The Architecture of Theology
The Architecture of Theology
Etienne Gilson (1884–1978) once likened the great systems of scholastic theology to “cathedrals of the mind.” It is a powerful image, one that suggests permanence, solidity, organization, and structure – qualities which were highly prized by the writers of the medieval period. It is clear from reading older works of theology, whether from the patristic period or the Middle Ages, that the term “theology” once embraced a wide variety of disciplines that are now regarded as separate or distinct. Something of this vision of theology can be grasped through reading Jean Leclercq's (1911–93) book The Love of Learning and the Desire for God (1981). Leclercq explores how medieval monastic culture fostered a love of learning in which theology was seen as holding together contemplation of the scriptures, the search for wisdom, liturgy and prayer, human work and labor, and pastoral concerns.
Modern distinctions between apologetics, spirituality, pastoral care, and systematic theology were not known to pre-Enlightenment thinkers, who saw these as distinct yet interconnected aspects of theology as a whole. The Egyptian monastic writer Evagrius Ponticus (c.345–99), for example, saw theology in terms of prayer: “If you are a theologian, you will pray truly. And if you pray truly, you are a theologian.”
The idea of theology possessing a distinctive and coherent structure remains important. Yet theology has now become a complex discipline, bringing together a number of related fields, sometimes in an uneasy alliance. In what follows, we shall note the main divisions of modern theology.
Biblical Studies
Many theologians see the ultimate source of Christian theology as the Bible, which bears witness to the historical grounding of Christianity in both the history of Israel and the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The rise of Renaissance biblical scholarship in the early 1500s demonstrated a series of translation errors in existing Latin versions of the Bible (see pp. 36–7). As a result, pressure grew for the revision of some existing Christian doctrines, which were grounded in biblical passages that were once held to support them but which now turned out to say something rather different. The sixteenth-century Reformation may plausibly be argued to represent an attempt to bring theology back into line with Scripture, after a period in which it had departed considerably from it.
Systematic theology is thus dependent upon biblical scholarship, although the extent of that dependence is controversial. The reader must therefore expect to find reference to modern scholarly debates over the historical and theological role of the Bible in the present volume. It is impossible to understand the development of modern approaches to Christology without coming to terms with at least some of the developments in biblical scholarship over the past two centuries. For example, the approach to theology developed by Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976) can be argued to bring together contemporary New Testament scholarship, systematic theology, and philosophical theology (specifically, existentialism). This illustrates a vitally important point: systematic theology does not operate in a watertight compartment, isolated from other intellectual developments. It responds to developments in other disciplines (especially New Testament scholarship and philosophy).
Systematic Theology
The term “systematic theology” has come to be understood as “the systematic organization of theology.” But what does “systematic” mean? Two main understandings of the term have emerged. First, the term is understood to mean “organized on the basis of educational or presentational concerns.” In other words, the prime concern is to present a clear and ordered overview of the main themes of the Christian faith, often following the pattern of the Apostles' Creed. In the second place, it can mean “organized on the basis of presuppositions about method.” In other words, philosophical ideas about how knowledge is gained determine the way in which material is arranged. This approach is of particular importance in the modern period, when a concern about theological method has become more pronounced.
In the classic period of theology, the subject matter of theology was generally organized along lines suggested by the Apostles' Creed or Nicene Creed, beginning with the doctrine of God and ending with eschatology. Classic models for the systematization of theology are provided by a number of writings. The first major theological textbook of western theology was the Four Books of the Sentences, compiled at the University of Paris during the twelfth century by Peter Lombard (c.1100–60), probably during the years 1155–8. In essence, the work is a collection of quotations (or “sentences”), drawn from patristic writers in general, and Augustine (354–430) in particular. These quotations are arranged topically. The first of the four books deals with the Trinity, the second with creation and sin, the third with incarnation and Christian life, and the fourth and final book with the sacraments and the last things. Commenting on these sentences became a standard practice for medieval theologians, such as Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventure, and Duns Scotus (1266–1308). Thomas Aquinas's Summa theologiae, dating from a century later, surveyed the totality of Christian theology in three parts, using principles similar to those adopted by Peter Lombard while placing greater emphasis on philosophical questions (particularly those raised by Aristotle) and the need to reconcile the different opinions of patristic writers.
Two different Protestant models emerged at the time of the Reformation. On the Lutheran side, Philip Melanchthon (1497–1560) produced his Commonplaces in 1521. This work provided a survey of the main aspects of Christian theology, arranged topically. John Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion is widely regarded as the most influential work of Protestant theology. The first edition of this work appeared in 1536, and its definitive final edition in 1559. The 1559 edition is divided into four books, the first of which deals with the doctrine of God, the second with Christ as mediator between God and humanity, the third with the appropriation of redemption, and the final book with the life of the church. Other, more recent, major works of systematic theology to follow similar lines include Karl Barth's massive Church Dogmatics (1936–69).
In the modern period, issues of method have become of greater importance, with the result that the issue of “prolegomena” (see p. 94) has become significant. An example of a modern work of systematic theology which is heavily influenced by such concerns is F. D. E. Schleiermacher's Christian Faith, the first edition of which appeared in 1821–2. The organization of material within this work is governed by the presupposition that theology concerns the analysis of human experience. Thus, Schleiermacher famously places the doctrine of the Trinity at the end of his systematic theology, whereas Aquinas placed it toward the beginning.
Philosophical Theology
Theology is an intellectual discipline in its own right, concerned with many of the questions that have intrigued humanity since the dawn of history. Is there a god? What is that god like? Why are we here? Questions such as this are asked outside the Christian community as well as within it. So how do these conversations relate to one another? How do Christian discussions of the nature of God relate to those within the western philosophical tradition? Is there common ground? Philosophical theology is partly concerned with what might be called “finding the common ground” between Christian faith and other areas of intellectual activity. Thomas Aquinas's “Five Ways” (that is, five arguments for the existence of God) are often cited as an example of philosophical theology, in which nonreligious arguments or considerations are seen to lead to religious conclusions.
Philosophical theology also serves another major role – that of the clarification of ideas. Many of the great debates in theology concern issues that are philosophically important and which can be illuminated by rigorous philosophical reflection. Examples of this include God's relationship to time, concepts such as divine immutability and omnipotence, and general issues concerning the foundations and reliability of knowledge. An excellent example, discussed later in this work, is how philosophical reflection on the idea of a “person” – particularly in the writings of the Jewish philosopher Martin Buber (1878–1965) – has been of major importance in clarifying and exploring what Christians mean when speaking of a “personal God.” Indeed, the general area of philosophical theology is often regarded as one of the most exciting fields of modern theology, with writers such as Alvin Plantinga (born 1932), Nicholas Wolterstorff (born 1932), and Richard Swinburne (born 1934) making landmark contributions to a number of areas of theology.
Some theologians have expressed reservations about the place of philosophical theology. Thus, in the second century Tertullian raised the question: “What has Athens to do with Jerusalem? Or the Academy with the church?” More recently, the same critical reaction may be seen in the writings of Karl Barth (see pp. 72–4), who argued that the use of philosophy in this way ultimately made God's self-revelation dependent upon a particular philosophy, and compromised the freedom of God. However, the consensus within Christian theology as a whole is that this process of dialogue and reflection is both helpful and productive, and is integral to the theological task.
Historical Theology
Theology has a history. This insight is too easily overlooked, especially by those of a more philosophical inclination. Christian theology can be regarded as an attempt to make sense of the foundational resources of faith in the light of what each day and age regards as first-rate methods. This means that local circumstances have a major impact upon theological formulations. Christian theology regards itself as universal because it is concerned with the application of God's saving action to every period in history. Yet it is also characterized by its particularity as an experience of God's saving work in particular cultures, and is shaped by the insights and limitations of persons who were themselves seeking to live the gospel within a particular context. The universality of Christianity is thus complemented, rather than contradicted, by its particular application. This point is made with particular clarity by the Swiss Protestant theologian Emil Brunner (1889–1966): “There is indeed an evangelium perennis but not a theologia perennis [...] The gospel remains the same, but our understanding of the gospel must ever be won anew.”
Historical theology is the branch of theology that aims to explore the historical situations within which ideas developed or were specifically formulated. It aims to lay bare the connection between context and theology. For example, it demonstrates that it was no accident that the doctrine of justification by faith first became of foundational significance in the late Renaissance. It shows how, for example, the concept of salvation found in Latin American liberation theology is closely linked with the socioeconomic situation of the region. It illustrates how secular cultural trends – such as liberalism and conservatism – find their corresponding expression in theology.
It may seem to be little more than stating a self-evident fact to say that Christianity often unconsciously absorbs ideas and values from its cultural backdrop. Yet that observation is enormously important. It points to the fact that there is a provisional or conditional element to Christian theology, which is not necessitated by or implied in its foundational resources. In other words, certain ideas which have often been regarded as Christian ideas may turn out to be ideas imported from a secular context. A classic example is the notion of the “impassibility of God” – that is, the idea that God cannot suffer (see pp. 181–6). This idea was well established in Greek philosophical circles. Early Christian theologians, anxious to gain respect and credibility in such circles, did not challenge this idea. As a result, it became deeply embedded in the Christian theological tradition.
The study of the history of Christianity provides a powerful corrective to static views of theology. It allows us to see that:
The study of historical theology is thus both positive and subversive, as it indicates how easily theologians are led astray by the “self-images of the age” (Alasdair MacIntyre). Nor is this something that is restricted to the past! Too often, modern trends in theology are little more than knee-jerk reactions to short-term cultural trends. The study of history makes us alert both to the mistakes of the past and to the alarming way in which they are repeated in the present. “History repeats itself. It has to. Nobody listens the first time round” (Woody Allen).
It is for such reasons that the present volume aims to provide its readers with the maximum amount of historical background to contemporary issues. All too often, theological issues are conducted as if the debate began yesterday. An understanding of how we got to be where we are is essential to an informed debate of such issues.
Furthermore, past discussions of issues are often important resources in the present. It is impossible to read writers such as Karl Barth or Karl Rahner without noticing how often they enter into dialogue with past writers or debates. Augustine of Hippo, Gregory of Nyssa (c.335–c.394), and Thomas Aquinas are treated as living voices in today's debates. They represent landmarks, which continue to define the terms of many perennial theological debates.
Practical, or Pastoral, Theology
There is a strongly pastoral and practical dimension to Christianity that is generally inadequately reflected in the academic discussion of theology. Indeed, many scholars have argued that Latin American liberation theology represents an overdue correction of the excessively academic bias of western theology, with a healthy adjustment in the direction of social applicability. Theology is here seen as offering models for transformative action, rather than purely theoretical reflection.
This academic bias is, however, a recent development. The linking of theological reflection and pastoral care is characteristic of many early Christian writers, and is especially evident in the Book of Pastoral Rules (590), by Gregory the Great (c.540–604). Puritanism is an excellent instance of a movement that placed theological integrity alongside pastoral applicability, believing that each was incomplete without the other. Richard Baxter (1615–91) and Jonathan Edwards (1703–58) both held that theology finds its true expression in pastoral care and the nurture of souls.
In more recent years, this concern to ensure that theology finds its expression in pastoral care has led to a resurgence of interest in pastoral theology. Schleiermacher added “practical theology” to the traditional university theological curriculum, supplementing biblical studies, systematic theology, and church history. Schleiermacher understood “practical theology” as a discipline that would develop “rules of art” for Christian life and ministry.
Pastoral (or practical) theology – the terminology remains fluid – gained new strength in the west in the period following the Second World War. The Swiss theologian Eduard Thurneysen (1888–1974), an early associate of Karl Barth, produced his classic work A Theology of Pastoral Care in 1946. This focused on the role of preaching as a means of mediating God's Word to humans to bring about healing and hope. However, leadership in this field quickly passed to the United States, with American thinkers such as Edward Farley (1929–2014) and Don S. Browning (1934–2010) playing a leading role in exploring how the Christian tradition informed and enriched the pastoral tasks of the church.
Rather than seeing theology as an academic subject that has no relevance to the practical techniques of counseling and therapy, pastoral theology emphasizes how a theological foundation provides both a framework and a resource for pastoral care. It “tries to answer the question of what we should do in the face of problems and challenges to faithful action” (Browning). Practical theology is thus about the interface of thought and action. Stephen Pattison and James Woodward offer this helpful description of the discipline:
Practical theology is a place where religious belief, tradition, and practice meets contemporary experiences, questions, and actions and conducts a dialogue that is mutually enriching, intellectually critical, and practically transforming.
At its heart, practical theology is thus critical reflection upon the actions of the church in the light of the gospel and the Christian tradition. Theology provides a way of evaluating situations, and offers resources to deal with them.
Spirituality, or Mystical Theology
The term “spirituality” has gained wide acceptance in the recent past as the preferred way of referring to aspects of the devotional practices of a religion, and especially the interior individual experiences of believers. Older terms which are still encountered in the scholarly literature to refer to this aspect of theology include “spiritual theology” and “mystical theology.” The use of the word “mystical” to refer to the spiritual (as opposed to the purely academic) dimension of theology can be traced back to the treatise On Mystical Theology, written in the early sixth century by Dionysius the Areopagite.
The modern terms “spirituality” and “mysticism” both trace their origins back to seventeenth-century France, and specifically to the rather elitist circles of salon society associated with Madame de Guyon (1648–1717). The French terms spiritualité and mysticisme were both used to refer to direct interior knowledge of the divine or supernatural, and were apparently treated as more or less synonymous at the time. Since then, both terms have been brought back into circulation, although changes in their associations have led to some degree of confusion over their precise meaning, with some writers suggesting that the two are just different ways of speaking about an authentic personal relationship with God, while others suggest that mysticism is to be seen as a special type of spirituality which places particular emphasis on a direct and unmediated personal experience of God. Many recent writers have avoided the use of the term “mysticism,” believing that it has become unhelpful and confusing. The term “spirituality” has thus come to be used in preference to many terms which are encountered in older writings, including “mystical theology,” “spiritual theology,” and “mysticism.”
Spirituality is often contrasted with a purely academic, objective, or detached approach to a religion, which is seen as merely identifying and listing the key beliefs and practices of a religion rather than dealing with the manner in which individual adherents of the religion experience and practice their faith. The term is resistant to precise definition, partly due to the variety of senses in which it is used and partly due to controversy within the community of scholars specializing in the field over the manner in which the term ought to be used. However, it is clear that spirituality is generally understood to mean the experiencing of God and the transformation of lives as outcomes of that experience. Spirituality thus refers to a lived experience of God, and the life of prayer and action that results from this; however, at the same time, it cannot be conceived apart from the theological beliefs which undergird that life.
While there is agreement that spirituality is an important aspect of Christian theology, and that growing attention is being paid to teaching and research in this field within Christian seminaries, the question of exactly how theology and spirituality interact has been the subject of intense discussion in recent decades. While this debate lies beyond this introduction, it may easily be studied from any good introduction to the field of Christian spirituality.
Apologetics
Apologetics, derived from the Greek term apologia (“defense” or “justification”), has always been an integral aspect of Christian theology. It is best understood as the engagement of contemporary cultural concerns about the rationality and morality of Christian belief. The discipline has a long history, tending to emerge as significant when Christianity encountered intellectual hostility. For example, Justin Martyr (c.100–c.165), one of the early church's most important apologists, wrote in the context of intense antagonism and suspicion toward Christianity in second-century Rome. Justin offered a defense of the intellectual integrity of Christianity against its pagan and Jewish critics, identifying and responding to their main criticisms. During the Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas crafted his Summa contra Gentiles (“Summary against the Gentiles”) as a rational defense of Christianity, aimed at Islamic and Jewish critics.
Apologetics remained important within western culture as the churches faced new challenges, particularly as a result of the rise of Enlightenment rationalism. Joseph Butler's (1692–1752) Analogy of Religion (1736) argued that Christianity could defend itself in the face of this new intellectual climate. The discipline became of particular importance in the twentieth century. One of its leading representatives was the lay theologian C. S. Lewis, who gained a reputation for being able to explain and justify the basic ideas of the Christian faith in an engaging and stimulating way to a lay audience. His first work to adopt this approach was The Problem of Pain (1940), which offered a way of looking at pain and suffering that Lewis believed minimized the difficulties they posed for faith. His most successful work was Mere Christianity (1952), which is often identified in popular surveys as the most influential religious book of the twentieth century.