. Pamphylia is mentioned as one of the recipients of the "letters" of 1 Mace 15 23.
PANOPLY, pan'o-pli: 1 Mace 13 29RVm. See Armor.
Christianity was first introduced to Pamphylia by Paul and Barnabas (Acts 13 13; 14 24), but because their stay in the country was
PAP ("11? , shadh, 1125 , .shodh, "breast" [Ezk 23
21]; [iao-Tos, masWs, "the breast" [Lk 11 27; 23 29; Rev 1 13]): The Eng. word, which goes back to Middle Eng. "pappe" (see Skeat, Concise Etymological Diet, of the Eng. Language, 327) and is now obsolete, has been replaced in RV by "breast." The Heb word signifies the "female breast"; the Gr word has a wider signification, including the male
3. Introbrief, or because of the difficulty^ of duction of communication with the neighboring Christianity countries, or because of the Asiatic character of the population, it was slow
in being established. See also Attalia; Pbbga;
Side, the chief cities of Pamphyha.
chest.
E. J. Banks PAN: Name of a utensil used in the preparation
PAPER, pa'per. See Crafts, II, 13; Papyrus; Reed; Writing.
or the serving of food, and representing several words in the original. Passing over the use of the word in connections like 1 Ch 9 31, "things baked
PAPER REEDS, redz: In Isa 19 7 AV (RV "meadows").
in pans," where the Heb word hdbhittlm refers, not to
the pan itself, but to the cakes baked in the flat pan
PAPHOS, pa'fos: The name of two towns, Old (IlaAaid Ild^os, Palaid Pdphos, or Ila\alTa<pos, Palaipaphos) and New Paphos (N&
or griddle which was called mahdbhaih (see below), and the "firepans" (jnahtah) (Ex 27 3; 1 K 7 50,
etc) which seem to have been used to carry burnmg
1. Site 'niipos, Nea Pdphos), situated at the southwestern extremity of Cyprus. Considerable confusion is caused by the use of the
coals, we note the follo^\dng words:
(1) ninTa, maMhhath, "pan" AV, "baking-pan" RV a dish of uncertain shape and size which was
single name Paphos in ancient writers to denote now one, now the other, of these cities. That referred to in Acts 13 6.13 is strictly called New Paphos (modern Baffa), and lay on the coast about a mile S. of the modern Klima and some 10 miles N.W. of the old city. The latter (modern Kouklia)
used in the preparation of the minhah, or vegetable
offering S^ee Lev 2 5; 6 21; 7 9; 1 Ch 23 29 On the basis of Ezk 4 3 it might be assumed that
the pan was rectangular in shape and of good size.
(2) "I'l"?, kiyyor, rendered "pan" in 1 S 2 14.
The same word is used in the phrase, "pan of fire" RV "hearth of fire" AV (Zee 12 6); and it is also
is situated on an eminence more than a mile from the sea, on the left bank of the Didrrizo, probably the ancient Bocarus.
tr<i "laver" in the descriptions of the furnishing ot
tabernacle and temple (Ex 30 18; IK 7 30, etc).
It was founded by Cinyras, the father of Adonis,
As it held water and was used for boiling meat and
or, according to another legend, by Aerias, and formed the capital of the most impor-
the like, it must have been a kind of pot or kettle.
(3) niifl'a , TOasra/i (2 S 13 9). The connection
2. History tant kingdom in Cyprus except that
gives no ciue as to shape or size except that it must
of Old of Salamis. Its territory embraced Paphos a considerable portion of Western Cyprus, extending northward to that
have been small enough to serve food m, and of the
proper shape to hold a substance which could be
of SoH, southward to that of Curium and eastward
Doured out. Some authorities suggest a connec-
to the range of Troodus. Among its last kings was
tion with the root ISTp , s"or, "leaven," and thmk
that this pan was like the kneading-trough m shape.
Nicocles, who ruled shortly after the death of Alexander the Great. In 310 BC Nicocreon of Salamis, who had been set over the whole of Cyprus by
(4) nip, sir, rendered "pan m Ex 27 3 AV,
"pot" RV (see Pot).
Paphos Papyrus THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2238
After visiting Salamis and passing through the whole island, about 100 miles in length, Barnabas,
Ptolemy I of Egypt, was forced to put an end to
his life at Paphos for plotting with Antigonus (Diodorus XX. 21, who wrongly gives the name as Nicocles; see Athenische Milteilungen, XXII, 203 ff), and from that time Paphos remained under Egyp rule until the Rom annexation of Cyprus in 58 BC. The growth of New Paphos brought with it the decKne of the old city, which was also ruined by successive earthquakes. Yet its temple still retained much of its old fame, and in 69 AD Titus, the future emperor of Rome, turned aside on his journey to Jerus, which he was to capture in the following year, to visit the sacred shrine and to inquire of the priests into the fortune which awaited him (Tacitus Hist, ii.2-4; Suetonius Titus 5). New Paphos, originally the seaport of the old town, was founded, according to tradition, by Agapenor of Arcadia {Iliad ii.609;
Paul and Mark reached Paphos, the
5. The residence of the Rom proconsul. Apostles' Sergius Paulus (for the title see
Visit Cyprus). Here too they would doubt-
less begin by preaching in the synagogue, but the governor—who is probably the same Paulus whose name appears as proconsul in an in-
scription of Soh (D. G. Hogarth, Devia Cypria, 114)—hearing of their mission, sent for them and questioned them on the subject of their preaching. A Jew named Bar-Jesus or Elymas, who, as a Magian or soothsayer, "was with the proconsul," presumably as a member of his suite, used all his powers of persuasion to prevent his patron from giving his adherence to the new faith, and was met by Paul (it is at this point that the name is first introduced) with a scathing denunciation and a sentence of temporary loss of sight. The blindness which at once fell on him produced a deep impression on the mhid of the proconsul, who professed
3. History Pausan. viii.5, 2). Its possession of a
of New good harbor secured its prosperity, and Paphos it had several rich temples. According to Dio Cassius (liv.23) it was restored by Augustus in 15 BC after a destructive earthquake and received the name Augusta (Gr Sebaste). Under the Rom Empire it was the administrative capital of the island and the seat of the governor. The extant remains all date from this period and include those of public buildings, private houses, city walls and the moles of the harbor.
his faith in the apostohc teaching. From Paphos, Paul and his companions sailed in a northwesterly direction to Perga in Pamphylia (Acts 13 6-13).
Paul did not revisit Paphos, but we may feel confident that Barnabas and Mark would return there on their 2d missionary journey (Acts 15 39). Of the later history of the Paphian church we know
little. Tychicus, Paul's companion, is said to have been martyred there, and Jerome tells us that Hilarion sought in the neighborhood of the decayed and almost deserted town the quiet and retirement which he craved {Vita Hilar. 42). The Acta Barnabae speak of a certain Rhodon, who was attached to the temple service at Old Paphos, as having accepted the Christian faith. Literature.—Besides the works already referred to, see Journal of Hellenic Studies. IX, 17.5-92 {citation of passages from ancient authors relating to Old Paphos, together with a list of mediaeval and modern authorities), 22.5-71 (inscriptions and tombs), and the bibliography appended to art. Cyprus.
But the chief glory of Paphos and the source of
its fame was the local cult, of which the kings and
their descendants remained hereditary
4. The priests down to the Rom seizure of Temple Cyprus. The goddess, identified with and Cult the Gr Aphrodite, who was said to have risen from the sea at Paphos, was
in reality a Nature-goddess, closely resembling the Bab Ishtar and the Phoen Astarte, a native deity
of Asia Minor and the Aegean Islands. Her cult can be traced back at Paphos to Homeric times
(Odyssey viii.362) and was repeatedly celebrated by Gr and Lat poets (Aeschylus Suppl. 555; Aristoph. Lys. 833; Virgil Aen. i.415; Horace Odes i.l9 and 30; iii.26; Statius Silvae i.2, 101,
Marcus N. Tod PAPYRUS, pa-pl'rus {Cyperus papyrus; pipXos,
bublos, pcp\os, biblos, whence p^pxiov, biblion, "a
etc). The goddess was represented, not by a statue
roll," Ta pi,pX.Ca, td biblia, "the Books" = the Bible):
in human form, but by a white conical stone (Max. Tyr. viii.8; Tacitus Hist, ii.3; Servius Ad Aen.
1. Papyrus Paper 2. Egyptian Papyri 3. Aramaic Papyri 4. Greek Papyri 5. Their Discovery 6. Classical Papyri 7. Septuagint Papyri 8. NT Papyri 9. Theological Papyri 10. Documentary Papyri 11. Contribution to NT Study 12. Chief Collections 13. Coptic, Arabic and Other Papyri A marsh or water plant, abundant in Egypt in ancient times, serving many purposes in antiquity. The papyrus tuft was the emblem of the Northern Ivingdom in Egypt. Like the lotus, it suggested one of the favorite capitals of Egyp architecture. Ropes, sandals, and mats were made from its fibers (see Odyssey xxi.391; Herod, ii.37, 69), and bundles of the long, light stalks were bound together into light boats (Isa 18 2; Breasted, Hist Egyp-
i.724), of which models were on sale for the benefit
of pilgrims (Athenaeus xv.l8); her worship was sensuous in character and she is referred to by Athanasius as the deification of lust {Contra Gentes 9) Excavation has brought to light at Old Paphos a complex of buildings belonging to Rom times and consisting of an open court with chambers or colonnades on three sides and an entrance on the E. only, the whole forming a quadrilateral enclosure with
sides about 210 ft. long. In this court may have stood the altar, or altars, of incense (Homer speaks
of a single altar, Virgil of "a hundred altars warm with Sabaean frankincense"); no blood might be shed thereon, and although it stood in the open
it was "wet by no rain" (Tacitus, I.e.; Phny, NH, ii.210). On the south side are the ruins of another building, possibly an earlier temple, now almost destroyed save for the western wall {Journal
of Hellenic Studies, IX, 193-224). But the fact that no remains or inscriptions have been found here earher than the Rom occupation of Cyprus mihtates against the view that the sanctuary stood at this spot from prehistoric times. Its site may be sought at Xylino, a short distance to the N. of Kouklia (D. G. Hogarth, Times, August 5, 1910), or possibly on the plateau of Rhantidi, some 3 miles S.E. of the
tians, 91).
Most importantly, from it was made the tough and inexpensive paper which was used from very
ancient times in Egypt and which
1. Papyrus became the common writing-material Paper of the ancient world. The white cellular pith of the long triangular papyrus stalk was stripped of its bark or rind and sliced into thin strips. Two layers of these strips were laid at right angles to each other, pasted together (Pliny ,says with the aid of Nile water), dried and smoothed. The sheets thus formed were
village, where numerous inscriptions in the old Cyprian syllabic script were found in the summer
of 1910 (M. Ohnefalsch-Richtcr, Times, July 29, 1910).
'aji^
^^i'
ANCIENT MANt
*^l^'«
>t^/^**9^~rss I
ii:
i ON PAPYRUS
2239 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Paphos Papyrus
incense and burnt offerings. In 408, the Egyptians had destroyed their temple at Yeb, and the Jews appealed for redress to the Pers governor. It is well known that some Jews had taken refuge in Egypt in 586 BC, taking the prophet Jeremiah with them, and with some such band of refugees the Yeb colony may have originated, although it may have been much older (cf Jer 44 1.15; BW, XXIX, 1907, 305 ff; XXXI, 448 ff; chief pubhcations by Euting, Sayce and Cowley, and esp. Saohau, Drei aramaische Papyrusurkunden aus Elephantine, 2d
pasted one to another to form a roll of any length desired. The process and the product are described by Pliny the Elder {NH, xiii. 11-13). Egyp papyrus rolls are in existence dating from the 27th cent. EC, and no doubt the manufacture of
papyrus had been practised for cen2- Egyptian turies before. The Egyp rolls were Papyri sometimes of great length and were often beautifully decorated with colored vignettes (Book of the Dead). Egyp docu-
ed, 1908; Aramaische Papyms und Oslraka, 1911). With Alexander's conquest of Egypt (332 BC), and the subsequent Ptolemaic dynasty, Greeks came more than ever before into
4. Greek Egypt, and from Gr centers like Papyri Alexandria and Arsinoe in the FayAm the Gr language began to spread. Through the Ptolemaic (323-30 BC), Rom (30 BC-292/93 AD), and Byzantine periods (292/ 93-640 AD), that is, from the death of Alexander to the Arab conquest, Gr was much used in Upper and Lower Egypt, and Gr papyri from these times are now abundant. The 300 Aphrodito Gr and Coptic papyri published by Bell and Crum (1910) date from 698-722 AD, and show how Gr persisted
in the Arab period.
The first important discovery of Gr papyri made
in modern times was among the ruins of Hercu-
laneum, near Naples, where in 1752
5. Their in the ruins of the house of a phiDiscovery losopher which had been destroyed and buried by volcanic ashes from Vesuvius (79 AD) a whole library of papyrus rolls was found, quite charred by the heat. With the utmost pains many of these have been unrolled and deciphered, and the first part of them was published
in 1793. They consist almost wholly of works of Epicurean philosophy. In 1778 the first discovery
of Gr papyri in Egypt was made. In that year some Arabs found 40 or 50 papyrus rolls in an earthen pot, probably in the FayAm, where Philadelphus settled his Gr veterans. One was purchased by a dealer and found its way into the hands
of Cardinal Stefano Borgia; the others were destroyed as of no worth. The Borgia Papyrus was
published 10 years later. It was a document of
little value, recording the forced labor of certain peasants upon the Nile embankment of a given year.
Papyrus Antiquorum.
In 1820 another body of papyri was found by
natives, buried, it was said, in an earthen pot, on the
ments of great historical value have been preserved on these fragile rolls. The Papyrus Ebers of the 16th cent. BC sums up the medical lore of the Egyptians of the time of Amenhotep I. The Papyrus Harris, 133 ft. long, in 117 columns, dates from the middle of the 12th cent. BC and records
site of the Serapeum at Memphis, just above Cairo. These came for the most part from the 2d cent. BC. They fell into various hands, and are now in the museums of London, Paris, Leyden, Rome and Dresden. With them the stream of papyri began
to flow steadily into the British and Continental museums. In 1821 an EngUshman, Mr. W. J. Bankes, bought an Elephantine roll of the xxivth book of the Iliad, the first Gr literary papyrus to be
the benefactions and achievements of Ramses III. For the XlXth, XXth and XXIst dynasties, in-
deed, papyri are relatively numerous, and their
contribution important for Egyp history, life and
derived from Egypt. The efforts of Mr. Harris and others in 1847-50 brought to England con-
religion. By the year 1000 BC, papyrus had doubt-
less come to be used for writing far beyond the
siderable parts of lost orations of Hyperides, new
limits of Egypt. The Wenamon Papyrus (11th
papyri of the xviith book of the Iliad, and parts of
cent ) relates that 500 rolls of papyrus were among
Iliad ii, iii, ix. In 1855 Mariette purchased a fragment of Alcman for the Louvre, and in 1856 Mr.
the gifts sent from the Delta to the Prince of Biblus,
but except in the rarest instances papyri have
Stobart obtained the funeral oration of Hyperides.
escaped destruction only in Upper Egypt, where
The present period of papyrus recovery dates from 1877, when an immense mass of Gr and other
climatic conditions esp. favored their preservation
In very recent years (1898, 1904, 1907) several
papyri, for the most part documentary, not literary, was found in the Fayum, on the site of the ancient
Aram, papyri have been found on the Island ot
Elephantine, just below the First Cat-
Arsinoe. The bulk of this collection passed into
3. Aramaic aract, dating from 494 to 400 BC
the hands of Archduke Rainer at Vienna, minor
Papyri They show that between 470 and 408 BC a flourishing colony of Jews existed
portions of it being secured by the museums of
Paris, London, Oxford and Beriin. These belong
there, doing business under Pers sway, and wor-
largely to the Byzantine period. Another great
shipping their god Yahu, not in a synagogue, but
find was made in 1892 in the Fayflm; most of these
in a temple, in which they offered meal offerings.
Papyrus THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2240
fell, the first of many important works in this field from his pen.
went to Berlin, some few to the British Museum, Vienna and Geneva. These were mostly of the Rom period.
With Arthur S. Hunt, of Oxford, Mr. Grenfell excavated in 1896-97, at Behnesa, the Rom Oxyrhynchus, and unearthed the greatest mass of Gr papyri of the Rom period thus far found. In 9 large quarto volumes, aggregating 3,000 pages, only a beginning has been made of publishing these Oxyrhynchus texts, which number thousands and are in many cases of great importance. The story of papyrus digging in Egypt since the great find of 1896-97 is largely the record of the work of Grenfell and Hunt. At Tebtunis, in the Fayflm, in 1900, they found a great mass of Ptolemaic papyri, com-
It will be seen that most of these discoveries were the work of natives, digging about indiscriminately in the hope of finding antiquities to sell to tourists or dealers. By this time, however, the Egypt Exploration Fund had begun its operations in Egypt, and Professor Flinders Petrie was at work there. Digging among Ptolemaic tombs at Gurob in 188990, Professor Petrie found many mummies, or mummy-casings, adorned with breast-pieces and sandals made of papyri pasted together. The separation of these was naturally a tedious and deUcate
MH^Frf7^A..rrr£TrHtrrMmTrr^^^^ ^
TiMOTHEue Papyrus.
task, and the papyri when extricated were often badly damaged or mutilated ; but the Petrie papyri, as they were called, were hailed by scholars as the most important found up to that time, for they came for the most part from the 3d cent. BC. Startling acquisitions were made about this time by representatives of the British Museum and the Louvre. The British Museum secured papyri of the lost work of Aristotle on the Constilution of Athens, the lost Mimes of Herodas, a fragment of an oration of Hyperides, and extensive literary papyri of works already extant; while the Louvre secured the larger part of the Oration against Athenogenes, the masterpiece of Hyperides. In 1894 Bernard P. Grenfell, of Oxford, appeared in Egypt, working with Professor Petrie in his excavations, and securing papyri with Mr. Hogarth for England. In that year Petrie and Grenfell obtained from native dealers papyrus rolls, one more than 40 ft. in length, preserving revenue laws of Ptolemy Philadelphus, dated in 2.59-258 BC. These were published in 1896 by Mr. Gren-
parable in importance with their great discovery at Oxyrhynchus. One of the most productive sources of papyri at Tebtunis was the crocodile cemetery, in which many mummies of the sacred crocodiles were found rolled in papyrus. Important Ptolemaic texts were found in 1902 at Hibeh, and a later visit to Oxyrhynchus in 1903 produced results almost as astonishing and quite as valuable as those of the first excavations there. The work of Rubensohn at Abusir in 1908 has exceptional interest, as it developed the first considerable body of Alexandrian papyri that has been found. The soil and climate of Alexandria are destructive to papyri, and only to the fact that these had anciently been carried off into the interior as rubbish is their preservation due. Hogarth, Jouguet, Wilcken and other Continental scholars have excavated in Egypt for papyri with varying degrees of success. The papyri are found in graves a few feet below the surface, in house ruins over which sand has drifted, or occasionally in earthen pots buried in the ground. Despite government efforts to stop indiscriminate
2241 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Papyrus
native digging, papyri in considerable quantities liave continued to find their way into the hands of native dealers, and thence into English, Continental, and even American collections.
Thus far upward of 650 literary papyri, great and small, of works other than Bib. have been pub-
lished. The fact that about one-third
6. Classical of these are Homeric attests the great Papyri popularity enjoyed by the Homeric poems in Gr-Rom times. These are now so abundant and extensive as to make an im-
Papyrus Parable THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2242
of these documentary papyri from Ptolemaic times are the revenue laws of Ptolemy Philadelphus (259 BC) and the decrees of Ptolemy Euergetes II, 47 in number (118 BC, 140-139 BC). Very recently (1910) a Hamburg papyrus has supplied the ConstituUo Antoniniana, by which Rom citizenship was conferred upon the peregrini of the empire. The private documents in ways even more important
these documents gives especial interest to their readings.
Twenty-three papyri containing parts of the Gr NT have thus far been published, nearly half of them coming from Oxyrhynchus (O.P.
8. NT 2, 208, 209, 402, 657, 1008, 1009, 1078, Papyri 1079, 1170, 1171). The pieces range
in date from the 3d to the 6th cent. Their locations, dates and contents are:
illustrate the life of the common people under Ptolemaic and Rom rule.
1. Philadelphia. Pa. 3d or 4th cent. Mt 1 1-9.12. 13.14-20 (O.P. 2). 2. Florence. .5th or 6th cent. Jn 12 12-15. 3. Vienna. 6th cent. Lk 7 36-45; 10 38-42. 4. Paris. 4th cent. Lk 1 74-80; 5 3-8; 5 30—6 4. 5. London. 3d or 4th cent. Jn 1 23-31.3:3-41; 20 11-17.19-25 (O.P. 208). 6. Strassburg. ? cent. Jn 11 45. 7. Kiew. ? cent. Lk 4 1.2. 8. Berlin. 4th cent. Acts 4 31-37; 6 2-9; 6 1-6. 8-15. 9. Cambridge, Mass. 4th or 5th cent. 1 Jn 4 Ills. 15-17 (O.P 402).
It is not necessary to point out the value of all this for Bib. and esp. NT study. The papyri have already made a valuable contribution to 11. Contritextual materials of both OT and NT. bution to For other early Christian lit. their NT Study testimony has been of surprising interest (the Oxyrhynchus Logia and Gospel fragments). The discovery of a series of uncial MSS running through six centuries back of the Codex Vaticanus bridges the gap between what were our earliest uncials and the hand of the inscriptions, and puts us in a better position than ever before to fix the dates of uncial MSS. Minuscule or cursive hands, too, so common in NT MSS of the
10. Cambridge, Mass. 4th cent. Rom 1 X-7 (O.P. 209). 11. St. Petersburg. 5th cent. 1 Cor 1 17-20; 6 13. 18; 7 3.4.10-14. 12. Didlington Hall. 3d or 4th cent. He 1 1. 13. London. 4th cent. He 2 14—5 5; 10 8—11 13; 11 28—12 17 (O.P. 657). This is the most considerable papyrus of the NT, and doubly important because Codex Vaticanus breaks off with He 9 14. 14. Sinai. 5th cent. 1 Cor 1 25-27; 2 6-8; 3 8-10.20. 15. Oxford. 4th cent. 1 Cor 7 18— 8 4 (O.P. 1008). Phil 3 9-17; 4 2-8 (O.P. 1009). 16. Manchester (Rylands). 6th or 7th cent. Rom 12 3-8. 17. Manchester (Rylands). 3d cent. Tit 1 11-15; 2 3—8 18. Oxford. 4th cent. He 9 12-19 (O.P. 1078). 19. Oxford. 3d or 4th cent. Rev 1 4-7 (O.P. 1079). 20. O.xford. 5th cent. Mt 10 32—11 5 (O.P. 1170). 21. O.xford. 3d cent. Jas 2 19—3 2.4-9 (O.P. 1171). 22. Florence. 7th cent. Mt 25 12-15.20-23. 23. Florence. ? cent. Jn 3 14-18.31.32. Berlin Pap. 13,269 (7th cent.) is a liturgical paraphrase of Lk 2 8-14.
10th and later cents., appear in a new light when it
is seen that such writing was not a late invention arising out of the uncial, but had existed side by side with it from at least the 4th cent. BC, as the ordinary, as distinguished from the literary, or book, hand. See Writing. The lexical contribution of these documentary papyri, too, is already considerable, and is likely to be very great. Like the NT writings, they reflect the common as distinguished from the literary language of the times, and words which had appeared exceptional or unknown in Gr lit. are now shown to have been in common use. The problems of NT syntax are similarly illuminated. Specific historical notices sometimes light up dark points in the NT, as in a British Museum decree of Gains Vibius Maximus, prefect of Egypt (104 AD), ordering all who are out of their districts to return to their own homes in view of the approaching census (cf Lk 2 1-5). Most important of all is the contribution of the papyri to a sympathetic knowledge of ancient life. They constitute a veritable gallery of NT characters. A strong light is sometimes thrown upon the social evils of the time, of which Paul and Juvenal wrote so sternly. The child, the prodigal, the thief, the host with his invitations, the steward with his accounts, the thrifty householder, the soldier on service receiving his viaticum, or retired as a veteran upon his farm, the Jewish money-lender, the husbandman, and the pubhcan, besides people in every domestic relation, we meet at first hand in the papyri which they themselves in many cases have written. The worth of this for the historical interpretation of the NT is very great.
Further details as to nos. 1-14 may be found in Gregory, Teztkritik, 1084-92, and for nos. 1-23 in Kenyon, Handbook to Text. CHI.'', or Milligan, NT Documents, 249-54.
Among other theological papyri, the Oxyrhynchus Sayings of Jesus (O.P. 1,654), dating from the 2d and 3d cents., are probably the most
9. Theowidely known (see Logia). Other logical Oxyrhynchus pieces preserve parts of Papyri the Apocalypse of Baruch (chs 1214; 4th or 5th cent.; O.P. 403); the Gospel according to the Hebrews (? in its later form, if at all; 3d cent.; O.P. 655); the Acts of John (4th cent.; O.P. 850, cf 851); the Shepherd of Hermas (3d or 4th cent.; O.P. 404); Irenaeus, Adv. Haer., iii.9 (3d cent.; O.P. 405). Other small fragments of the Shepherd and Ignatius are among the Amherst and Berlin papyri. Early Christian hymns, prayers and letters of interest have also been found.
We have spoken thus far only of literary papyri, classical and theological. The overwhelming majority of the papyri found have of course 10. Docubeen documentary—private letters, mentary accounts, wills, receipts, contracts. Papyri leases, deeds, complaints, petitions, notices, invitations, etc. The value of these contemporary and original documents for the illumination of ancient life can hardly be overestimated. The life of Upper Egypt in Ptolemaic and Rom times is now probably better known to us than that of any other period of history down to recent times. Many papyrus collections have no literary pap3nri at all, but are rich in documents. Each year brings more of these to light and new volumes of them into print. All this vast and growing body of material contributes to our knowledge of Ptolemaic and imperial times, often in the most intimate ways. Among the most important
The principal collections of Gr papyri with their editors are Schow, Herculaneum Papyri; Peyron, Turin Papyri; Leemans, Leyden Papyri; Wes12. Chief sely, Rainer and Paris Papyri; Kenyon rn11prtion= ?^^ ^*'"' British Museum Papyri; MaCOllectlons haffy and Smyly, Petrie Papyri; Grenfell
XT,,- , X, -*°'i Hunt, Oxyrhynchus, Amherst and Hibeh PapjTi (with Hogarth), FayOm Papyri, and (with Smyly and Goodspeed) Tebtunis Papyri; Hunt, Rylands Papyri ; Nicole, Geneva Papyri ; Krebs, Wilcken, Viereck, Schubart and others, Berlm Papyri; Meyer, Hamburg and Giessen Papyri; Deissmann. Heidelberg Papyri; Vitelli and Comparetti, Florence Papyri; Mitteis, Leipzig Papyri; Preisigke, Strassburg Papyri; Reinach, Paris Papyri; Jouguet and Lesquier, Lille Papyri; Rubensohn, aiephantme Papyri; Maspero, Cairo Papyri ; Goodspeed, Cairo and Chicago Papyri. The Munich papyri liave been described by Wilcken. Milligan's Gr Papyri, Kenyon s Palaeography of Gr Papyri, and Deissmann's Light from the Ancient East are useful introductions to the general subject. Mayser has prepared a Grammatik der PtolemdiHchen Papyri.
Coptic, Arab., Heb and Demotic papyri are
2243 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Papyrus Parable
numerous; even Lat papyri are found. The Coptic have already made important contributions to early
of inculcating His message more extensively and more effectively than any other teacher. He did not
Christian literature. A considerable 13. Coptic, Coptic fragment of the Acts of Paul, Arabic and
invent the parable. It was His custom
2. Historin general to take over from the re-
_ and a Coptic (Akhmtmic) codex of 1 Other Papyri Clement, almost complete, have recently been published by Carl Schmidt. Another much mutilated papyrus of 1 Clement, with James, complete, is at Strassburg. A Coptic text of Prov has been brought to Berlin from the same source which supplied the Clement codex (the White Convent, near Akhmtm); indeed, Bib. papyri in Coptic are fairly numerous, and patristic
ical Data ligious and linguistic world of thought in His own day the materials that He employed to convey the higher and deeper truths of His gospels, giving them a world of meaning they had never before possessed. Thus e.g. every petition of the Lord's Prayer can be duplicated in the Jewish liturgies of the times, yet on Christ's lips these petitions have a significance they never had or could have for the Jews. The term "Word" for the second person in the Godhead is an adaptation from the Logos-idea in contemporaneous
lit. is being rapidly enriched by such discoveries of Coptic papyri, e.g. the Dt, Jon, Acts papyrus, 1912
(cf Sahidic NT, Oxford, 1911). Arab, papyri first began to appear from Egypt in 1825, when three Arab, pieces were brought to Paris and published by Silvestre de Sacy. Two others, from the 7th cent., were published by him in 1827. It was not until the great papyrus finds of 1877-78, however, that any consideraljle number of Arab, papyri found their way into Europe. The chief collections thus far formed are at Vienna (Rainer Collection), Berlin and Cairo. Becker has published the Schott-Reinhardt Arab, papyri at Heidelberg, and Karabacek has worked upon those at Vienna. They belong of course to the period after the Arab, conquest, 640 AD.