4 Hist. eccl . 3.32.7.
1 Of course, there are exceptions to this trend in the Greco-Roman world, as some religions did value correct beliefs more than others. For a helpful survey of how religions fit on a spectrum of belief vs. practice, see N. Smart, The World’s Religions: Old traditions and modern transformations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 12–21.
2 Jan Assmann, ‘Monotheism and Polytheism’ in Sarah Johnston (ed.), Ancient Religions (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2007), 17–31, at 28.
3 David Brakke, The Gnostics: Myth, ritual, and diversity in early Christianity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 5.
4 Hist. eccl. 3.32.7.
5 B. D. Ehrman, Lost Christianities: The battles for scripture and the faiths we never knew (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).
6 K. L. King, ‘Social and Theological Effects of Heresiological Discourse’ in Eduard Iricinschi and Holger M. Zellentin (eds), Heresy and Identity in Late Antiquity (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2008), 28–49.
7 Christoph Markschies, Gnosis: An introduction (trans. John Bowden; London: T&T Clark, 2003), 81–2.
8 J. D. G. Dunn, Unity and Diversity in the New Testament: An inquiry into the character of early Christianity (3rd edn; London: SCM Press, 2006), 253–87.
9 Richard Bauckham, ‘The Origin of the Ebionites’ in Peter J. Tomson and Doris Lambers-Petry (eds), The Image of Judaeo-Christians in Ancient Jewish and Christian Literature (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003), 162–81.
10 Tertullian, Praescr. 33.
11 Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 3.27.6.
12 Haer. 1.26.2.
13 Haer. 1.26.2.
14 Haer. 7.22.
15 Dial. 47, emphasis mine.
16 Ehrman, Lost Christianities, 101; James Carleton Paget, Jews, Christians and Jewish Christians in Antiquity (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010), 357–9.
17 Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 3.27.2.
18 Hippolytus, Haer. 7.22.
19 Sakari Häkkinen, ‘Ebionites’ in Antti Marjanen and Petri Luomanen (eds), A Companion to Second-Century Christian ‘Heretics’ (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 246–78, at 268.
20 For more on early Christology, see James L. Papandrea, The Earliest Christologies: Five images of Christ in the postapostolic age (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2016).
21 Epiphanius, Pan. 30.3.7; cf. Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 3.27.4. The gospel used by the Ebionites seems to have been confused with the Gospel of Hebrews by some patristic writers, despite the fact that the two gospels were probably distinct from one another. See discussion in P. Vielhauer and G. Strecker, ‘Jewish-Christian Gospels’, in W. Schneemelcher (ed.), New Testament Apocrypha (Louisville, KY: Westminster Press John Knox, 1991), Vol. 1, 134–78.
22 Irenaeus, Haer. 1.26.2; Epiphanius, Pan. 30.3.7; 30.13.2.
23 Helv. 17.
24 Haer. 4.33.4.
25 A. F. J. Klijn and G. J. Reinink, Patristic Evidence for Jewish-Christian Sects (Leiden: Brill, 1973).
26 J. E. Taylor, ‘The Phenomenon of Early Jewish-Christianity: Reality or scholarly invention?’, VC 44 (1990), 313–34; Matt Jackson-McCabe, ‘What’s in a Name? The problem of “Jewish Christianity”’ in Matt Jackson-McCabe (ed.), Jewish Christianity Reconsidered: Rethinking ancient groups and texts (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2007), 7–38.
27 Dunn, Unity and Diversity, 258; S. C. Mimouni, ‘Pour Une Définition Nouvelle Du Judéo-Christianisme Ancien’, NTS 38 (1992), 161–86.
28 Carleton Paget, Jewish Christians, 32.
29 R. A. Pritz, Nazarene Jewish Christianity: From the end of the New Testament period to its disappearance in the fourth century (Leiden: Brill, 1988).
30 Petri Luomanen, ‘Nazarenes’ in Antti Marjanen and Petri Luomanen (eds), A Companion to Second-Century Christian ‘Heretics’ (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 279–314.
31 Pritz, Nazarene Jewish Christianity; W. Kinzig, ‘The Nazoraeans’ in O. Skarsaune and Reidar Hvalvik (eds), Jewish Believers in Jesus (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2007), 463–87; Bauckham, ‘Origin of the Ebionites’, 174.
32 Jerry L. Sumney, ‘Paul and the Christ-Believing Jews Whom He Opposes’ in Matt JacksonMcCabe (ed.), Jewish Christianity Reconsidered: Rethinking ancient groups and texts (Minneapolis,MN: Fortress Press, 2007), 57–80.
33 H. Räisänen, ‘Marcion’ in Antti Marjanen and Petri Luomanen (eds), A Companion to Second-Century Christian ‘Heretics’ (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 100–24.
34 Judith Lieu, Marcion and the Making of a Heretic: God and Scripture in the second century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015).
35 Irenaeus, Haer. 3.12.12; 3.25.2–3.
36 J. Barton, The Spirit and the Letter: Studies in the biblical canon (London: SPCK, 1997), 43–5.
37 Tertullian, Marc. 2; cf. Räisänen, ‘Marcion’, 108–9.
38 E. C. Blackman, Marcion and His Influence (London: SPCK, 1948), 116.
39 Tertullian, Marc. 1.19.4.
40 Haer. 3.12.12.
41 Adolf von Harnack, Marcion: The gospel of the alien god (Durham, NC: Labyrinth Press, 1924); Hans von Campenhausen, The Formation of the Christian Bible (London: Adam & Charles Black, 1972).
42 J. Knox, Marcion and the New Testament: An essay in the early history of the canon (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1942).
43 Barton, Spirit and the Letter, 35–62.
44 Irenaeus, Haer. 1.27.2.
45 Räisänen, ‘Marcion’, 106–7.
46 Sebastian Moll, The Arch-Heretic Marcion (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010), 72–5.
47 1 Apol. 26.
48 Marc. 5.19.
49 Räisänen, ‘Marcion’, 101.
50 Catechesis 18.26.
51 Dieter T. Roth, The Text of Marcion’s Gospel (Leiden: Brill, 2015).
52 Haer. 1.21.5.
53 M. A. Williams, Rethinking ‘Gnosticism’: An argument for dismantling a dubious category (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996); K. L. King, What Is Gnosticism? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003).
54 Brakke, The Gnostics, 61–89.
55 E.g., Irenaeus, Haer. 1.6.3–4; Epiphanius, Pan. 26.4.1–7. Papandrea argues that true docetists were ascetic and that ‘hybrid’ docetists (who argued Jesus was corporeal though not fully human) tended towards hedonism (Earliest Christologies, 51).
56 Birger A. Pearson, Ancient Gnosticism: Traditions and literature (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2007), 12.
57 Gos. Phil. 110a. English translation from W. Schneemelcher (ed.), New Testament Apocrypha (trans. R. McL. Wilson; 2 vols; Louisville, Westminster Press, KY John Knox, 1991).
58 Lieu, Marcion and the Making of a Heretic, 381.
59 Of course, there were exceptions to this general pattern. For example, Theodotus belongs in the broad ‘gnostic’ camp (more on him below), but he held to more of an adoptionistic view where Jesus was a mere man whom the Holy Spirit empowered (Papandrea, Earliest Christologies, 36–7). However, it should be noted that Hippolytus, perhaps mistakenly, seems to attribute a separationist Christology to Theodotus (Haer. 7.35). Such an array of evidence displays again the complexity of assessing early Christological views.
60 Haer. 1.11.1.
61 Pearson, Ancient Gnosticism, 15–18.
62 Bart D. Ehrman, The New Testament: A historical introduction to the earliest Christian writings (5th edn; New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 210.
63 Haer. 1.29.
64 Haer. 3.16.8.
65 Brakke, The Gnostics, 99–105.
66 Irenaeus, Haer. 3.3.4.
67 C. E. Hill, ‘Cerinthus, Gnostic or Chiliast? A new solution to an old problem’, JECS 8 (2000), 135–72.
68 Hippolytus, Haer. 10.17; Irenaeus, Haer. 1.26.1.
69 Haer. 1.24.3–7.
70 Birger A. Pearson, ‘Basilides the Gnostic’ in Antti Marjanen and Petri Luomanen (eds), A Companion to Second-Century Christian ‘Heretics’ (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 1–31.
71 Clement of Alexandria, Strom. 7.17.
72 Haer. 1.24.3.
73 Haer. 1.24.4.
74 Treat. Seth 55–6.
75 Brakke, The Gnostics, 99–105.
76 Haer. 1.11.1.
77 Pearson, Ancient Gnosticism, 45.
78 Ismo Dunderberg, ‘The School of Valentinus’ in Antti Marjanen and Petri Luomanen (eds), A Companion to Second-Century Christian ‘Heretics’ (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 64–99, at 72.
79 Clement of Alexandria, Strom. 7.17.
80 Haer. 3.11.9.
81 Clement of Alexandria, Strom. 3.59.3.
82 2 Apol. 2; see discussion in Lampe, Paul to Valentinus, 239–40.
83 Dunderberg, ‘School of Valentinus’, 78–9.
84 Strom. 4.71.
85 Pearson, Ancient Gnosticism, 161–2.
86 Michael Kaler, ‘Was Heracleon a Valentinian? A new look at old sources’, HTR 99 (2006), 275–89.
87 Elaine Pagels, ‘Conflicting Versions of Valentinian Eschatology: Irenaeus’ treatise vs. the excerpts from Theodotus’, HTR 67 (1974), 35–53.
88 Exc. 78.2. English translations of Theodotus are from Robert Pierce Casey, The Excerpta Ex Theodoto of Clement of Alexandria (London: Christophers, 1934).
89 E.g., Irenaeus, Haer. 2.32.4; Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 5.3.4.
90 Hans von Campenhausen, Ecclesiastical Authority and Spiritual Power in the Church of the First Three Centuries (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1997), 178–212.
91 E.g., Muratorian Canon, 84–5.
92 Epist. 41.4.
93 Antti Marjanen, ‘Montanism: Egalitarian ecstatic “new prophecy”’ in Antti Marjanen and Petri Luomanen (eds), A Companion to Second-Century Christian ‘Heretics’ (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 185–212.
94 Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 2.25.6; 5.3.4; 5.19.1–3; Clement of Alexandria, Strom. 4.13.
95 Epiphanius, Pan. 48.4, 10, 11.
96 Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 5.14.
97 Marjanen, ‘Montanism’, 187.
98 Hist. eccl. 5.18.5.
99 Hist. eccl. 6.20.3; cf. 5.16.3.
100 Hist. eccl. 5.18.5.
101 Haer. 8.12.
102 Ronald E. Heine, ‘Montanus, Montanism’, ABD 4 (1992), 898–902.
103 Hist. eccl. 5.16.7.
104 Hist. eccl. 5.16.9.
105 Hist. eccl. 5.16.7.
106 Epiphanius, Pan. 48.7.3; see Christine Trevett, Montanism: Gender, authority, and the New Prophecy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 86–9.
107 Pan. 48.14.1–2; 49.3.
108 Pan. 48.2.4. English translations of Epiphanius are from F. Williams, The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis (Leiden: Brill, 1987).
109 Marjanen, ‘Montanism’, 205.
110 Hist. eccl. 5.18.2–3.
111 Tertullian, Marc. 1.29.
112 Rex D. Butler, ‘“Orthodoxy”, “Heresy”, and Complexity: Montanism as a case study’ in Paul Hartog (ed.), Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity (Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2015), 114–40.
113 Haer. 8.12.
114 Hist. eccl. 5.16.10.
115 Trevett, Montanism, 2.