1 Suetonius, Claudius 25.4.
1 Suetonius, Claudius 25.4.
2 Tacitus, Annals 15.44.
3 1 Clem. 1.1; 7.1; Rev. 6.9–10; 7.14; 12.11; 17.6; 20.4.
4 Ep. 10.96.
5 S. Benko, ‘Pagan Criticism of Christianity during the First Two Centuries A.D.’, ANRW II.23.2 (1980), 1055–1118, at 1075.
6 Ep. 10.96.7.
7 R. L. Wilken, Christians as the Romans Saw Them (2nd edn; New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 16–17.
8 Livy, Hist. 39.
9 Ep. 10.96.8.
10 Annals 15.44.
11 Nero 16.2.
12 Wilken, Christians as the Romans Saw Them, 50. For a broad overview of superstitio in the ancient world, see Dale B. Martin, Inventing Superstition: From Hippocrates to the Christians (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004).
13 W. H. C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1981), 106.
14 Wilken, Christians as the Romans Saw Them, 58.
15 Nat. d. 1.4.
16 L. F. Jensson, ‘“Superstitio” and the Persecution of the Christians’, VC 33 (1979), 131–59; L. Alexander, ‘Paul and the Hellenistic Schools: The evidence of Galen’ in Troels Engberg-Pedersen (ed.), Paul in His Hellenistic Context (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1995), 60–83.
17 For studies on how the exclusivity of early Christianity created problems with the Roman state, see J. B. Rives, ‘Christian Expansion and Christian Ideology’ in W. V. Harris (ed.), The Spread of Christianity in the First Four Centuries: Essays in explanation (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 15–41; G. E. M. De St Croix, ‘Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted?’, P&P 26 (1963), 6–38; Paul Middleton, Radical Martyrdom and Cosmic Conflict in Early Christianity (London: T&T Clark, 2006), 40–70; E. Mühlenberg, ‘The Divinity of Jesus Christ in Early Christian Faith’ in E. Livingstone (ed.), Studia Patristica, 17 (Oxford: Pergamon, 1982), 136–45.
18 Tacitus, Annals 15.44.
19 Oct. 12.
20 Ep. 10.96.5.
21 Ep. 10.96.10.
22 Ep. 10.96.5.
23 Éric Rebillard, Christians and Their Many Identities in Late Antiquity, North Africa, 200–450 c.e. (Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 2012), 5.
24 Haer. 5.1–5.
25 Rives, ‘Christian Expansion and Christian Ideology’, 22.
26 Cited by Eusebius, Praep. ev. 1.2.
27 P. N. Harrison, Polycarp’s Two Epistles to the Philippians (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1936), 79–106.
28 Eph. 12.2; Phld. 11.1; Smyrn. 10.1.
29 Phil. 9.1–2; 13.2.
30 Thomas A. Robinson, Ignatius of Antioch and the Parting of the Ways: Early Jewish-Christian relations (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2009), 191–2.
31 Eph. 1.2; 3.1; Magn. 1.2.
32 Rom. 6.3.
33 Robinson, Parting of the Ways, 153–4.
34 Rom. 7.2.
35 Rom. 4.2.
36 G. W. Bowersock, Martyrdom and Rome (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
37 Tertullian, Scap. 5.
38 G. E. M. De St Croix, ‘Voluntary Martyrdom in the Early Church’ in Michael Whitby and Joseph Streeter (eds), Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 153–200.
39 Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 5.20.4–7.
40 Mart. Pol. 9.2–3.
41 Candida R. Moss, Ancient Christian Martyrdom: Diverse practices, theologies, and traditions (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012), 57–76.
42 Sara Parvis, ‘The Martyrdom of Polycarp’ in Paul Foster (ed.), The Writings of the Apostolic Fathers (London: T&T Clark, 2007), 126–46; Gary A. Bisbee, Pre-Decian Acts of Martyrs and Commentarii (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1988), 119–32.
43 Mart. Pol. 3.2; 6.1; 12.2.
44 Mart. Pol. 8.2; 9.3; 12.1.
45 1 Apol. 1–5.
46 1 Apol. 6–20.
47 1 Apol. 21–68.
48 2 Apol. 2.
49 2 Apol. 2.
50 2 Apol. 3.
51 Hist. eccl. 4.16.8.
52 Moss, Ancient Christian Martyrdom, 90.
53 Bisbee, Acts of Martyrs, 95–118; Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church, 253.
54 Hist. eccl. 5.1.1–5.3.4.
55 Hist. eccl. 5.1.7–8.
56 Hist. eccl. 5.1.50.
57 Hist. eccl. 5.1.14.
58 E.g., Minucius Felix, Oct. 8; Justin Martyr, 1 Apol. 26; Theophilus, Autol. 3.4–5.
59 Andrew B. McGowan, ‘Eating People: Accusations of cannibalism against Christians in the second century’, JECS 2 (1994), 413–42.
60 Dennis E. Smith, From Symposium to Eucharist: The banquet in the early Christian world (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2003), 42–3.
61 Haer. 3.18.5.
62 Moss, Ancient Christian Martyrdom, 125–6.
63 T. D. Barnes, ‘Pre-Decian Acta Martyrum’, JTS 19 (1968), 509–31.
64 Scap. 3. Tertullian tells of earlier incidents in the second century where governors arrested Christians but did not put them to death (Scap. 4.3).
65 English translation from Bryan M. Litfin, Early Christian Martyr Stories: An evangelical introduction with new translations (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2014), 90.
66 Ep. 10.96.3.
67 Apol. 2.
68 Apol. 40.
69 Ep. 10.96.5.
70 Hist. eccl. 5.1.11.
71 W. H. C. Frend, ‘The Gnostic Sects and the Roman Empire’, JEH 5 (1954), 25–37; De St Croix, ‘Why Were Early Christians Persecuted?’ 28–9.
72 Frend, ‘Gnostic Sects’, 30–1.
73 Moss, Ancient Christian Martyrdom, 158–61.
74 Peregr. 11. English translations of Lucian, unless otherwise noted, taken from A. M. Harmon, Lucian, Vol. 5 (Loeb Classical Library; London: William Heinemann, 1962).
75 Peregr. 12.
76 Peregr. 13.
77 Wilken, Christians as the Romans Saw Them, 73.
78 Diff. Puls. 3.3. English translation from R. Walzer, Galen on Jews and Christians (London: Oxford University Press, 1949), 38.
79 Alexander, ‘Paul and the Hellenistic Schools’, 60–83.
80 Diff. Puls. 2.4.
81 De usu partium 11.4.
82 Wilken, Christians as the Romans Saw Them, 85.
83 Wilken, Christians as the Romans Saw Them, 18–19.
84 Oct. 9.5–7.
85 1 Apol. 26.7.
86 Strom. 3.2.10.
87 Pan. 26.4–17.
88 Cels. 3.44, 56.
89 Cels. 7.62.
90 Cels. 8.17.
91 Cels. 8.49.
92 Cels. 3.17; 4.10.
93 Cels. 8.75.
94 Cels. 8.2.
95 Cels. 4.2.
96 Cels. 5.14.
97 Cels. 5.14.
98 Cels. 1.41; 2.55.
99 Cels. 1.6.
100 Cels. 1.6.
101 Cels. 1.28.
102 O. Skarsaune, ‘Justin and the Apologists’ in D. Jeffrey Bingham (ed.), The Routledge Companion to Early Christian Thought (London: Routledge, 2010), 121–36, at 122.
103 For more on early Christian apologetics, see Mark Edwards, Martin Goodman and Simon Price (eds), Apologetics in the Roman Empire: Pagans, Jews, and Christians (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); and Jakob Engberg, Anders-Christian Jacobson and Jörg Ulrich (eds), In Defence of Christianity: Early Christian apologetics (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2014).
104 Hist. eccl. 4.3.1–3.
105 Hist. eccl. 4.3.1.
106 Hist eccl. 4.3.2–3; English translation here is Robert M. Grant, ‘Quadratus, the First Christian Apologist’ in Robert H. Fischer (ed.), A Tribute to Arthur Vööbus: Studies in early Christian literature and its environment, primarily in the Syrian east (Chicago, IL: Lutheran School of Theology, 1977), 177–83.
107 Robert M. Grant, Greek Apologists of the Second Century (London: SCM Press, 1988), 36.
108 Jerome, Vir. ill. 20.
109 Apol. 12 [Syriac].
110 Apol. 15 [Syriac].
111 Apol. 2 [Syriac].
112 H. G. Meecham, The Epistle to Diognetus (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1949), 92–3.
113 Diogn. 1.
114 Grant, Greek Apologists, 178.
115 Diogn. 2.2–5.
116 Diogn. 4–5.
117 Diogn. 8.
118 Diogn.7.1.
119 Diogn. 7.2.
120 Diogn. 7.2–3.
121 Diogn. 11.4.
122 Diogn. 5.1.
123 Diogn. 5.10.
124 Diogn. 5.17.
125 Skarsaune, ‘Justin and the Apologists’, 122–3.
126 1 Apol. 30–53.
127 2 Apol. 10.
128 Eric Osborn, Justin Martyr (Tübingen: Mohr (Siebeck), 1973), 28–43.
129 1 Apol. 5; 2 Apol. 10; cf. John 1.1.
130 2 Apol. 10.
131 Skarsaune, ‘Justin and the Apologists’, 129.
132 Tessa Rajak, ‘Talking at Trypho: Christian Apologetics as anti-Judaism in Justin’s Dialogue with Trypho the Jew’ in Mark Edwards, Martin Goodman and Simon Price (eds), Apologetics in the Roman Empire: Pagans, Jews, and Christians (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 59–80.
133 Or. 29.
134 Or. 27.
135 Or. 27.
136 Or. 31.
137 Or. 40.
138 J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines (San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins, 1978), 98.
139 Or. 5.
140 Leg. 1.
141 Autol. 1.11.
142 Autol. 2.10.
143 Autol. 3.20, 29.
144 Autol. 2.9.
145 Eric F. Osborn, Tertullian: First theologian of the West (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 65–87.
146 David Wright, ‘Tertullian’ in Philip F. Esler (ed.), The Early Christian World (London: Routledge, 2000), Vol. 2, 1027–47, at 1036.
147 E. Ferguson, ‘Tertullian’ in Paul Foster (ed.), Early Christian Thinkers: The lives and legacies of twelve key figures (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2010), 85–99, at 87.
148 Apol. 2.3.
149 Apol. 1.6.
150 Apol. 10.2.
151 Apol. 12.1.
152 Apol. 24.1.
153 Apol. 17.1–2.
154 Apol. 24.5–6.
155 Apol. 19.4.
156 Apol. 20.1.
157 Apol. 20.1.
158 Apol. 21.17.
159 Apol. 40.2.
160 Apol. 50.13.
161 Moss, Ancient Christian Martyrdom, 8–10.