Key Theologians
Key Theologians
During the course of this work, we will refer regularly to a number of significant theologians from the patristic period. The following patristic writers are of especial importance and deserve to be singled out for special mention.
Justin Martyr (c.100–c.165)
Justin is perhaps the greatest of the apologists – the Christian writers of the second century who were concerned to defend Christianity in the face of intense criticism from pagan sources. Though born in Palestine, Justin eventually settled in Rome, where he gained a reputation as a Christian teacher. In his “First Apology,” Justin argued that traces of Christian truth were to be found in the great pagan writers. His doctrine of the logos spermatikos (“seed-bearing word”) allowed him to affirm that God had prepared the way for his final revelation in Christ through hints of its truth in classical philosophy. Justin provides us with an important early example of a theologian who attempts to relate the gospel to the outlook of Greek philosophy, a trend especially associated with the eastern church.
Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130–c.202)
Irenaeus is believed to have been born in Smyrna (in modern-day Turkey), although he subsequently settled in Rome. He became bishop of Lyons around 178, a position which he held until his death two decades later. Irenaeus is noted especially for his vigorous defense of Christian orthodoxy in the face of a challenge from Gnosticism (see p. 196). His most significant work, “Against Heresies,” represents a major defense of the Christian understanding of salvation, and especially of the role of tradition in remaining faithful to the apostolic witness in the face of non-Christian interpretations.
Tertullian (c.160–c.220)
Tertullian was originally a pagan from the North African city of Carthage, and converted to Christianity in his thirties. He is often regarded as the father of Latin theology on account of the major impact he had upon the western church. He defended the unity of the Old and New Testaments against Marcion of Sinope (c.85–160), who had argued that they related to different gods. In doing so, he laid the foundations for a doctrine of the Trinity. Tertullian was strongly opposed to making Christian theology or apologetics dependent upon nonbiblical sources. He was among the most forceful early exponents of the principle of the sufficiency of Scripture, denouncing those who appealed to secular philosophies (such as those of the Athenian Academy) for a true knowledge of God.
Origen (c.185–c.254)
Origen, who was based in the great city of Alexandria, was one of the most significant defenders of Christianity in the third century. His theology provided an important foundation for the development of eastern Christian thought. Origen's major contributions to the development of Christian theology can be seen in two general areas. In the field of biblical interpretation, Origen developed the notion of allegorical interpretation, arguing that the surface meaning of Scripture was to be distinguished from its deeper spiritual meaning. In the field of Christology, Origen established a tradition of distinguishing between the full divinity of the Father and a lesser divinity of the Son. Some scholars see Arianism as a natural consequence of this approach. Origen also adopted with some enthusiasm the idea of “apocatastasis,” according to which every creature – including both humanity and Satan – will be saved.
Cyprian of Carthage (Died 258)
Little is known of Cyprian's early life. He was born, probably around the year 200, to pagan Roman parents in North Africa. He went on to become a prominent lawyer and rhetorician of considerable skill. He converted to Christianity around 246 and was elected bishop of the major North African city of Carthage in 248. He was martyred in that city during the Decian persecution of 258. His major essay On the Unity of the Catholic Church stresses the importance of visible, concrete unity among Christians and the role of the bishops in guaranteeing that unity. It is widely regarded as a landmark in the development of Christian understandings of the nature of the church.
Athanasius (c.293–373)
Athanasius's significance relates primarily to Christological issues, which became of major importance during the fourth century. Possibly while still in his twenties, Athanasius wrote the treatise On the Incarnation of the Word. This was a powerful defense of the idea of the incarnation – namely, the belief that God assumed human nature in the person of Jesus Christ. This issue proved to be of central importance in the Arian controversy (see pp. 217–19), to which Athanasius made a major contribution. Athanasius pointed out that if, as Arius (c.260–c.336) argued, Christ was not fully God, a series of devastating implications followed. First, it was impossible for God to redeem humanity, as no creature could redeem another creature. And, second, it followed that the Christian church was guilty of idolatry, as Christians regularly worshiped and prayed to Christ. As “idolatry” can be defined as “worship of a human construction or creation,” it followed that this worship was idolatrous. Such arguments eventually carried the day, and led to the rejection of Arianism.
The Cappadocian Fathers
This term is widely used in theological literature to refer to three major theologians (two brothers and their close friend) of the Greek-speaking church, based in the region of Cappadocia, now in modern-day Turkey. The three “Cappadocian fathers” are:
Each of these writers is of considerable importance in their own right. However, they collectively made an immense contribution to the development of the doctrine of the Trinity during the fourth century. By emphasizing the idea of “substance” (hypostasis), they were able to formulate a stable and relatively coherent concept of the Godhead, consisting of one substance and three persons.
Augustine of Hippo (354–430)
Aurelius Augustinus, usually known as Augustine of Hippo, is probably the greatest and most influential mind of the Christian church throughout its long history. Attracted to the Christian faith by the preaching of Bishop Ambrose of Milan (c.337–97), Augustine underwent a dramatic conversion experience in a garden in Milan.
Augustine left Italy to return to North Africa, and was made bishop of Hippo (in modern-day Algeria) in 395. The remaining 35 years of his life witnessed numerous controversies of major importance to the future of the Christian church in the west, and Augustine's contribution to the resolution of each of these was decisive. His careful exposition of the New Testament, particularly the letters of Paul, gained him a reputation, which continues today, as the “second founder of the Christian faith” (Jerome). During the theological renaissance of the early Middle Ages, Augustine's substantial body of writings would form the basis of a major program of renewal and development, consolidating his influence over the western church.
A major part of Augustine's contribution lies in the development of theology as an academic discipline. The early church cannot really be said to have developed any “systematic theology.” Its primary concern was to defend Christianity against its critics (as in the apologetic works of Justin Martyr) and to clarify central aspects of its thinking against heresy (as in the anti-Gnostic writings of Irenaeus). Nevertheless, major doctrinal development took place during the first four centuries, especially in relation to the doctrine of the person of Christ and the doctrine of the Trinity.
Augustine's contribution was to achieve a synthesis of Christian thought, supremely in his major treatise The City of God. Like Charles Dickens's famous novel, Augustine's City of God is a tale of two cities – the city of the world and the city of God (see p. 429). However, in addition, it may be argued that Augustine made key contributions to three major areas of Christian theology: the doctrine of the church and sacraments, arising from the Donatist controversy (see pp. 358–60); the doctrine of grace, arising from the Pelagian controversy (see pp. 330–4); and the doctrine of the Trinity (see pp. 312–13). Interestingly, Augustine never really explored the area of Christology, which would unquestionably have benefited from his considerable wisdom and acumen.