2. Roman Catholic piety
Roman Catholic piety France in our period was overwhelmingly Roman Catholic in religious sentiment. Indeed it is very challenging for a modern Christian, living in a secular country, to imagine the extent to which the whole fabric of 17th century French life was saturated in its religion. Even the casual glance of the eye revealed the presence everywhere of the Catholic Church and its piety. Places of worship abounded in cities large and small. Paris, of course, was the vibrantly religious heart of the nation, but even in a little community like Gray, in Burgundy, whose inhabitants numbered 4,000, there were 14 churches and 22 chapels. Nor was Gray an unusually religious place. Almost every village in France, no matter how tiny, had a Catholic priest. The outward tokens of faith were ubiquitous—crucifixes and statues of the saints wherever one looked, and at night, lamps burning beneath omnipresent shrines to the Virgin Mary. Every intersection of four roads in the countryside was marked with a cross.
Ordinary daily life was ordered by the Church's calendar. Days of work and holidays ("holy days") were religious in nature, and all significant dates were marked by public religious processions. Some people even complained that there were too many holidays—it interfered with their work! The parish church was the centre of community life, like a large family gathering. The local priest would have been the head of the community, knowing everything about everyone; the practice of confession to one's priest was obviously an important channel of this knowledge. He advised his parishioners about life issues in general, whether religious or worldly. On the other hand, parish life was not necessarily dominated by the priest. Many churches had an active parish council made up of laymen, who met to make important decisions about many local matters; in some parishes they had the power of choosing the priest's assistant, the curate.
The practice of Catholic piety was widespread. The vast majority of French Catholics were present at mass every Sunday, although they did not necessarily "take communion". As the 17th century wore on, however, a more frequent participation in holy communion became the norm; one of the century's most successful spiritual guides, Francis de Sales, taught that Catholics serious about their faith would take communion two or three
times each month. Sermons, too, were popular and prized among Catholics.
It would be a Protestant prejudice to think that only Protestants valued preaching. An almost unbelievable fascination for sermons gripped the Catholic heart of France in our period, and lasted far into the 18th century.
One English Protestant visitor, a Mrs Cradock, spoke of Catholic churches packed with congregations who delighted in hour-long sermons. It is on record that in 1755, at Aubais in southern France, the population rioted when the preacher for Lent gave a mere three sermons a week!
Some of the most eloquent preachers in Christian history were French Catholics of this period: Bossuet, Fénelon, Claude Massillon (1663–1742),
Louis Bourdaloue (1632–1704), Esprit Flechier (1632–1710), Jules Mascaron (1634–1703)—these were men who delivered spell-binding expositions of basic Christian truths (the existence of God, creation, providence, the incarnation, the resurrection, final judgment) and basic
Christian duties (faith, charity, heavenly-mindedness, reverence for God, submission to His providence, respect for the family) that would have been admired in any branch of Christianity.
Edifying literature was also widely read. The most popular work among Catholics was Thomas a Kempis' Imitation of Christ, regularly reprinted.
Perhaps the next most popular was Francis de Sales' Introduction to the Devout Life. We shall encounter other well-read spiritual books and treatises as we consider various individuals and their contributions to Catholic life and faith. The Bible itself was commonly read in French translations—it would once again be a Protestant prejudice to think that Protestants alone loved the Bible. French Catholics had a number of translations to choose from. There was the version by the 16th Century humanist reformer Lefevre d'Étaples, others by Michel de Marolles, Amelotte, and Godeau, and the Jansenist translation by Le Maistre de Sacy. In many pious Catholic households, the father would read the Bible to his family at the close of day, sometimes making comments on the text, followed by family prayers. Pious families also ensured that their children learned a Catholic catechism by heart.
Another increasingly popular practice among French Catholics was "going on retreat". Retreats were held in special "retreat centres", where for seven to ten days people would practise silence (retreats were not to be excuses for worldly chatter and gossip!), read spiritual literature, pray, and listen to talks by a "spiritual director" (an accredited spokesperson of the
Church). The retreat would be crowned by holy communion. Retreats became so much in vogue for the pious that soon every city had one or more retreat centres; many towns and even villages had them too. A Catholic would return to ordinary life from a retreat feeling refreshed and invigorated in his or her faith.
Another way in which Catholic piety soaked the fabric of French life was the complete ascendancy of the Church in the spheres of education and relief of poverty. In a secular culture, we think of the state as universal provider of these benefits; in 17th Century France, it was the Catholic
Church. In many dioceses, the local bishop made sure that every parish had a school for the young. Secondary schools were not as widespread, but by the 18th century France had some 900 of these, staffed by Catholic clergy as tutors. The universities, too, were run by the Church. Public libraries were popular, and these too were frequently religious in origin, established by the local bishop or a religious order such as the Jesuits. In our day, the Church is likely to be criticised for being anti-intellectual; in Catholic
France in our period, it was accused of being too intellectual! Some people complained that the Church was obsessed with educating people, whereas what society really needed was more uneducated peasants to work in the fields.
The relief of poverty, too, was the province of the Church, not the state.
France had no state welfare system. But it did have a vast Church welfare system. The various Catholic religious orders expended time, personnel, and money on a staggering scale to build and maintain orphanages, hospitals, and other centres of care. They also provided assistance and work for the unemployed, land for housing, insurance, food during times of famine, and a whole host of other social services now offered by the state.
The idea of Christian care for the deprived entered so deeply into the Catholic consciousness that it was considered a normal part of life for young Catholic ladies from richer families to devote themselves to helping the poor.