Jargon-Busting: A Glossary of Theological Terms
Jargon-Busting: A Glossary of Theological Terms
Like every professional academic discipline, Christian theology has developed its own distinct vocabulary, which needs to be explained to those encountering it for the first time. The main body of this work introduces most of these terms. However, many readers value additional help in “jargon-busting.” This section provides a brief discussion of a series of technical terms that the reader is likely to encounter in the course of reading texts which relate to Christian theology, many of which occur in the present work.
adoptionism
The heretical view that Jesus was “adopted” as the Son of God at some point during his ministry (usually his baptism), as opposed to the orthodox teaching that Jesus was the Son of God by nature from the moment of his conception.
aggiornamento
The process of renewing the Catholic church, which was particularly associated with Pope John XXIII (1881–1963) and the Second Vatican Council (1962–5). The Italian word can be translated as a “bringing up to date” or “renewal,” and refers to the process of theological, spiritual, and institutional renewal and updating which resulted from the work of this council.
Alexandrian School
Antiochene School
allegory
An understanding of how biblical texts are to be interpreted which sees certain biblical images as possessing deep, spiritual meanings which can be uncovered by their interpreters.
Anabaptism
A term derived from the Greek word for “rebaptizer” and used to refer to the radical wing of the sixteenth-century Reformation, based on thinkers such as Balthasar Hubmaier (1480–1528) and Menno Simons (1496–1551).
analogia entis
The theory, especially associated with Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–74), that there exists a correspondence or analogy between the created order and God, as a result of the divine creatorship. The idea gives theoretical justification to the practice of drawing conclusions from the known objects and relationships of the natural order concerning God.
analogia fidei
The theory, especially associated with Karl Barth (1886–1968), which holds that any correspondence between the created order and God is only established on the basis of the self-revelation of God.
anthropomorphism
The tendency to ascribe human features (such as hands or arms) or other human characteristics to God.
Antiochene School
Alexandrian School
anti-Pelagian writings
Pelagianism
apocalyptic
A type of writing or religious outlook which focuses on the last things and the end of the world, often taking the form of visions with complex symbolism. The second half of the book of Daniel (Old Testament) and the book of Revelation (New Testament) are examples of this type of writing.
apologetics
The area of Christian theology which focuses on the defense of the Christian faith, particularly through the rational justification of Christian belief and doctrines.
apophatic
apophasis
apostolic era
ad
ad
appropriation
The aspect of the doctrine of the Trinity which affirms that, while all three persons are active in all the outward actions of the Trinity, it is appropriate to think of those actions as being the particular work of one of the persons. Thus, it is appropriate to think of creation as the work of the Father and redemption as the work of the Son, despite the fact that all three persons are present and active in both these works.
Arianism
A major early Christological heresy which treated Jesus Christ as supreme among God's creatures and denied his divine status. The Arian controversy was of major importance in the development of Christology during the fourth century.
atonement
reconciliatio
Barthian
neo-orthodoxy
dialectical theology
beatific vision
The full vision of God, which takes place after death through being freed from the limitations of human nature. Some writers, including Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–74), taught that certain favored individuals – such as Moses and Paul – were allowed this vision in the present life.
Beatitudes
The eight promises of blessing found in the opening section of the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5: 3–11). Examples include “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God” and “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called children of God.”
Calvinism
An ambiguous term, used with two quite distinct meanings. First, it refers to the religious ideas of religious bodies (such as the Reformed church) and individuals (such as Theodore Beza, 1519–1605) who were profoundly influenced by John Calvin (1509–64) or by documents written by him. Second, it refers to the religious ideas of John Calvin himself. Although the first sense is by far the more common, there is a growing recognition that the term is misleading.
Cappadocian fathers
The three major Greek-speaking writers of the patristic period: Gregory of Nazianzus (329–89), Basil of Caesarea (c.330–79), and Gregory of Nyssa (c.335–c.394), all of whom wrote in the late fourth century. “Cappadocia” designates the area in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey) in which these writers were based.
Cartesianism
The philosophical outlook especially associated with René Descartes (1596–1650), particularly in relation to its emphasis on the separation of the knower from the known and its insistence that the existence of the individual thinking self is the proper starting point for philosophical reflection.
catechism
A popular manual of Christian doctrine, usually in the form of question and answer, intended for religious instruction.
catharsis
The process of cleansing or purification by which the individual is freed from obstacles to spiritual growth and development.
catholic
An adjective which is used both to refer to the universality of the church in space and time and also to a particular church body (sometimes also known as the Catholic church) which lays emphasis upon this point.
Chalcedonian definition
The formal declaration at the Council of Chalcedon (451) that Jesus Christ was to be regarded as having two natures, one human and one divine.
charisma, charismatic
Charismatic movement
charismatic
Christology
The section of Christian theology dealing with the identity of Jesus Christ, particularly the question of the relationship between his human and divine natures.
circumincessio
perichoresis
conciliarism
An understanding of ecclesiastical or theological authority which places an emphasis on the role of ecumenical councils in determining matters of faith and conduct.
confession
Although the term refers primarily to the admission to sin, it acquired a rather different technical sense in the sixteenth century – that of a document which embodies the principles of faith of a Protestant church, such as the Lutheran Augsburg Confession (1530), which embodies the ideas of early Lutheranism, and the Reformed First Helvetic Confession (1536).
consubstantial
homoousios
Arianism
consubstantiation
The theory of the real presence especially associated with Martin Luther (1483–1546), which holds that the substance of the eucharistic bread and wine are given together with the substance of the body and blood of Christ.
contemplation
A form of prayer, distinguished from meditation, in which the individual avoids or minimizes the use of words and images in order to experience the presence of God directly.
creed
A formal definition or summary of the Christian faith, held in common by all Christians. The most important are those generally known as the “Apostles' Creed” and the “Nicene Creed.”
Deism
A term used to refer to the views of a group of English writers, especially during the seventeenth century, whose rationalism anticipated many of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The term is often used to refer to a view of God which recognizes the divine creatorship yet which rejects the notion of a continuing divine involvement with the world.
dialectical theology
The school of thought especially associated with the Swiss theologian Karl Barth (1886–1968) and his associates in the 1920s, which emphasized the tensions, paradoxes, and contradictions in the relationship between God and humanity and the absolute gulf fixed between the human and the divine.
Docetism
An early Christological heresy which treated Jesus Christ as a purely divine being who only had the “appearance” of being human.
Donatism
A movement, centering upon Roman North Africa in the fourth century, which developed a rigid view of the church and sacraments.
doxology
A form of praise, usually especially associated with formal Christian worship. A “doxological” approach to theology stresses the importance of praise and worship in theological reflection.
Ebionitism
An early Christological heresy which treated Jesus Christ as a purely human figure, although recognizing that he was endowed with particular charismatic gifts which distinguished him from other humans.
ecclesiology
The section of Christian theology dealing with the theory of the church.
Enlightenment
The movement in western culture, dating from about 1750, which placed an emphasis upon human reason and autonomy. It became characteristic of much of western European and North American thought during the eighteenth century.
eschatology
The section of Christian theology dealing with the “last things,” especially the ideas of resurrection, hell, the Last Judgment, and eternal life.
Eucharist
The term used in the present volume to refer to the sacrament variously known as “the mass,” “the Lord's Supper,” and “holy communion.”
evangelical
A term initially used to refer to reforming movements, especially in Germany and Switzerland, in the 1510s and 1520s but now used of a movement, especially in English-language theology, which places especial emphasis upon the supreme authority of Scripture and the atoning death of Christ.
exegesis
The science of textual interpretation, usually referring specifically to the Bible. The term “biblical exegesis” basically means “the process of interpreting the Bible.” The specific techniques employed in the exegesis of Scripture are usually referred to as “hermeneutics.”
exemplarism
A particular approach to the atonement which stresses the moral or religious example set to believers by Jesus Christ.
fathers
patristic
fideism
An understanding of Christian theology which refuses to accept the need for (or sometimes the possibility of) criticism or evaluation by sources outside the Christian faith itself.
filioque
Five Ways
The five “arguments for the existence of God” associated with Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–74).
fourth gospel
synoptic gospels
fundamentalism
A form of Protestant Christianity, originating in America, which lays especial emphasis upon the authority of the Bible and is highly suspicious of biblical criticism.
hermeneutics
The principles underlying the interpretation, or exegesis, of a text, particularly of Scripture, and particularly in relation to its present-day application.
hesychasm
hesychia
historical Jesus
A term used, especially during the nineteenth century, to refer to the historical person of Jesus of Nazareth, as opposed to the Christian interpretation of that person, especially as presented in the New Testament and the creeds.
historico-critical method
An approach to historical texts, including the Bible, which argues that their proper meaning must be determined on the basis of the specific historical conditions under which they were written.
history of religions school
The approach to religious history, and Christian origins in particular, which treats Old and New Testament developments as responses to encounters with other religions, such as Gnosticism.
homoousios
homoiousios
consubstantial
humanism
In the strict sense of the word, an intellectual movement linked with the European Renaissance. At the heart of the movement lay not (as the modern sense of the word might suggest) a set of secular or secularizing ideas but a new interest in the cultural achievements of antiquity. These were seen as a major resource for the renewal of European culture and Christianity during the period of the Renaissance. In the recent past, “humanism” has come to mean a worldview hostile to religion, which was not its original meaning.
hypostatic union
The doctrine of the union of divine and human natures in Jesus Christ, without confusion of their respective substances.
icons
Sacred pictures, particularly of Jesus, which play a significant role in Orthodox spirituality as “windows for the divine.”
ideology
A group of beliefs and values, usually secular, which govern the actions and outlooks of a society or group of people.
incarnation
A term used to refer to the assumption of human nature by God, in the person of Jesus Christ. The term “incarnationalism” is often used to refer to theological approaches which lay especial emphasis upon God becoming human.
justification by faith, doctrine of
The section of Christian theology dealing with how the individual sinner is able to enter into fellowship with God. The doctrine was to prove to be of major significance at the time of the Reformation.
kenoticism
A form of Christology which lays emphasis upon Christ's “laying aside” of certain divine attributes in the incarnation, or his “emptying himself” of at least some divine attributes, especially omniscience or omnipotence.
kerygma
A term used, especially by Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976) and his followers, to refer to the essential message or proclamation of the New Testament concerning the significance of Jesus Christ.
liberal Protestantism
A movement, especially associated with nineteenth-century Germany, which stressed the continuity between religion and culture, flourishing between the time of F. D. E. Schleiermacher (1768–1834) and Paul Tillich (1886–1965).
liberation theology
Although this term designates any theological movement that lays emphasis upon the liberating impact of the gospel, the term has come to refer to a movement which developed in Latin America in the late 1960s and which stressed the role of political action and oriented itself toward the goal of political liberation from poverty and oppression.
liturgy
The written text and set forms of public services, especially of the Eucharist. In the Greek Orthodox church, the word “liturgy” often means “the [liturgy of the] Eucharist.”
logos
Lutheranism
The religious ideas associated with Martin Luther (1483–1546), particularly as expressed in the Lesser Catechism (1529) and the Augsburg Confession (1530).
Manicheism
A strongly fatalist position associated with the Manichees, to which Augustine of Hippo (354–430) attached himself during his early period. A distinction is drawn between two different divinities, one of which is regarded as evil and the other good. Evil is thus seen as the direct result of the influence of the evil god.
modalism
A trinitarian heresy which treats the three persons of the Trinity as different “modes” of the Godhead. A typical modalist approach is to regard God as active as Father in creation, as Son in redemption, and as Spirit in sanctification.
monophysitism
monos
physis
neo-orthodoxy
A term used to designate the general position of Karl Barth (1886–1968), especially the manner in which he drew upon the theological concerns of the period of Reformed orthodoxy.
ontological argument
A term used to refer to the type of argument for the existence of God especially associated with the scholastic theologian Anselm of Canterbury (c.1033–1109). It claims that, as God is greater than any other being that is conceivable, God must be greater than any being who exists only as an idea, so God must necessarily exist in reality.
orthodoxy
A term used in a number of senses, of which the following are the most important: orthodoxy in the sense of “right belief,” as opposed to heresy; Orthodoxy in the sense of the forms of Christianity that are dominant in Russia and Greece; and orthodoxy in the sense of a movement within Protestantism, especially in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, which laid emphasis upon the need for doctrinal definition.
parousia
parousia
patripassianism
A theological heresy, which arose during the third century, associated with writers such as Noetus, Praxeas, and Sabellius, focusing on the belief that the Father suffered as the Son. In other words, the suffering of Christ on the cross is to be regarded as the suffering of the Father. According to these writers, the only distinction within the Godhead was a succession of modes or operations, so that Father, Son, and Spirit were just different modes of being, or expressions, of the same basic divine entity.
patristic
An adjective used to refer to the first centuries in the history of the church, following the writing of the New Testament (the “patristic period”), or thinkers writing during this period (the “patristic writers”). For many writers, the period thus designated seems to be c.100–451 (in other words, the period between the completion of the last of the New Testament writings and the landmark Council of Chalcedon).
Pelagianism
An understanding of how humans are able to merit their salvation which is diametrically opposed to that of Augustine of Hippo (354–430), placing considerable emphasis upon the role of human works and playing down the idea of divine grace.
perichoresis
circumincessio
Pietism
An approach to Christianity, especially associated with German writers in the seventeenth century, which places an emphasis upon the personal appropriation of faith and the need for holiness in Christian living. The movement is perhaps best known within the English-language world in the form of Methodism.
postliberalism
A theological movement, especially associated with Duke University and Yale Divinity School in the 1980s, which criticized the liberal reliance upon human experience and reclaimed the notion of community tradition as a controlling influence in theology.
postmodernism
A cultural development, starting in the late twentieth century, which resulted from the general collapse of confidence in the universal rational principles of the Enlightenment. It is characterized by a rejection of absolutes and of objective and rational attempts to define reality.
praxis
A Greek term, literally meaning “action,” adopted by Karl Marx (1818–83) to emphasize the importance of action in relation to thinking. This emphasis on “praxis” has had a considerable impact within Latin American liberation theology.
Protestantism
Quadriga
The Latin term used to refer to the “fourfold” interpretation of Scripture according to its literal, allegorical, tropological moral, and analogical senses.
radical Reformation
A term used with increasing frequency to refer to the Anabaptist movement – in other words, the wing of the Reformation that went beyond what Martin Luther (1483–1546) and Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) envisaged, particularly in relation to the doctrine of the church.
Reformed
The tradition of theology which draws inspiration from the writings of John Calvin (1509–64) and his successors. This term is now generally used in preference to “Calvinist,” although this is still encountered regularly in the literature.
Sabellianism
An early trinitarian heresy which treated the three persons of the Trinity as different historical manifestations of the one God. It is generally regarded as a form of modalism.
sacrament
A church service or rite which was held to have been instituted by Jesus Christ himself. Although Catholic theology and church practice recognize seven such sacraments (baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, marriage, ordination, penance, and unction), Protestant theologians generally argue that only two (baptism and Eucharist) are to be found in the New Testament itself.
schism
A deliberate break with the unity of the church, condemned vigorously by influential writers of the early church such as Cyprian of Carthage (died 258) and Augustine of Hippo (354–430).
scholasticism
A particular approach to Christian theology, associated especially with the Middle Ages, which lays emphasis upon the rational justification and systematic presentation of Christian theology.
Scripture principle
sola scriptura
Socinianism
A form of Christian heterodoxy especially associated with the Italian writer Fausto Paolo Sozzini (1539–1604), better known by his Latinized name “Socinus.” Although Socinus was noted for his specific criticisms of the doctrine of the Trinity and the incarnation, the term “Socinian” has come to refer particularly to the idea that Christ's death on the cross did not have any supernatural or transcendent implications. On this view, Christ died as an outstanding moral example, to encourage humanity to avoid sin, not to make satisfaction for human sin.
soteriology
soteria
synoptic gospels
synopsis
synoptic problem
The scholarly question of how the three synoptic gospels relate to each other.
theodicy
A term coined by the German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) to refer to a theoretical justification of the goodness of God in the face of the presence of evil in the world.
theopaschitism
A disputed teaching, regarded by some as a heresy, which arose during the sixth century, associated with writers such as John Maxentius and the slogan “one of the Trinity was crucified.” The formula can be interpreted in a perfectly orthodox sense and was defended as such by Leontius of Byzantium (c.500–c.543). However, it was regarded as potentially misleading and confusing by more cautious writers, including Pope Hormisdas (450–523), and the formula gradually fell into disuse.
theotokos
Literally, “the bearer of God.” A Greek term used to refer to Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ, with the intention of reinforcing the central insight of the doctrine of the incarnation – that is, that Jesus Christ is none other than God. The term was extensively used by writers of the eastern church, especially around the time of the Nestorian controversy, to articulate both the divinity of Christ and the reality of the incarnation.
Thomism
A term used to refer to the ideas of the leading medieval theologian and philosopher Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–74). The related term “neo-Thomism” is often used to refer to variants of classical Thomism, particularly those developed in the twentieth century by Joseph Maréchal (1878–1944), Jacques Maritain (1882–1973), and Étienne Gilson (1884–1978).
transubstantiation
The doctrine according to which the bread and the wine are transformed into the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist, while retaining their outward appearance.
Trinity
two natures, doctrine of
Chalcedonian definition
hypostatic union
typology
A way of interpreting the Bible which sees certain Old Testament figures and events as anticipating aspects of the gospel. Thus, Noah's ark is seen as a “type” (Greek: typos, “figure”) of the church.
Vulgate
The Latin translation of the Bible, largely deriving from Jerome (c.347–420), upon which medieval theology was largely based.
Zwinglianism
The thought of Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) in general, especially his views on the “real presence” (which for Zwingli was more of a “real absence”).