Part IV ◈ Catholicism
Part IV
◈
Catholicism
The Council of
Trent on Justification
The Catholic church was not well prepared to meet the challenge posed by the rise of the evangelical factions within Germany and elsewhere during the 1520s. It was confronted with a new and only partly understood threat, which was perhaps too easily understood in terms of the revival of older and more familiar challenges –
such as the Hussite movement in Bohemia. Early anti-Lutheran polemic tended to fasten upon points of dispute which were not central to Luther’
s reforming programme –
such as Luther’
s views on the papacy, indulgences or the sacraments
1
–
while failing to deal with questions such as the concept of servum arbitrium
or the nature of justifying righteousness, which Luther considered to be central. Indeed, at one point Luther singled out
Erasmus alone as having identified the real theological issues involved in his protest.
2
Although there are some notable exceptions, such as Tommaso de Vio
Cajetan’
s De fide et operibus
(1532), relatively few works dealing with the doctrine of justification were published by Catholic writers in the period 1520–
45.
3
A survey of such works suggests that neither the doctrinal specifics of the Lutheran doctrine of justification nor its wider appeal were fully grasped by the early opponents of the Reformation, although the rise of polemical theology in the 1530s served to clarify points of importance.
The convening of the Council of Trent was a landmark event.
4
It represented both a response to what was increasingly becoming seen as a significant threat to the church from evangelical groups which now lay outside its domain, and to an internal need for reform of structures and morals, as well as a more effective and coherent presentation of Catholic
ideas, particularly on core themes such as the doctrine of justification, and the relation of Scripture and tradition.
5
Significantly, the Council of Trent’
s agenda was set in part by its Protestant opponents. Given the importance attached to the doctrine of justification by Protestant writers, such as
Melanchthon and Luther,
6
the Council found itself responding to these criticisms –
and in doing so, in effect presented its own teaching under the categories of their opponents. The doctrine of justification attained a high profile in the Tridentine proceedings, not necessarily because the doctrine itself was seen as of critical importance by Catholic theologians,
7
but because they were obliged to respond fully to their Protestant opponents –
and in doing so, unintentionally reflected, if not replicated, the evangelical estimation of its importance.
This part deals with the debates and discussions within Catholicism leading up to the Tridentine Decree of Justification (promulgated in January 1546), unquestionably the most important Catholic statement on this matter to date. It opens with a survey of developments within Catholicism in the early sixteenth century, noting the emergence of approaches to justification which were in some ways similar to those espoused within evangelicalism in the 1510s. This observation helps us to understand why there was some sympathy on the part of Catholic theologians towards Luther’
s emphasis on the importance of justification. This leads into a consideration of early Catholic responses to Luther’
s doctrine of justification, which often seem to focus on easily identified topics of debate, rather than the more subtle theological issues underlying Luther’
s concerns.
This is followed by an analysis of the issues discussed at the Colloquy of
Regensburg (1541). Following increasing concern on the part of Charles V about emerging religious divisions within Germany, the issues at stake between Catholics and evangelicals over justification were discussed in April and May 1541 by leading representatives of both constituencies at the Colloquy of Regensburg. This Colloquy served to clarify the points of divergence and allow a significant degree of convergence to be established on the part of those represented at this event.
However, despite the significant progress made at these discussions, their outcome did not resolve the issues to the
satisfaction of the wider constituencies from which the participants were drawn. It remained unclear whether justification was to be seen as one of several important doctrines, or if it was to be seen as the ‘
chief and first article’
of the Christian faith.
The failure of Regensburg increased the pressure to convene an ecumenical Council, with a view to strengthening the Catholic position by responding to Protestant criticisms on the one hand, and setting out a clear and coherent account of Catholic teaching on disputed questions on the other. To understand the significance of the Tridentine discussions of justification, it is necessary to understand the identity and agendas of the various Catholic schools of thought represented during the Tridentine debates on justification. After exploring these schools of thought, attention turns to a detailed consideration of both the Tridentine debates on justification, and the final Tridentine Decree on Justification itself. A concluding chapter considers the consolidation of this approach to justification in the post-Tridentine era. While some refer to this as the period of the ‘
Counter-Reformation’
, this term is unhelpful in many ways, as it overlooks the constructive aspect of the renewal and reform movements within Catholicism at this time.
8
We therefore turn initially to consider the approaches to justification that began to emerge within Catholicism in the first decades of the sixteenth century, before the issue became recognised as potentially controversial
.
1
A good example is
Henry VIII’
s critique of Luther’
s sacramental theology, Assertio Septem Sacramentorum
(1521). See Ryrie, The Gospel and Henry VIII
, 173.
4
The best study is now O’
Malley, Trent
. Older studies are still valuable for points of historical detail, particularly Jedin, Geschichte des Konzils von Trient
.
5
For a full discussion of this issue, see Mütel, Mit den Kirchenvätern gegen Martin
Luther?
6
The Council of Trent tended to engage Lutheran writers on debated topics, seeing these as representatives of the evangelical movement as a whole.
Calvin had yet to emerge as a leading representative of a distinct form of Protestantism. The significance of Melanchthon’
s forensic approach during the early 1530s was only picked up by a few Catholic theologians –
such as Johannes Dietenberger, Phimostomus Scripturariorum
(1530) and Johannes Mensing, Antapologie
(1535); see Pfnür, Einig in der Rechtfertigungslehre?
, 280 n. 66, 359–
60.
7
But see the comments of Schmidt, Brückenschlag zwischen den Konfessionen
, 162.
8
See the detailed analysis of the terminology to emerge in the post-Conciliar period in O’
Malley, Trent and All That
. Note especially O’
Malley’
s suggestion that this period should be styled ‘
Early Modern Catholicism’
(140).