Part 31
29), and the king of Tyre is among the correspondents mentioned in the Am Tab. It seems to have taken precedence of Sidon when the latter was attacked by the Philis of Askelon, and the inhabitants were compelled to flee for safety to Tyre. At
all events Tyre exercised the hegemony in P. by the time David came to the throne, and had probably obtained it a century or two before, and held
it unto P. became subject to Assyria in the 9th cent. BC. Asshur-nazir-pal first came into contact with P., which submitted to tribute, between 877 and 860 BC, and this subjection continued until the downfall of Assyria in the latter part of the 7th cent. BC. The subjection was nominal only for more than a century, the cities retaining their kings and managing their own affairs with no interference from the Assyrians as long as they paid the tribute. But with the advent of Tiglath-pileser in Syria, about 740 BC, conditions changed, and the Phoen towns were subjected to severe treatment, and some of the dynasts were driven from their cities and Assyr governors appointed in their places. Their oppression caused revolts, and Elulaeus of Tyre united Sidon and the cities to the S. in a league to resist the encroachments of Tiglath-pileser and his successor Shalmaneser IV, whom he successfully resisted, although the Assyrian gained over to his side Sidon, Acre, and some other towns and had the assistance of their fleets to make an attack upon the island city. The attack failed completely, and Shalmaneser left Elulaeus to his independence, which he maintained for a quarter of a century, regaining control of the towns that had fallen away and also of Cyprus. Sargon (722-705 BC) let P. alone, but Sennacherib (705-681) determined to punish the king of Tyre and prepared an army of 200,000 men for the war with P. Elulaeus was afraid and fled to Cyprus, but his towns dared to resist and Sennacherib had to reduce them one after another, but did not succeed in taking Tyre itself. He set over the conquered territory a certain Tubaal, probably a Phoen, who paid him tribute. He also took tribute from Gebal and Aradus, which indicates that all of P. was subject to him, as these two cities probably controlled all that was not under Tyre. In the reign of Esarhaddon (681-668) Sidon revolted under Abd-Melkarth, who was caught and beheaded, the city sacked, and the inhabitants either killed or carried into captivity, and it was repeopled by captives from the E. At a later date (672), when Esarhaddon was preparing to invade Egypt, Baal, the vassal king of Tyre, revolted and refused to aid him, but afterward submitted either to Esarhaddon or to his son Asshur-bani-pal and assisted the latter in his invasion of Egypt, 668 BC. Four years later, however, we find the Assyr king besieging Tyre and punishing Baal by making him give his daughter to be a member of the Assyrian's harem. Baal himself was left on his throne. The same fate was the lot of the king of Aradus, and Accho (Acre) was also punished.
The corrupt nature of the Phoen worship has been referred to. It was also cruel, the custom of human sacrifices being common and carried to an extent unheard of among other peoples, such as the horrible sacrifice of 200 noble youths at Carthage when besieged by Agathocles. The sacrifice was by burning, the victim being placed in the arms of the statue of the god, heated for the purpose. In P. this god was Melkarth, or Molech, and the custom is denounced in the OT (Lev 20 2-5), but other gods were also honored in this way. The religious feeling of the Phoenicians was undoubtedly deep, but sadly corrupt and depraved.
The political history of P. is that of the towns and cities belonging to it. The country as a whole had no centralized government, but 8. History the chief towns exercised a sort of hegemony, at times, over some of the lesser ones. This was esp. the case with Sidon and Tyre, but every city had its king and its local government. The land is never referred to in ancient documents, but the people are designated by their
cities. Thus we find in Gen 10 17 f the mention of Sidon, the Arvadite, the Arkite, etc, and, in Josh 13 4, the Gebalites and the Sidonians in connection with the land of the Canaanites. In the same way the inscriptions of Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria refer to the people of the different cities, but not to the land as a political unit, which it never was.
The cities first come into notice in the period of the Egyp domination, beginning in the 16th cent. BC under Thothmes III. This king subdued most of the Phoen cities, or received their submission, in his numerous campaigns to Syria, and the Egyp rule continued with more or less interruption until the decline of Egypt under the XXth Dynasty, or about 300 years. During this time Arvad seems to have exercised the hegemony in the N., and Sidon in the S., with Gebal controlling the middle region. The Am Tab reveal many facts concerning the condition of things while the Egyp power was declining in the latter part of the XVIIIth Dynasty, esp. in the reign of Amenhotep IV (Ikhnaton). The rise of the Amorite and Hittite power in the N. threatened these cities, which were under Egyp governors, and they called upon their suzerain for aid, which was not given, and they fell, one after another, into the hands of the enemy. Rameses II restored Egyp rule, but his successors of the XXth Dynasty could not maintain it, and the invasion of tribes from the W. and N., called the Peleset, or Philis, by land and sea, though repelled by Rameses III, continued to increase until the Egyp domination was broken, and the coast towns resumed their independence about the middle of the 12th cent. BC. Sidon came to the front as the chief city of P., and it is referred to by Joshua aa "Great Sidon" (Josh 11 8). Homer also mentions Sidon frequently, but makes no reference to Tyre. The latter city was certainly in existence in his day, but had not come to the front as the leading city in the mind of the Greeks. Yet it was a fortified city in the time of Joshua (19
The frequent rebellions of the Phoen towns show their love of independence and a sturdy resistance to oppression. They became freed from the yoke of Assyria probably about 630 BC, when the Medes attacked Nineveh and the Scythic hordes overran all Western Asia. The Phoen cities were fortified and did not suffer very much from the barbarian invasion, and, as Assyria was broken, they resumed their independence. In the struggle which followed between Egypt and Babylon for the mastery of Syria, P. fell, for a time, under the sway of Egypt, but was not oppressed, and her towns prospered, and it was in this period that Tyre attained great wealth and renown as reflected in the Book of Ezk. When Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to it, a resistance of 13 years showed its strength and resources, and
2391 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Phoenicia Phoenix
although the town on the mainland waa destroyed, it is doubtful whether the king of Babylon took the island city, but it must have submitted to pay tribute (585 BC). P. remained subject to Babylon until that empire fell into the hands of the Persians
called Fair Havens (KaXoi \i/j.hei, Kaloi Limines), near a city Lasea {Kaaala, Lasala), Thence, in spite of St. Paul's advice to winter in Fair Havens, it was decided to sail to Phoenix (eis ^oIvikcl, Xi/x^ra. T^s K/3i)t7;s) pXi-Kovra Kara \lfSa Kal Karli x^P"" (eis Pholnika, limena lis Krtles) bleponta kald liba kai kald choron, a description which has been tr<' in two ways: (1) "looking toward the S.W. wind and toward the N.W. wind, i.e. looking S.W. and N.W."; (2) "looking down the S.W. wind and down the N.W. wind, i.e. looking N.E. and S.E." On the way thither, they were struck by a wind from the N.E,, called Euraquilo, and ran before it under the lee of an island, called Cauda or Clauda (KaCSa, Kauda [i{°Bffi], KXaCSo, Klauda [N*A, etc]) in Acts 27 7-17. It will be convenient to discuss those places together. The following account is based on Smith's elaborate study in his Voyage and Shipwreck of St, Paul, which has been followed by
(538), and then accepted the yoke of the latter in the days of Cambyses, if not earlier, but the Pers king does not seem to have used force to gain the adherence of the Phoenicians. He needed their fleets to assist in the attack upon Egypt and secured them without difficulty. They aided him in the conquest of Egypt, but when he asked them to proceed against Carthage they refused, and he had to desist. The navy of P. was too necessary for him to run any risk of alienating it.
_ This navy was the strongest sea power of the Persians in all their coming wars with Greece. Without its assistance Darius and his successors could with difficulty have invaded that country or held in subjection the western coasts of Asia Minor. P. remained faithful to her Pers rulers about 150 years, but when the general revolt of the western satraps occurred in 362 BC, P. seems to have favored them, but no open rebellion broke out until 351, when Sidon, underher king Tabnit II (Tennes), boldly declared her independence and induced most of the Phoen cities to do the same. The Pers garrisons were massacred or driven out. Ochus, the king of Persia, marched with an army of 300,000 infantry and 30,000 horse to punish the rebels, and Tabnit, in cowardly alarm, betrayed Sidon into his hands, but the citizens set fire to the city and destroyed themselves rather than fall into the hands of Ochus, who, as treacherous as Tabnit, slew the traitor (see Sidon). The other cities then submitted, and P. remained subject to Persia until the time of Alexander the Great. When this conqueror invaded the dominions of Persia and had defeated Darius at Issus, 333 BC, he demanded the submission of the Phoen towns, and all yielded save Tyre. Alexander was obliged to lay siege to it, which cost him 7 months of the severest labor, such was the valor and skill of the Tyrians. The capture of Tyre is reckoned as one of the greatest exploits of this mighty conqueror who stained his record by his cruel treatment of the brave defenders. He massacred the male prisoners and sold the remainder of the inhabitants, to the number of 30,000, into slavery (see Tyre). After the death of Alexander the Phoen cities were subject to the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria, the latter finally obtaining control of all by the victory of Antiochus III over Scopas in 198 BC. From this time on P. formed a part of the Seleucid kingdom until it passed, together with Sj'ria and Pal, into the hands of the Romans. Its cities became the home of many Greeks and its language became largely Gr, as inscriptions and coins testify. The Romans had also much to do in modifying the character of the people, and some towns, Berytus, esp., became largely Roman. P. can hardly be said to have had a separate existence after the Gr invasion.
all later writers.
The ship, when it left Myra, was obviously making for Italy (Puteoli or Ostia) by the shortest route, round Cape Malea, but off Cnidus it encountered a N.W. wind and had to sail for shelter under the lee of Crete. Salmone, now called Cape Sidero, waa the promontory which forms the N.E. corner of the island. Thence along the S. shore of Crete, as far as Cape Matala, a sailing ship is sheltered by the mountains from the violence of the N.W. wind; W. of Cape Matala, where the coast turns toward the N.W., there is no such shelter. Fair Havens must therefore be looked for to the E. of Cape Matala, and there is a harbor, lying 6 miles E. of Cape Matala, which is called Fair Havens by the modern Greek inhabitants of the island. There is no doubt that this is the harbor in which the Alexandrian ship took shelter. It is sheltered only from the N. and N.W. winds.
The ruins of a city which has been identified with Lasea have been found 5 miles E. from Fair Havens, and 12 miles S. of the important city of Gortyna.
It has been suggested that St. Paul's desire to winter at Fair Havens (Acts 27 10) may have been due to its proximity to Gortyna, and the opportunity which the latter city afforded for missionary work. There were many Jews in Gortyna. See Crete. From Fair Havens, against the advice of St. Paul,
it was decided to sail to Phoenix, there to pass the winter. While the ship was on its way thither, it was struck by a violent N.E. wind from the moun-
tains, called Euraquilo, and carried under the lee of an islet called Cauda or Clauda. When this happened, the ship was evidently crossing the Bay of Messariah, and from this point a N.E. wind must have carried her under the lee of an island now called Gaudho in Greek and Gozzo in Italian, situated about 23 miles S.W. of the center of the Gulf of Messariah. The modem name of the island shows that Cauda (Caudas in the Noliiiae Episcopatuum), and not Clauda is the true ancient form. The writer of Acts never saw Phoenix, which must have been a good harbor, as the nautical experts decided to winter there (Acts 27 11). Now the only safe harbor on the S. coast of Crete in which a ship large enough to carry a cargo of corn and 268 souls could moor is the harbor beside Loutro, a village on the S. coast of Crete, directly N. of Cauda. All the ancient authorities agree in placing Phoenix
LiTEBATURE.—RawUnson, Hist of Phoenicia; Kenrick, Phoenicia: Movers, Phonizier; Breasted, Hist of Egypt, and Ancient Records; Budge, Hist of Egypt; Eawlinson, Ancient Monarchies; Rogers, Babylonia and Assyria; Bevan, House of Seleucus; Am Tab; Perrot and Chipiez, Art in Phoenicia,
H. Porter PHOENIX, fe'niks (*o£vi.|, Pholnix; AV Phenice): A harbor in Crete (Acta 27 12). The Alexandrian corn ship carrying St. Paul and the author of Acts, after it left Myra in Lycia, was prevented by adverse winds from holding a straight
in this neighborhood. The harbor at Loutro affords shelter from all winds, and its identification with Phoenix seems certain. But a serious difficulty
arises on this view. The words describing the harbor of Phoenix ordinarily mean "looking toward the S.W. and the N.W.," but the harbor beside Loutro looks eastward. This led Bishop Wordsworth to identify Phoenix with an open roadstead on the western side of the isthmus on which Loutro
course to Italy, and sailed under the lee of Crete,
off the promontory of Salmone {Kara. 'ZoKixwvt^v,
kald Salmonen). The ship was then able to make
her way along the S. shore of Crete to a harbor
Phoros Physician THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2392
stands. But this roadstead is not a suitable place for wintering in, and it is better either to take the words to mean, in sailor's language, "looking down the S.W. and N.W. winds"—a description which exactly fits the harbor at Loutro—or to assume that the reporter of the discussion referred to in Acts 27 10-12 or the writer of Acts made a mistake in describing a place which he had never seen. An inscription belonging to the reign of Trajan found at Loutro shows that Egyp corn ships were wont to lie up there for the winter. W. M. Calder
Twice he entered Phrygia in Asia, but on his 2d journey he was forbidden to preach there. Christianity was introduced into Phrygia by Paul and Barnabas, as we learn from Acts 13 4; 16 1-6; 18 23, yet it did not spread there rapidly. Churches were later founded, perhaps by Timothy or by John, at Colossae, Laodicea and Hierapolis.
E. J. Banks PHURAH, fu'ra (mS, purah, "branch"). See PURAH.
PHUT, fut (13^3, put). See Put.
PHOROS, fo'ros (*op6s, Phords, B [Swete], *ap^s, Phares [1 Esd 8 30, where AV Pharez]): Name of one of the families, part of whom went up from the exile with Zerubbabel (1 Esd 5 9) and part with Ezra (8 30 RV) = "Parosh" of Ezr 2 3; 8 3, and some members of which had taken "strange wives" (1 Esd 9 26).
PHUVAH, fu'va. SeePuAH.
PHYGELUS, fi-je'lus (*vv£\\os, PhiXgellos; Tischendorf and WH, with others, read ^iytkos, Phugelos, Phygellus or Phygelus [2 Tim 1 15]; AV Phygellus, fi-jel'us): One of the Christians who deserted Paul at the time of his 2d imprisonment at Rome. Paul mentions him, along with Hermogenes, as being among those "that are in Asia," who turned away from him then. What is meant may be that Phygelus and Hermogenes, along with other native Christians from proconsular Asia, were in Rome when he was brought before the emperor's tribunal the second time, and that they had not merely taken no measures to stand by and support him, but that they had deserted him.
PHRURAI, fru'rl, fru'ra-i (<i>povpaC, Phrourai;
al. in iS and A, 'i'poupaia, Phrourala, and "iipoupCii, Phrourim; AV Phurim): In Ad Est 11 1, "the ep. of Phrurai" means the preceding Book of Est. See PURIM.
PHRYGIA, frij'i-a (^pvyla, Phrugia): A large ancient country of Central Asia Minor, very mountainous and with table-lands reaching 4,000 ft. in height. Its name is derived from Phryges, a tribe from Thrace, which in early times invaded the country and drove out or absorbed the earlier Asiatic inhabitants, among whom were the Hittites. Thus the Phrygians borrowed much of oriental civilization, esp, of art and mythology which they transferred to Europe. To deiine the boundaries of Phrygia would be exceedingly difficult, for as in the case of other Asia Minor countries, they were always vague and they shifted with nearly every age. The entire country abounds with ruins of former cities and with almost countless rock-hewn tombs, some of which are of very great antiquity. Among the most interesting of the rock sculptures are the beautiful tombs of the kings bearing the names Midas and Gordius, with which classical tradition has made us familiar. It seems that at one period the country may have extended to the Hellespont, even including Troy, but later the Phrygians were driven toward the interior. In Rom times, however, when Paul journeyed there, the country was divided into two parts, one of which was known as Galatian Phrygia, and the other as Asian Phrygia, because
The meaning, however, may be that the turning away of Phygelus and Hermogenes from Paul took place, not in Rome, but in Asia itself.
The times during and immediately following the Nerouic persecution were more dreadful than can easily be conceived, and the temptation was strong to forsake the Christian name, and to do so in a wholesale fashion. A great community like the Christian church in Ephesus or in Rome felt the terrible pressure of those times, when for a mere word—a word, however, denying the Lord who bought them—men were at once set free from persecution, from the loss of property or of home, and from death. 1 Pet records how the aftermath of the Neronic persecution had extended far indeed from Rome, where it had originated. Peter asks the Christians not to give way under "the flery trial" which is trying them
(1 Pet 4 12), and those whom ho thus addresses were the members of the church throughout Pontus. Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia (1 Pet 1 1). The epp. to the seven churches in Asia in the Apocalypse also show how sorely persecution had raged tliroughout that province. See Persecution. But in addition to the temptation to deny Christ's name and to go back to heathenism or to Judaism, there was also another which pressed upon some of the churches, the temptation to repudiate the authority of Paul. Many passages in the NT show how the name of Paul was sometimes very lightly esteemed, and how his authority was repudiated, e.g. by persons in Corinth, and in the churches of Galatia.
it was a part of the Rom province of Asia, but the line between them was never sharply drawn. The Asian Phrygia was the larger of the two divisions, including the greater part of the older country; Galatian Phrygia was small, extending along the Pisidian Mountains, but among its important cities were Antioch, Iconium and ApoUonia. About 29.5 AD, when the province of Asia was no longer kept together, its different parts were known as Phrygia Prima and Phrygia Secunda. That part of Asia Minor is now ruled by a Turkish wali or governor whose residence is in Konia, the ancient Iconium. The population consists not only of Turks, but of Greeks, Armenians, Jews, Kurds and many small tribes of uncertain ancestry, and of peculiar customs and religious practices. The people live mostly in small villages which are scattered throughout the picturesque country. Sheep and goat raising are the leading industries; brigandage is common. According to Acts 2 10, Jews from Phrygia went to Jerus, and in Acts 18 23 we learn tliat many of them were influential and perhaps fanatical. According to Acts 16 6, Paul traversed the country while on his way from Lystra to Iconium and Antioch in Galatian Phrygia.
What is said here is, that among the Christians of proconsular Asia, i.e. of Ephesus and the churches in the valley of the Cayster, there was a widespread defection from that loyalty to Paul which was to be expected from those who owed to him all that they possessed of the knowledge of Christ's salvation. "All that are in Asia turned away from me; of whom are Phygelus and Hermogenes." On the whole, all the necessary conditions of these words are satisfied by a reference to Rome and to Paul's environment there, and perhaps this is the more probable meaning. See Hermogenes.
John Rutherfurd PHYLACTERY, fi-lak'ter-i (<j>v\aKT<ipiov, phulakttrion, "guard") : This word is found only in Mt 23 .5 in Our Lord's denunciation of the 1. Bible Pharisees, who, in order that their References works might "be seen of men," and in their zeal for the forms of religion, "make broad their phylacteries and enlarge the borders of their garments." The corresponding word in the OT, nbuiu , toiaphoth (Kennedy in HDB suggests pointing as the segholate fem. sing.,
2393 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Phoros Physician
eyes, that the law of Jeh may be in thy mouth" (Ex 13 9); "And it [i.e. sacrifice of the firstborn] shall be for a sign upon thy hand, and
(otepheth), is found in three passages (Ex 13 16; Dt 6 8; 11 18), where it is tr'' "frontlets." This rendering, however, is not at all certain, and may have been read into the text from its later interpretatioii. In Ex 13 9 the corresponding word to the totdphoth of ver 16 is zikkarun, "memorial" or "reminder"; and in the |1 clauses of both verses the corresponding word is 'olh, "a sign" upon the hand, also used for the "sign" which Jeh appointed for Cain (Gen 4 15). It may be rendered then as a mark or ornament or jewel, and used figuratively of Jeh's Law as an ornament or jewel to the forehead of the Israelite, a reference to the charm or amulet worn by the pagan. The word used in the Talm for the phylactery is MbSH , t'phillah, "prayer," or "prayer-band" (pi. fphillin), indicating its use theoretically as a reminder of the Law, although practically it might be esteemed as an automatic and ever-present charm against evil; an aid within toward the keeping of the Law, a guard without against the approach of evil; a degradation of an OT figurative and idealistic phrase to the materialistic and superstitious practices of the pagans.
3. Interprefor frontlets between thine eyes" (13 tation of OT 16); "thou shalt bind them [i.e. the Passages words of Jeh] for a sign upon thy hand, and they shall be for frontlets between thine eyes" (Dt 6 8); "therefore shall ye lay up these my words in your heart and in your soul; and ye shall bind them for a sign upon your hand, and they shall be for frontlets between your eyes" (11 18). It is evident that the words in Ex are beyond all question used figuratively; a careful reading of the verses in Dt in close relation to their contexts, in which are other figures of speech not to be taken literally, is sufficient proof of their purely figurative intention also. Only the formalism of later ages could distort these figures into the gross and materialistic practice of the phylactery. Just when this practice began cannot accurately be determined. While the Talm attempts to trace it back to the primitive, even Mosaic, times, it probably did not long antedate the birth of Christ. In conservative Jewish circles it has been maintained through the centuries, and at present is faithfully followed by orthodox Judaism. Every male, who at the age of 13 becomes a "son of the Law" (bar mir^wah), must wear the phylactery and perform the accompanying ceremonial.
The phylactery was a leathern box, cube shaped, closed with an attached flap and bound to the person
by a leather band. There were two 2. Dekinds: (1) one to be bound to the scription inner side of the left arm, and near the elbow, so that with the bending of the arm it would rest over the heart, the knot
In the NT passage (Mt 23 5) Our Lord rebukes the Pharisees, who make more pronounced the un-
Scriptural formaUsm and the crude literalism of the phylacteries by making them obtrusively large, as they also seek notoriety for their religiosity Ly the enlarged fringes, or "borders." See Fringes; Frontlets; Pharisees.
Literature.—The various comms. on Ex and Dt; tractate T<'phillin; the comprehensive art. by A. R. S. Kennedy in HDB; arts, in EB and Jeiv Enc.
Edward Mack PHYLARCH, fi'lark (<f>u\apxT)S, phuUrches): Given in AV of 2 Mace 8 32 as a proper name "Philarches," but in RV "the phylarch of Timotheus's forces"; "probably the captain of an irregu-
Phylacteries for Head and Arm.
lar auxiliary force" (RVm), rather than a cavalry
fastening it to the arm being in the form of the letter yodh (^) , and the end of the string, or band, finally wound around the middle finger of the hand, "a sign upon thy hand" (Dt 6 8). This box had one compartment containing one or all of the four passages given above. The writer in his youth found one of these in a comparatively remote locality, evidently
officer.
PHYLARCHES, fi-Iar'kez (AV Philarches). See Phylarch.
PHYSICIAN, fi-zish'an (XSl, rophi' ; tarpos,
iatrds) : To the pious Jew at all times God was the healer (Dt 32 39): "It was neither herb nor mollifying plaister that cured them, but thy word, O Lord, which healeth all things" (Wisd 16 12). The
lost by a Jewish peddler, which contained only the 2d text (Ex 13 11-16) in unpointed Heb. (2) Another was to be bound in the center of the fore-
head, "between thine eyes" (Dt 6 8), theknot of the band being in the form of the letter dalclh {1), with the letter shin (125) upon each end of the box, which was divided into four compartments with one
first physicians mentioned in Scripture are those of Egypt. Long before the sojourn of the Hebrews
in that land, Egypt had a priestly class of physicians
(snu) and a god of healing (Imhtp). From the ancient medical papyri which have been preserved, the largest of which is the Papyrus Ebers, we know that the medical knowledge of these physicians was purely empirical, largely magical and wholly un-
of the four passages in each. These two Heb letters, with the
"i of the arm-phylactery (see [1] above),
formed the Divine name ^'llp , shadday, "Almighty."
Quite elaborate ceremonial accompanied the "laying" on of the phylacteries, that of the arm being bound on first, and that of the head next, quotations from Scripture or Talm being repeated at each stage
scientific. In spite of their ample opportunities they knew next to nothing of human anatomy,
their descriptions of diseases are hopelessly crude, and three-fourths of the hundreds of prescTiptions
of the binding. They were to be worn by every male over 13 years old at the time of morning prayer,
in the papyri are wholly inert. Even their art of embalming was so imperfect that few of their mummies would have remained in any other climate than that of Egypt. Physicians of this kind who were Joseph's servants embalmed Jacob (Gen 50
except on Sabbaths and festal days, such days bemg
in themselves sufficient reminders of "the commandment, the statutes, and the ordinances" of Jeh (Dt
6 1). The passages on which the wearing of the phy-
2) and Joseph (ver 26). It was not until the founda-
tion of the School of Alexandria, which was purely
lacteries is based are as follows: "It [i.e. the feast
Greek, that Egypt became a place of medical edu-
of unleavened bread] shall be for a sign unto thee upon thy hand, and for a memorial between thine I
cation and research.
Physician Pigeon THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2394
PI-BESETH, pl-be'seth (nD3"iS, pl-hheselh; LXX Bu|3acrTos, Buhdslos; Egyp Pi-Bdsht, "the house of Basht," the cat-headed goddess; the Egyp form is usually Ha-Bashi; it is doubtful if the form Pi-Basht has yet been found) : A city of ancient Egypt. The only occurrence of the name of this place in the OT is in Ezk 30 17; where it is coupled with Aven, i.e. On (Heliopolis). Pi-beseth was on the western bank of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, about 40 miles N. of Memphis,
There is no evidence that at any time the priests of Israel were reputed to be the possessors of medi-
cal knowledge or tradition. In the ceremonial law they had explicit instructions as to the isolation of those suffering from skin eruptions, so that they might recognize certain obstinate and infectious forms which caused ceremonial uncleanness, but with this duty as sanitary police their function ended, and they used no means to cure these diseases. There is, as far as I know, no record or tradition of a priest-physician in Bible times. The records of cure by the prophets, esp. Elisha, are mostly recorded as miracles, not as cures by treatment. The salt which cured the noxious water at Jericho and the meal by which the poisonous gourds were rendered innoxious, like the manipulation of the Shunammite's son, can scarcely be regarded as adequate remedies. There is an implied reference to a healer of wounds in Ex 21 19, as also in Isa 3 7, and it is recorded in P'^ahlm, iv.9 that there was in existence in the time of the monarchy a book of cures, sepher r'phu'dth, supposed to have been written by Solomon, but withdrawn from public use by Hezekiah. The first specific mention of Heb physicians is 2 Ch 16 12, but Asa is obviously regarded by the Chronicler as reprehensible in trusting to their skill. In 2 K 8 29 Joram, king of Israel, is said to have gone to Jezreel to be healed. Not far from this, across the Jordan, was Gilead, which possibly may also have been a place resorted to by those needing medical treatment, as indicated by Jeremiah's query: "Is there no balm in Gilead?
about 15 miles N.E. of On. Herod-
1. Location otus found the city of Bubastis very beautiful in his day. The annual
festival of the goddess, Basht, was celebrated here with revolting license, similar to that of the festival
of Sj^yid el-Bedawer now kept in Tanta.
Pi-beseth was explored by Professor Naville under the Egyp Exploration Society in 1887-90. There were uncovered ruins of Eg3T3t from
2. Explothe IVth Dynasty of the Old Empire, ration from the Middle Empire, an important Hyksos settlement, and ruins from the New Empire down to the end, and even from Rom times. The most unique discovery at Pi-beseth, one of the most unique in all Egypt, is the cemetery of cats. These cats, the animal sacred to Basht, were mummified at other places in Egypt, but at Pibeseth they were burned and the ashes and bones gathered and buried in great pits lined with brick or hardened clay. Bones of the ichneumon were also found mixed with those of the cats in these pits {Egypt Exploration Fund Report, 1891).
M. G. Kyle PICTURE, pik'ttlr: This word (in the pi.) is found 3 t in AV, viz. Nu 33 52; Isa 2 16; Prov 25 11. In Nu and Prov "pictures" represents the Heb word tT'S'lB'iQ, masklth, "showpiece," "figure." The context in Nu suggests that the "pictures" or "carved figures" (RV "figured stones") which the Israelites were to destroy were symbols of Can. worship and therefore foreign to the religion of Jeh. In Prov for AV "pictures of silver," ERV has "baskets [ARV "network"] of silver," but a more probable tr is "carvings of silver." "Pictures" stands for a slightly different word (but from the same root) in Isa, viz. im^STl) , s'khlydth; RV renders "imagery" (RVm "watchtowers"). The prophet probably alludes to carved figures (of gods in animal or human shapes) on the prows of vessels.
is there no physician there?" (Jer 8 22). Job, irritated by the platitudes of his friends, calls them physicians of no value (13 4). In the NT Our Lord's saying, "They that are whole have no need of a physician," etc, shows that there were physicians in Galilee (Mt 9 12; Mk 2 17; Lk 5 31), and in Nazareth He quotes what seems to have been a proverb: "Physician, heal thyself" (Lk 4 23). There were physicians in Galilee who received fees from the woman of Caesarea Philippi who had the issue of blood (Mk 5 26; Lk 8 43). Of her there is a curious story told in Eusebius (VII, 18). There are several Talmudic references to physicians; in Sh'kdllm 5 1, it is said that there was a physician at the temple to attend to the priests. A physician was appointed in every city {Oittin 126) who was required to have a license from the local authorities (Babhd' Balhra' 21ct). The familiar passage in Ecclus 38 1-15 RV in praise of the physician gives him but limited credit for his skill: "There is a time when in their very hands
T. Lewis PIECE, pes: In AV the word (sing, and pi.) represents a large number of different Heb words, many of which have more or less the same significance, e.g. piece of meat or flesh (Gen 15 10; 2 S 6 19; Ezk 24 4); of bread or cake (1 S 2 36; 30 12; Jer 37 21); of ground or land (2 S 23 11); of wall (Neh 3 11.19 ff); of an ear (Am 3 12); of cloth or garment (1 K 11 30); of millstone (Jgs 9 53). It is u.sed frequently in paraphrastic renderings of various Heb vbs. : "break," "tear," "cut," etc, in pieces (Gen 44 28, etc).
is the issue for good," and later, "He that sinneth before his Maker, Let him fall into the hands of the physician."
Luke, called "the beloved physician" in Col 4 14, is said by Eusebius to have been a native of Antioch and a physician by profession. According to Origen he was the unnamed "brother whose praise in the gospel is spread through all the churches" (2 Cor 8 IS). There are evidences of his professional studies in the language of his writings, though of this probably more has been made by Hobart and others than it really merits. Had we not known of his profession it is doubtful whether
In the NT "piece" renders iirl^X-n/ia, epiblema, "piece" or "patch of cloth" (Mt 9 16; Mk 2 21; Lk 5 36). It is also found in paraphrastic renderings—broken in pieces (Mk 5 4), pulled in pieces (Acts 23 10). T. Lewis
it could have been conjectured from his choice of words. Sir W. Ramsay calls attention to the two words used of the healings at Melita in Acts 28 8-10: for the cure of Publius' father the word used is idsato, but for the healing of those who came later
PIECE OF GOLD: The word "pieces" is supplied in 2 K 5 5 (story of Naaman), "6,000 pieces of gold," where RVm more correctly suggests "shekels"
(cf 1 K 10 16). See Money.
it is ethera'peuonlo, which he renders "received medical treatment." From this he infers that Luke helped Paul with these (Ramsay, Luke the Physician, 1908). Alex. Macalister
PIECE OF MONEY: Two words are thus rendered in AV (rrj^lCp, k'slldh; aTariip, staler). RV gives only the first this rendering (Job 42 11).
2395 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Physician Pigeon
It is supposed to be from Arab. ioMS, Ifassat, "to divide equally by weight," and hence something weighed; a piece of silver weighed for money, and perhaps stamped with its weight. The stater is the well-linown Gr weight and coin (Mt 17 27 AV, m stater, RV "shekel"). In gold it was equal to about a guinea or five dollars, but in silver only to about 66 ots.
The rich provided large and expensive cotes of molded pottery for their birds, each section big enough for the home of one pair of birds, the regular rows of operungs resembUng lattice work, so that Isaiah refers to them as "windows" (60 8). LXX reads <ruv voaaoU, sun nossois, lit. "with young" or "fledglings" (see below). The middle classes modeled cotes of oven-baked clay, and the very poor cut holes in the walls, over the doors, and allowed the birds to enter and live with the family.
PIECE OF SILVER: Two words are thus rendered in the OT (BOp—'SI, raQ^e-khaseph, and i^VIPR, k'sitah) and two in the NT {dpyvpLov, argurion, and Spax/J.-/), drachme). The first expression means pieces of silver broken off from bars or larger pieces (Ps 68 30). The second is used for money in Josh 24 32, and is so rendered in RV. The pieces were not coins, but perhaps bore a stamp. See Money. In other passages of the OT where pieces of silver are mentioned, the Heb has simply a numeral joined with ke^cph, "silver," as in the account of the selling of Joseph (Gen 37 28). In Isa 7 23 the word silverlings means small pieces of silver, and they were no doubt shekels. In the NT the Gr ipyipia, arguria (Mt 26 L5; 27 3-9), is tr"' as pieces of silver, but probably means shekels. In Acts 19 19 the same word occurs, but in this case the reference is probably to the denarius or drachma (cf Lk 15 8f). Thus the 30 pieces of Mt would be equal to about £4 or $20, and the 50,000 of Acts to about £2,000 or $10,000. H. Porter PIETY, pi'e-ti: Only in 1 Tim 5 4: "Let them learn first to show piety towards their own family," where "let them show piety" represents a single Gr vb. (eucre/3^w, euseheo), in its only other occurrence (Acts 17 23) being rendered "worship." In Ehzabethan Eng. "piety" (hke the Lat pielas) could be used of devotion to one's parents (as still in the phrase "filial piety"), as well as of devotion to God. Hence there is no explicit statement here that fiUal devotion is one form of Divine worship.
In wild estate, rock and wood pigeons swarmed in countless numbers through rocky caves and caverns and over the plains of Gennesaret, the forests of Gilead and the woody slopes of Carmel. They remained throughout the season, breeding at all times. The doves were migratory, and were kept in confinement only as caged pets or to be held for sale for sacrifice. For these purposes, it appears that the dove was slightly preferred. When only one bird was to be used, a dove is always specified; where two, almost in every case the dove is mentioned first. Where one or the other will suffice, the dove seems to have been given preference. This may have been because it required greater effort to procure a dove, and so it was considered a greater sacrifice. Everyone having a home of any sort had pigeons they could use, or they could be taken wild at any time. The dove is first mentioned in Gen 15 9: "And he said unto him, Take me a heifer three years old, and a she-goat three years old, and a ram three years old, and a turtle-dove, and a young pigeon."
It will be observed that the dove is mentioned first, and it is specified that the pigeon was to be young. It is probable that the people protected their domesticated pigeons by using the wild for sacrifice, whenever possible. Young birds could be taken from a nest at almost any time. The old birds, among the wild, were shy creatures and far more difficult to capture in nets or snares than doves that came close to cities and villages to live, and exhibited much less fear of man than the wild pigeons. The next reference is in Lev 5 7: " And if his means sufiice not for a lamb, then he shall bring his trespass-offering for that wherein he hath sinned, two turtle-doves, or two young pigeons, unto Jeh ; one for a sin-offering, and the other for a burnt-offering." Here two birds of each kind were to be offered, if the person making the sacrifice could not afford a lamb. Again in Lev 12 6: "And when the days of her purifying are fulfilled, for a son, or for a daughter, she shall bring a lamb a year old for a biu-ntoflering, and a young pigeon, or a turtle-dove, for a sinoffering, unto the door of the tent of meeting, unto the priest." Here is a rare instance where the text or the translators place the pigeon first.
PIGEON, pij'un (HJT', yonah; irepio-Tepd, peris-
terd; Lat pipire) : A bird of the family Columbidae. See Dove. The Heb yonah seems to be tr'' either pigeon or dove, yet almost every reference made to these birds proves that there were distinct branches of the family recognized, and one or the other or both are designated. On the other hand, some of the tr' read doves, where the remainder of the text makes it very clear that pigeons were the birds intended. The Lat pipire means "to cheep," and refers to the unusually clamorous young in the nest. The old birds coo, moan and wail as doves. The birds are almost 12 in. long, have full, plump bodies that are delicious food, and beautifully marked and shaded plumage. They feed principally on grain, seeds, small buds and fruit. Beyond question wild pigeons were the first birds domesticated and taught to home with man. They appeared in a state of such complete domestication, that they flew free, yet homed and bred in places provided by man at the time of the very first attempts at keeping records of history. At the time the earliest Bib. accounts were written, pigeons were so domesticated that in all known countries of the East they were reckoned when an estimate was made of a man's wealth.
"And on the eighth day he shall bring two turtledoves, or two young pigeons, to the priest, to the door of the tent of meeting" (Nu 6 10). In Cant 2 14: "O my dove, that art in the clefts of the rock,
In the covert of the steep place, Let me see thy countenance. Let me hear thy voice
For sweet is thy voice, and thy countenance is comely."
Here the text reads "dove," but the description of the location and the implication of the text prove the bird to have been a rock pigeon—a tender, loving thing, yet shy and timid, that peeps with eyes of bright concern over the rocks of its chosen home, down at the intruder. Isa 60 8: "Who are these that fly as a cloud, and as the doves to their windows?" Here is another place where the wrong bird is used. Doves were wild and migratory. They had no "windows." But the tile pots massed in one diamond-shaped cote appeared at a little distance, like latticed windows. This should read "pigeons" instead of "doves." For the same reason see Jer 48 28: "O ye inhabitants of Moab, leave the cities and dwell in the rock; and be like the dove that maketh her nest over the mouth of the abyss." Again the bird intended is the rock pigeon. Lk 2 24: "A sacrifice according to that
Pigeons.
Pi-Hahiroth PUate, Pontius THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2396
which is said in the law of the Lord, A pair of turtledoves, or two young pigeons." This describes the sacrifice offered in the temple by Mary following the birth of Jesus. Gene Stratton-Pohter
maria. Being an imperial province (i.e. under the direct control of the emperor), it was governed by a procurator (see Procurator; Province). The procurator was the personal servant of the emperor, directly responsible to him, and was primarily concerned with finance. But the powers of procurators varied according to the appointment of the emperor. Pilate was a procurator cum polestate,
PI-HAHIROTH, pi-ha-hi'roth (nilinn ''$ , piha-hiroth [Ex 14 2-9; Nu 33 7-8]): Nothing is known of the meaning of the name 1. Meaning Pi-H. Some attempts toward an of Name Egyp etymology for it have been made, but without much success. Since the meaning of the name is unknown and no description of the place or its use is given, it is impossible to determine anything concerning the character of Pi-H., whether a city, a sanctuary, a fortress, or some natural feature of the landscape.
i.e. he possessed civil, military, and criminal jurisdiction. The procurator of Judaea was in some way subordinate to the legate of Syria, but the exact character of the subordination is not known. As a rule a procurator must be of equestrian rank and a man of certain military experience. LTnder his
rule, the Jews were allowed as much self-government as was consistent with the maintenance of imperial authority. The Sanhedrin was allowed to exercise judicial functions, but if they desired to
Neither Pi-H. nor any other place mentioned with it can be exactly located. A recent discovery of manuscripts in Egypt furnishes a 2. Location mention of this place, but affords very little assistance in locating it, nothing comparable to the account in the Bible
inflict the penalty of death, the sentence had to be confirmed by the procurator. We have no certain knowledge of Pilate except in connection with his time of rule in Judaea. We know nothing of his birth, his origin, or 2. Pilate's his earher years. Tacitus, when speakProcuratoring of the cruel punishments inflicted ship by Nero upon the Christians, tells us that Christ, from whom the name "Christian" was derived, was put to death when Tiberius was emperor by the procurator Pontius Pilate {A7inals xv.44). Apart from this reference and what is told us in the NT, all our knowledge of him is derived from two Jewish writers, Jos the historian and Philo of Alexandria.
itself. If any one of the places mentioned in connection with the crossing of the Red Sea could be located approximately, all the others could, also, be similarly located by the description given in the account in Ex. The route beyond the Sea has been made out with almost positive certainty. A journey along the way is so convincing that hardly anything can shake the conviction which it produces. This identification of the route of the exodus beyond the Sea requires the place of the crossing to be within 3 days' journey of Marah, which puts it somewhere near the modern Suez. It may be anywhere within 10 mUes of that point. This approximately locates aU the other places mentioned in connection with the crossing: Migdol must be Ras 'Alakah, or some other high point in the mountains of the western deserts, where might be placed a watch tower. Pi-H.
Pilate was procurator of Judaea, in succession to Gratus, and he held office for 10 years. Jos tells {Ant, XVIII, iv, 2) that he ruled for 10 years; that he was removed from office by Vitellius, the legate of Syria, and traveled in haste to Rome to defend himself before Tiberius against certain complaints. Before he reached Rome the emperor had passed away. Jos adds that Vitellius came in the year 36 AD to Judaea to be present at Jerus at the time of the Passover. It has been assumed by most authorities (so HDB and EB) that Pilate had departed before this visit of Vitellius. They accordingly date the procuratorship of Pilate as lasting from 26 to 36 AD. As against this view, von Dobschiitz points out (RE s.v. "Pilate") that by this reckoning Pilate must have taken at least a year to get to Rome; for Tiberius died on March 16, 37 AD. Such delay is inconceivable in view of the circumstances; hence von Dobschtltz rightly dates the period of his procuratorship 27-37 AD. The procurator of Judaea had no easy task, nor did Pilate make the task easier by his actions. He was not careful to conciliate the religious prejudices of the Jews, and at times this attitude of his led to violent collisions between ruler and ruled.
is between this point and the Sea and Baal-zephon near the opposite eastern shore. This puts Pi-H. at some point along the old shore line of the Sea within 10 miles of the site of modern Suez.
M. G. Kyle PILATE, ACTS OF. See following art., 4, and Apocryphal Gospels.
PILATE, pi'lat, pi'Iat, PONTIUS, pon'shi-us (HovTios iteiXdros, Pontios Peildtos):
1. Name and Office 2. Pilate's Procuratorship 3. Pilate and .Jesus Christ 4. Pilate in Tradition and Legend 5. Character of Pilate Literature
The nomen Pontius indicates the stock from which Pilate was descended. It was one of the most famous of Samnite names; it was a 1. Name Pontius who inflicted on a Rom army and Office the disgrace of the Caudine Forks. The name is often met with in Rom history after the Samnites were conquered and absorbed. Lucius Pontius Aquila was a friend of Cicero and one of the assassins of Juhus Caesar. The cognomen Pilatus indicates the familia, or branch of the gens Pontius, to which Pilate belonged. It has been derived from pileus, the cap worn by freedmen; this is improbable, as Pilate was of equestrian rank. It has also been derived from pilum, a spear. Probably the name was one that had descended to Pilate from his ancestors, and had long lost its meaning. The praenomen is nowhere mentioned. Pilate was 5th procurator of Judaea. The province of Judaea had formerly been the kingdom of Archelaus, and was formed when he was deposed (6 AD). Speaking roughly,
On one occasion, when the soldiers under his command came to Jerus, he caused them to bring with them their ensigns, upon which were the usual images of the emEeror. The ensigns were brought in privily by night, ut their presence was soon discovered. Immediately multitudes of excited Jews hastened to Caesarea to petition him for the removal of the obnoxious ensigns. For five days he refused to hear them, but on the sixth he took his place on the judgment seat, and when the Jews were admitted he had them surrounded with soldiers and threatened them with instant death unless they ceased to trouble him with the matter. The Jews theretipon flung themselves on the ground and bared their necks, declaring that they preferred death to the violation of their laws. Pilate, imwilling to slay so manv. yielded the point and removed the ensigns (Jos, Ant, XVIII, iii, 1; BJ, II, ix, 2. 3). At another time he used the sacred treasure of the temple, called corban (korbdn), to pay for bringing water into Jerus by an aqueduct. A crowd came together and clamored against him; but he had caused soldiers dressed as civilians to mingle with the multitude, and at a given signal they feU upon the rioters and beat them so severely with staves that the riot was quelled (Jos, yln(, XVIII, iii, 2; BJ, 11. ix. 4).
it took in the southern half of Pal, including Sa-
2397 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Pi-Hahiroth Pilate, Pontius
Philo tells us {Legatio ad Caium, xxxviii) that on another occasion he dedicated some gilt sliields in the palace of Herod in honor of the emperor. On these shields there was no representation of any forbidden thing, but simply an inscription of the name of the donor and of him in whose honor they were set up. The Jews petitioned him to have them removed; when he refused, they appealed to Tiberius, who sent an order that they should be removed to Caesarea.
See Gospels. It should be noted that John evidently had special opportunities of obtaining exacter knowledge than that possessed by the others, as he was present at every stage of the trial; and that his narrative makes clear what is obscure in the accounts of the Synoptics.
The parts may be fitted together thus : Jesus is brought to Pilate (Mt 27 2; Mk 15 1; Lk 23 1; Jn 18 28). Pilate asks for a specific accusation (.In 18 29-32). Pilate enters the praetorium, questions Jesus about His alleged kingship, and receives the answer that He rules over the kingdom of truth, and over the hearts of men who acknowledge the truth. Pilate asks: " What is truth ?" (reported briefly in Mt 27 11: Mk 16 2; Lk 23 3, and with more detail Jn 18 33-38). Pilate brings Him forth (tliis is the only detail that needs to be supplied in order to make the harmony complete, and in itself it is probable enough), and many accusations are made against Him, to which, to Pilate's surprise. He makes no reply (Mt 27 12-14; Mk 15 3-5). Pilate affirms His innocence, but the charges are repeated (Lk 23 4 f). Pilate sends Him to Herod, who in mockery clothes Him in shining raiment, and sends Him back (Lk 23 6-12). Pilate declares that neither Herod or himself can find any fault in Him, and offers to scourge Him and let Him go (Lk 23 13-16; Jn 18 386). Pilate offers to release Jesus in accordance with an ancient custom
Of the incident, mentioned in Lk 13 1, of the Gahleans whose blood Pilate mingled with their sacrifices, nothing further is known.
Jos {Ant, XVIII, iv, 1, 2) gives an account of the incident which led to Pilate's downfall. A religious pretender arose in Samaria who promised the Samaritans that if they would assemble at Mt. Gerizim, he would show them the eacred vessels which Moses had hidden there. A great multitude assembled in readiness to ascend the mountain, but before they could accomplish their aim they were attacked by Pilate's cavalry, and many of them were slain. The Samaritans thereupon sent an embassy to Vitellius, the legate of Syria, to accuse Pilate of the murder of those who had been slain. Vitellius, who desired to stand well with the Jews, deposed Pilate from office, appointed Marcellus in his place, and ordered Pilate to go to Rome and answer the charges made against him before the emperor. Pilate set out for Rome, but, before he could reach
(Mt 27 15-18; Mk 15 6-10; Jn 18 39). Pilate's wife sends him a message warning him not to harm Jesus because she has suffered many things in a dream because of Him (Mt 27 19). The people, persuaded thereto by the chief priests and elders, choose Barabbas, and, in spite of the repeated protests of Pilate, demand that Jesus shall be crucified (Mt 27 20-23; Mk 15 11-14; Lk 23 18-23; Jn 18 40). Pilate washes his hands before the people, and they take the guUt of the deed upon themselves and their children (Mt 27 24 f). Pilate releases Barabbas and orders Jesus to be scourged
it, Tiberius had died; and it is probable that, in the confusion which followed, Pilate escaped the inquisition with which he was threatened. From this point onward history knows nothing more of Pilate.
(Mt 27 26; Mk 15 15; Lk 23 24 f). Jesus is scourged and mocked, buffeted and spit upon (Mt 27 27-31a,- Mk 15 16-20a,- Jn 19 1-3). Pilate again declares the innocence of Jesus, brings Him out, and says :
' Behold the man!" The chief priests and officers cry out: "Crucify him!" They accuse Him of making Himself the Son of God. Pilate, becoming more afraid at this saying, once more interviews the prisoner in the praetorium. He again tries to release Him, but is accused of treachery to the emperor. Overborne by this, Pilate sits on the judgment seat (see Gabbatha), and says:
The shortest and simplest account of Pilate's dealings with Jesus Christ is given in the Gospel of Mk.
There we are told that Jesus was de-
3. Pilate livered to Pilate; that Pilate asked and Jesus Him if He was the king of the Jews, Christ receiving an affirmative answer; that, to Pilate's surprise, Jesus answered nothing to the accusations of the chief priests; that Pilate tried to release Jesus according to an ancient custom; that the multitude, in spite of the protest of Pilate, demanded the release of Barabbas, and cried out that Jesus should be crucified; that Pilate scourged Je.sus and dehvered Him to be cruci-
' Again the cry goes up : " Away with him, crucify him!" Pilate says: " Shall I crucify your King?" The chief priests answered with a final renunciation of all that God had given them, saying: "Wehave no Idng but Caesar" (Jn 19 4-15). Pilate sentences Jesus and gives Him up to be crucified, and He is led away (Mt 27 316; Mk 15 20b; Lk 23 26a,- Jn 19 16). Pilate writes a title for the cross, and refuses to alter it
' Behold , your King
! '
(Jn 19 19-22). The Jews ask of Pilate that the legs of the three who were crucified might be broken (Jn 19 31). Joseph of Arimathaea begs the body of Jesus from Pilate (Mt 27 57.58<x; Mk 15 42 f; Lk 23 50-52; Jn 19 38a). Pilate is surprised that Jesus has died so soon, and questions the centurion (Mk 15 44). He gives up to Joseph the body of Jesus (Mt 27 586; Mk 15 45; Jn 19 386). The chief priests and the Pharisees obtain permission from Pilate to take precautions against any theft of the body of Jesus (Mt 27 62-66).
fied; and that Jesus, when He had been scourged and mocked, was led away to be crucified. Mk tells further how Joseph of Arimathaea begged of Pilate the body of Jesus. Pilate was surprised that Jesus died so quickly, and questioned the centurion about
it. Pilate's surprise and que.stion are pecuKar to Mk. Being satisfied on this point, Pilate granted the body to Joseph. Mt adds the dream and message of Pilate's wife (27 19) ; it also tells how Pilate washed his hands before the people, disclaiming
Pilate is mentioned three times in Acts: in a speech of Peter (3 13) , in a thanksgiving of the church
(4 27), and in a speech of Paul (13 28). He is also mentioned in 1 Tim (6 13) as the one before whom Christ Jesus witnessed the good confession.
responsibility for the death of Jesus, and how the people accepted the responsibihty (27 24 f); also how Pilate granted a guard for the tomb (27 62-66). Lk alone narrates the sending of Jesus to Herod
Eusebius, who lived in the 4th cent., tells us {HE, II) on the authority of certain Gr historians
that Pilate fell into such calamities
(23 6-12), and reports Pilate's three times repeated
4. Pilate that he committed suicide. Various in Tradition apocryphal writings have come down and Legend to us, written from the 3d to the 5th
asseveration that he found no fault in Jesus (23
4.14,22). Jn gives by far the fullest narrative, which forms a framework into which the more fragmentary accounts of the Synoptics can be fitted with perfect ease. Some critics, holding that Mk
cents., with others of a later date, in which legendary details are given about Pilate. In
all these a favorable view is taken of his character; hence the Coptic church came to believe that he became a Christian, and enrolled him among the number of its saints. His wife, to whom tradition gives the name of Claudia Procula, or Procla, is said to have been a Jewish proselyte at the time of the death of Jesus, and afterward to have become a Christian. Her name is honored along with
alone is trustworthy, dismiss the additional inci-
dents given in Mt and Lk as apologetic amplifi-
cations; and many dismiss the narrative of Jn as wholly unworthy of credence. Such theories are
based on preconceived opinions as to the date,
authorship and rehability of the various Gospels. The reader who holds all the Gospels to be, in the
main, authentic and trustworthy narratives will have no diffioulty in perceiving that all four narra-
Pilate's in the Coptic church, and in the calendar
of saints honored by the Gr church her name is found against the date October 27.
tives, when taken together, present a story con-
sistent in all its details and free from all difficulty.
PMng Skkness ^HE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA 2398
Literature.—The Gospels; Philo, Legaiio ad Caium; Jos, Ant and BJ; the Annals of Tacitus; Eusebius, HE; Walker, Apocryphal Gospels, Acts, and Revelations in the "Ante-Nicene Christian Library," and for the Gospel according to Peter, vol IX of the same series. Orr, NT Apocryphal Writings ("Temple Bible Series") , gives the text of the Gospel of Nicodemus and the Gospel of Peter.
We find not unkindly references to Pilate in the recently discovered fragment of the Gospel of Peter, which was composed in the 2d cent. In the so-called Gospel of Nicodemus. which belongs to the 4th or 5th cent., we find in the first part, called the Acts of Pilate, a long account of the trial of Jesus. It tells how the standards in the hall of judgment bowed down before Jesus, in spite of the efforts of the standard-bearers, and others who attempted it, to hold them erect. It tells also how many of those who had been healed by Jesus bore testimony to Him at the trial (see Apocryphal Gospels). There has also come down to us, in various forms (e.g. in the .Acts of Peter and Paul), a letter, supposed to be the report of Pilate to Tiberius, narrating the proceedings of the trial, and speaking of Jesus in the highest terms of praise. Eusebius, when he mentions this letter, avers that Tiberius, on perusing it, was incensed against the Jews who had sought the death of Jesus {HE, II, 2). Elsewhere {HE, IX, .5) he recounts that iinder Maximin forged Acts of Pilate, containing blasphemies against Christ, were circulated with consent of the emperor. None of these, if they ever existed, have come down to us. In the Paradosis Pilati we read that Caesar, being angry with Pilate for what he had done, brought him to Rome as a prisoner, and examined him. When the Cln-ist was named, all the gods in the senate-chamber fell down and were broken. Caesar ordered war to be made on the Jews, and Pilate, after praying to Jesus, was beheaded. The head was taken away by an angel, and Procla, seeing this, died of joy. Another narrative, of late date, recounts that Pilate, at his trial, wore the seamless robe of Jesus; for this reason Caesar, though filled with anger, could not so much as say a harsh word to Pilate; but when the robe was taken off, he condemned Pilate to death. On hearing this, Pilate committed suicide. The body was sunk in the Tiber, but such storms were raised by demons on account of this that it was taken up and Slink in the Rhone at Vienne. The same trouble recurred there, and the body was finally buried in the territory of Losania (Lausanne). Tradition connects Mt. Pilatus with his name, although it is probable that the derivation is from pileatus, i.e. the mountain with a cloud-cap.
There is a great mass of literature on the subject, but there is no Eng. monograph on Pontius Pilate. In German there is G. A. JNIiiUer, Pontius Pilatus der fUnfte Prokurator von Judsa (Stuttgart, 1888). See also the various articles on Pilate in books of reference on the NT, notablv RE (von Dobschtitz), HDB (G. T. Purves). DCG (A. Souter), and EB (W. J. Woodhouse). For the name of Pilate see arts, on "Pontius Pilatus et les Pontii" by Ollivier in Rev. Bib, , vol V. For the Apocryphal Gospels see art. on "Gospel of Nicodemus" in HDB, also
art. "Apocryphal Gospels." in the supplementary volume of HDB; Orr. NT Apocryphal Writings; Zahn, Geschichte des NT Kanons; Harnack, Altchristliche Litteraturgeschichte. For the trial of Jesus see Lives of Christ by Keim, Edersheim, Stalker, Andrews and others; Taylor Innes, Trial of Jesus Christ, a Legal Monograph, 1S99; and for the historical backgroimd, Schlirer. HJP.
J. M.-iClRTNEY WlLSO>f PILDASH, pil'dash (©"ibS, piZdos/j, "steely"): Nephew of Abram (Gen 22 22).
PILE, pll (iTinO, m'dhurdh, from dur, "heap up"): Isa 30 3.3, "The pile thereof is fire and much wood"; Ezk 24 9.10, "I also will make the pile
great. Heap on the wood, make the fire hot." Isa 30 33 may be paraphrased, 'the pyre thereof is of much wood, burning fiercely.' See Topheth.
PILEHA, pil'S-hii, pl'l5-ha. See Pilha.
PILGRIM, pil'grim, PILGRIMAGE, pil'grim-
Philo ( Lcgatio ad Caium, xxxviii) speaks of Pilate
Sj: "Pilgrim" in EV tor wapeTrld-qfws, parepidemos (He 11 13; 1 Pet 2 11). "Pilgrimage" for li^H, vmghur (Gen 47 9 [RVm "sojournings"]; Ps 119 54; and [AV] Ex 6 4 [RV "sojournings"]). Both the Heb (see Ger) and Gr words contain the idea of foreign residence, but it is the residence and not travel that is implied. Consequently "pilgrim" is a poor tr, and "sojourner," "sojourning" should have been used throughout. In the NT passages heaven is thought of as the contrasted permanent dwelling-place, while the OT usages seem to be without a contrast definitely in mind.
in terms of the severest condemnation. According to him, Pilate was a man of a very
6. The inflexible disposition, and very merciCharacter less as well as obstinate. Philo calls
of Pilate him a man of most ferocious passions, and speaks of his corruption, his acts
of insolence, his rapine, his habit of insulting people,
his cruelty, his continual murders of people untried and uncondemned, and his never-ending and most grievous inhumanity. This is very highly colored and probalily much exaggerated; certainly the instances given do not bear out this description of the man. Much of what he says of Pilate is in direct opposition to what we learn of him in the Gospels. There he appears to us as a man who, in
, pilha', "ploughman"; AV
PILHA, pil'ha (Snbs
Pileha): One of those who signed Nehemiah's covenant (Neh 10 24).
spite of many undoubted faults, tries hard to conduct the trial with fairness. Pilate had the ethics
PILL. See Peel.
of his class, and obviously tried to act up to the standard which lie had formed. There was in him, however, no deep moral basis of character, as is shown by the utter skepticism of his question, "What is truth?" When he found that the doing of
PILLAR, pil'ar (Hn^^ , magsebhah, T^'B^ , 'ammudh; o-tv\os, stulos) : In a good many cases RV substitutes "pillars" for AV "images" {ina(;(;ehhdlh, Ex 34 13; Dt 7 5; 1 K 14 23, etc). In Gen 19 26, where "pillar of salt" is given, the word is n'gibh; in 1 S 2 8 it is mUguk; while in most other single uses RVm gives variant renderings, as in Jgs 9 6 (musgdbh), RVm "garrison"; in 1 K 10 12 (wi.s'ad/i),RVm " 'a railing,' Heb 'a prop'"; in 2 K 18 16 {' om'noth) , RVm "doorposts." The magi^ebhoth were (1) memorial pillars, as in the "pillars" 9t Jacob at Bethel (Gen 28 18.22; cf 31 13; 35 14), in covenant with Laban (31 45 ff), at Rachel's grave (35 20); Absalom's pillar (2 S 18 18). Such
strict .justice threatened to endanger his position, he reluctantly and with a great deal of shame gave way to the demands of the Jews. He sent Jesus to the cross, but not before he had exhausted every expedient for saving Him, except the simple and straightforward one of dismissing the case. He had the haughtiness of the dominant race, and a profound contempt for the people over which he ruled. This contempt, as we have seen, continuahy brought him into trouble. He felt deeply humiliated at having to give way to those whom he utterly despised, and, in the manner of a small mind, revenged himself on them by calling Christ their king, and by refusing to alter the mocking inscription on the
pillars were legitimate (the theory of a fetishistic character is ungrounded); it is predicted in Isa 19 19 that such a pillar would be set up to Jeh at the border of Egypt. (2) Idolatrous pillars, in Canaan-
cross. It is certain that Pilate, in condemning Jesus, acted, and knew that he acted against his conscience. He knew what was right, but for self-
itish and other heathen worships. These were to be ruthlessly broken down (AV "images," see above; Ex 23 24; 34 13; Dt 7 5, etc; cf Lev 26 1). See Images. The other word, ^amviudh, is used of the pillar of cloud and fire (see below) ; of the pillars of the tabernacle and temple (see s.v.); of the two
ish and cowardly reasons refused to do it. He was faced by a great moral emergency, and he failed. We rest on the judgment of Our Lord, that he was
guilty, but not so guilty as the leaders of the chosen
pillars Jachin and Boaz (q.v.); poetically of the
people.
2399 THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BIBLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA Pilate, Pontius Pining Sickness
"pillars" of heaven, of earth (Job 9 6; 26 11; Ps 75 3; 99 7), etc. In the few instances of the word in the NT, the use is figurative. James, Cephas and John "were reputed to be pillars" of the church at Jerus (Gal 2 9J; the church is "the pillar and ground of the truth" (1 Tim 3 15); he that overcomes is made "a pillar" in the temple of God (Rev 3 12); a strong angel had feet "as pillars of fire" (10 1).
tris, is rare in Pal and the Lebanon, though it is found today N. of Aleppo. Post (HUB, III, 59293) considers that (1) should be tr"" as "pine," which he describes as a "fat wood tree"; it is perhaps as probably a correct tr for (2), but great uncertainty remains. Two species of pine are plentiful in the