DWE

We will first examine the court and its uses. It is called the middle of the house, or " midst," Luke 5 : 19, and ia

DWE

designed to admit light and air to the apartments around it. It is covered with a pavement more or less costly, which receives and sheds rain, and is often supplied with fountains or wells of water. 2 Sam. 17 : 18. In Damascus every house has a court of this kind, and often several, and the wealthier citizens spare no expense in making them places of delightful resort in the hot season. A veranda or colonnade such as is often seen in modern houses surrounds the court and supports a gallery or piazza above. In this court large companies assemble on festive and other occasions, Esth. 1:5; and it is then furnished with carpets, mats, and settees or sofas, and an awning or roof of some suitable material is stretched over the whole area. It is alluded to in the beautiful figure of the Psalmist. Ps. 104 : 2. Around the court, over the doors and windows of the house, each apartment has a door opening into the court or gallery, and the communication with each is only on the outside, so that to go from room to room it is necessary to come out into the court or gallery. These galleries are guaid-ed by a balustrade or latticework in front, to prevent accidents.

"The stairs are frequently placed in the corner of the couit, and sometimes at the entrance In large houses there are often two or more sets of steps from

the court, but there is seldom Upper Room or Guest-Chamber. more than one from the gallery to the roof. They are usually of simple structure, and of stone or wood," The kind of stairs mentioned in 1 Kgs, 6 : 8 was more complicated.

On the side of the court which faces the entrance is the reception-room of the master of the house. It is generally fitted up handsomely, has a raised platform and a divan on three sides, which is a bed by night and a seat by day. The guests on entering take off their sandals before stepping upon the raised portion.

The rooms assigned to the women are up stairs if the house has only one court, but if there are two they are around the inner one. These apartments, known as " the harem," are never entered by any man save the master. The rooms 242

of the ground floor often include a whole side of the court, and are entered by spacious doors from the piazza. The rooms on the farther side of the court, both above and below, are assigned to the females of the family, and upon them is bestowed the greatest expense. Hence, as some suppose, these rooms are sometimes called "palaces," 1 Kgs. 16 : 18 ; 2 Kgs. 15 : 25; Isa, 32 : 14. The "house of the women," Esth, 2: 3, was what is now so well known as the " harem," a part of the royal residence, and like that referred to in 1 Kgs, 7 : 8-12. It is supposed that in the houses of Judtea, as in those of the East at the present day, the ground floor was appropriated principally to domestic uses, such as storing provisions, oil, baggage, lodgings for servants, etc., etc.

If we ascend to the second story by the stairs before mentioned, we find the

(From Schaff's "Popular Commentary.")

chambers are large and airy, and often finished and furnished, with much expense and elegance, with mats, curtains, and divans, Mark 14 : 15, This room or story is higher and larger than those below, projecting over the lower part of the building, so that the window of the apartment, if there is one, considerably overhangs the street. Secluded, S])acious, and commodious as such a room must have been, Paul would be likely to preach his farewell sermon there. And in a large company it is common to have two circles or ranks, the outer circle being next to the wall and elevated on cushions, so as to be on a level with the lower part of the window-casement. In this situation

DWE

we may suppose Eutychus fell asleep, and was thence precipitated to the street. Acts 20 : 9.

A structure called an allii/ch is sometimes built over the porch or gateway. It usually consists only of one or two rooms, and rises one story above the main house. It is used to entertain strangers, also for wardrobes and magazines, or for jdaces of retirement, repose, and meditation. Matt. 6 : 6. There is an entrance to it from the street without going into the house, but there is also a communication with the gallery of the house when it is needed. It is observed that its terrace afforded a much more retired place for devotional exercises than the roof of the main house, which was liable to be occupied at all times and for various purposes by the whole family. The ''little chamber" for Elisha, 2 Kgs. 4 : 10, the "summer chamber" of Eglon, from which Ehud escaped by a private stairway, Jud. 3 : 20-23, the "chamber over the gate," 2 Sam. 18 : 33, the "upper chamber," 2 Kgs. 23 : 12, the " inner chamber," 1 Kgs. 20 : 30 (see Cmamber), may designate this part of the house.

But the roof is one of the most important parts of an Eastern house. We

An Eastern Housetop.

ascend to it by a jflight of steps, as already mentioned, which are entirely unconnected with the interior of the

house. Matt. 24 : 17. It is made in most cases flat, but sometimes with domes over some of the rooms, and is surrounded by a parapet, battlement, or balustrade, lest one should heedlessly or unwittingly fall from it. This was a matter of divine command. I)eut. 22: 8. A wall on the roof designates the limits of contiguous houses, but it is so low that a whole range of buildings, and even a street, may be passed over without coming down. The roof is covered with a kind of cement, which hardens by exposure to the weather, and forms a clean, smooth, and very agreeable floor. If the cement be not put on at the proper season, it will crack under the sun, and hence must be rolled; and rollers are found on many roofs. On ill-packed roofs grass is often seen, and hence the frequent allusion to "• grass upon the housetops." 2 Kgs. 19 : 26 ; Ps. 129 : 6. Sometimes tiles or broad bricks were used. The roof was a place of repose, Neh. 8:16, and of resort. 2 Sam. 11: 2 ; Isa. 15 : 3 ; 22:1; Jer. 48 : 38 ; Luke 12 : 3. It was also used for drying linen and flax, corn and figs. Josh. 2 : 6. Sometimes a tent was spread to protect the sleeper from the cold and damp of the night. 2 Sam. 16 : 22. It was a place of conference,

1 Sam. 9 : 25, and worship, also of public wailing, Isa. 15:3; Jer. 19:13; 48:38;

2 Kgs. 23 : 12; Zeph. 1:5; Acts 10 : 9.

The windows of Eastern houses, as already intimated, open into the court. Hence the appearance of Eastern cities, in passing through the streets, is very i;;loomy and inhospitable. Sometimes latticed windows or balconies are open upon the streets, but they were used only on some ])ublic day. 2 Kgs. 9:30. See Window.

The doors of Eastern houses are not hung with hinges. The jamb, or inner side-piece of the door, projects, in the form of a circular shaft, at the top and bottom. The upper projection is received into a socket in the lintel or head-piece, and

DYE

the lower projection falls into a socket in the threshold or sill.

Chinniri/s were unknown, though the word occurs in Hos. 13 : 3. AVhat we call chinincj's were not invented till the fourteenth century. The smoke of ancient houses escaped through apertures in the wall.

The hearth, Jer. 36 : 22, was a fire-place or portable furnace, such as is still used in Eastern countries.

The materials for building were abundant. Stone and brick and the best species of timber, for the strong and heavy as well as the light and ornamental work, were easily obtained. Hewn stone was often used, Am. 5: 11, and marble of the richest vein and polish. 1 Chr. 29 : 2 ; Esth. 1 : 6. Cedar was used for wainscots and ceilings, Jer. 22 : 14; Hag. 1 :4, which were of carved panel-work, with mouldings of gold, silver, or ivory. Perhaps the profusion of ivory in them may account for the expressions 1 Kgs. 22 :'39 : Ps. 45 : 8 : Am. 3:15.

The houses of the class described are entirely different from those inhabited by the common people, which are mere hovels of only one room, built with mud walls, reeds, and rushes, and sometimes only stakes plastered with clay. Hence they wore very insecure, Matt. 6:19, 20, and afforded place for serpents and vermin. Family and animals occupy the same room, although the former sometimes were raised over the latter b.y a platform. The windows were mere holes high in the wall, perhaps barred. Am. 5:19.

In addition to what we have before said in treating of the allii/eh, it may be remarked that the winter- and summer-houses or parlovH, Am. 3 : 15, were constructed with particular reference to the season. The sinnmer-houses were built partly under ground and paved with marble. The fountains which gush out in the courts, and the various contrivances to exclude heat and secure a current of fresh air, render them exceedingly refreshing amid the torrid heats of summer. The winter-houses might have had accommodations corresponding to the season.

"We are told that it was customary among the Hebrewe to dedicate the 244

house when it was finished and ready to be inhabited. The event was celebrated with joy, and the divine blessing and protection implored. Deut. 20 : 6.

The doors of Eastern houses are made low, especially when they are in an exposed situation, and one must stoop, or even creep, to enter them. This is done to keep out wild beasts or enemies, or as some saj-, to prevent the wandering Arabs from riding into them.

The Eastern mode of building is brought to our view in the case of the destruction of the temple of Dagon by Samson. It is probable that the place where Samson made sport for many thousand spectators, Jud. 16 : 27, was a court or area consecrated to the worship of Dagon; that this was surrounded by a range of galleries, Eze. 41: 15, 16, or cloisters, which were supported chiefly by one or two columns in front or at the centre. The palace of the dey of Algiers has such a structure. It is an advanced or projecting cloister over against the gate of the palace, Esth. 5:1, where the officers of state assemble and transact public business, and where public entertainments are given. The removal of one or two contiguous pillars would involve the building and all that were upon it in one common destruction.

Leprosy in the House was probably a niti'ous efflorescence on the walls which was injurious to the health of the household, and therefore it was imperatively ordered to be removed. Lev. 14 : 34-58.

DYE'ING was a familiar art in Bible-times. The Phoenicians and Egyptians were skilful in it. From Ex'. 26:1, 14; 35:25 it is evident that at the Exodus the Israelites understood the art, and we are the better able to picture the process because we find so minute an account of it on the Egyptian monuments. There is, however, no precise mention of dyers in the 0. T. In the N. T., Lydia is spoken of as " a seller of purple of the city of Thyatira." Acts 16 : 14. This city was famed for its dyers ; inscriptions testify to the existence of a guild of them, and Lydia probably dealt in the cloth thus colored, or possibly in the dye itself, which is procured from a shell-fish.

EAG

EA'GLE (Hebrew nesher; i. e. a tenrer with the beak). There can be little question that the eagle of Scripture is the griifon [Gyps fulvus), or great vulture, a bird very abundant in Pales-rine and adjacent countries. In spite

Griffon Vulture, tlie Eagle of Scripture. {Gyps fuivus. After Tristram.)

of its name, it is a much nobler bird than a common vulture, and is little more a carrion-feeder than are all eagles. Indeed, the griffon is used by the Orientals as the type of the lordly and the great.

This well-known bird of prey was unclean by the Levitical law. Lev. 11 : 1.3 ; Deut. 14:12. The habits of the eagle are described in Num. 24:21 ; Job 9 • 26 ; 39 : 27-30 ; Pro v. 23 : 5 ; 30 : 17,19; Jer. 49 : 16 ; Eze. 17 :^ ; Ob. 4 ; Hab. 1: 8 ; 2 : 9 ; Matt. 24 : 28; Luke 17 : 37.

In these last passages the Jewish nation is compared to a decaying body exposed in the open field, and inviting the Roman army, whose standard was an eagle, to come together and devour it. The eagle was also on the Persian standard. The tenderness of the eagle toward its young is characteristic, and is beautifully and accurately described in Ex. 19:4; Deut. 32 : 11. The rapidity of the eagle's flight is alluded to in Deut. 28 : 49; 2 Sam. 1:23; Jer. 4:13; 48:40; Lam. 4: 19; its destructive power in Isa. 46 : 11; IIos. 8:1; and its great age, and the popular opinion that it renews its plumage in advanced life, are intimated in Ps. 103 : 5 and Isa. 40:31.

Many Scripture references are much more clear and forcible if by "eagle" we understand the griffon. The head and neck of this bird are bald. Mic. 1 : 16. Although eagles are attracted by carcasses, it is the griffons which, from their great numbers and superior strength, are pre-eminently the scavengers of the East. Matt. 24 : 28. Of all rapacious

EAR

birds, these select the loftiest and most inaccessible cliffs. Jer. 49 : 16.

'* The griffon is found in all the warmer parts of the Old World, from the liiniahiya to Spain and Morocco, and throughout Africa to the Cape of Good Hope. It measures about 4 feet 8 inches in length, and 8 feet in expanse of wing. The nest is sometimes large, but frequently scanty, formed of sticks and turf, and it lays one egg in February or Mai^h. Its plumage is a uniform brown, with a line ruff of whitish down round the lower part of its neck, at the termination of the bare portion. Its beak is hooked and of great power, but its claws and feet are much weaker than those of the eagle, and are. not adapted for killing prey."— Tristram.

The pains which such birds take in teaching their young to fly, as well as such passages as Isa. 40:31, are illustrated by the following narrative: " I once saw a very interesting sight above the crags of Ben Nevis. Two parent eagles were teaching their offspring, two young birds, the manoeuvres of flight. They began by rising from the top of the mountain in the eye of the sun. It was about midday, and bright for the climate. They at first made small circles, and the young birds imitated them. They paused on their wings, waiting till they had made their flight, and then took a second and larger gyration, always rising toward the sun, and enlarging their circle of flight so as to make a gradually-ascending spiral. The young ones still and slowly followed, apparently flying better as they mounted; and they continued this sublime exercise, always rising, till they became mere points in the air, and the young ones were lost, and afterward their parents, to our aching sight." — Sir Humphry Da vy.

EARNING is an old English word for plouqliuy. Gen. 45 : 6 ; Ex. 34: 21 j Dent. 21:4: 1 Sam. 8:12.

EAR'NEST. This is something going before or given in advance as a pledge of more in reserve: thus. earnest, or earnest-money, is a sum paid in advance as a pledge of full payment at a future time. In a spiritual sense, it denotes those gifts and graces which the Christian receives as a pledge or 246

earnest of perfect holiness and happiness in the future world. 2 Cor. 1 : 22 ; Eph. 1:14.

EAR'-RINGS. The ordinary Hebrew word for "ear-ring" means also " nose-ring," and the context must decide between these intei'pretations. There are two other words which mean more specifically an ear-ring. The one occurs Num. 31: 50 ; Eze. 16 : 12. This word describes a circle of gold, such as is found portrayed upon the sculptures of Egypt and Persepolis; the other word, though literally translated a " charm," seems to indicate ear-rings, which were worn as amulets. They were given up to Jacob at his request, along with the " strange gods," when, at the divine command, he went to Bethel from Shechem. Gen. 35 : 4. This fact proves their superstitious use. Such ear-rings, bearing talismanic characters and figures, are found to-day in the East. Ear-rings were made of gold, were usually, though by no means always, circular, sometimes had jewels hanging from them, and were larger and heavier than those worn with us. In Bible-times ear-rings were ornaments for both sexes. Ex. 32 : 2. The same is true to some extent to-day. See Amulet.

EARTH. The word first occurs Gen. 1 : 2. The Hebrews made the usual distinction between the earth as the planet which we inhabit and the earth as the soil which we cultivate, by employing altogether dift'erent words for these different ideas. But like other ancient nations, they had vague and inaccurate ideas in regard to the size of the earth. The phrases " the ends of the earth," all the "kingdoms of the earth," " the whole world," really took in only a limited extent. Geographical terms were loosely used. For example, the same word (yom, which means "sea") is applied to the Mediterranean, to the lakes of Palestine, and to great rivers such as the Nile. But they were much more definite when describing localities with which they were intimately acquainted, and these descriptive words for the minor features of the country are often singularly correct, and at the same time poetical. We can mark a progression in geographical knowledge from the days of the patriarchs to those of

EAR

EAT

the N. T. Jews. As nation after nation was brought into contact with them their notions of the character and extent of the workl enlarged.

Owing to the highly' poetic nature of the language in which descriptions of the earth as a whole are given, it is impossible to decide upon the ordinary ideas on this subject. Like other nations of antiquity, and like most people in all ages, the Hebrews viewed the world from a geocentric standpoint, as if the earth were the centre of the universe, every other heavenly body being formed for it and playing a subsidiary part. The heavens were conceived of as an inverted bowl, which rested on the flat earth at its edges, holding up the snow and rain, which came through when a window was opened. Gen. 7: 11; Isa. 24: 18. All natural phenomena are traced directly to the almighty will of God, without taking into account (yet without denying) secondary causes. The thunder is his voice, the lightning his arrows, the storm and the wind his messengers. Job 37 : 5; Ps. 77 : 17; 148 : 8. When he drew near, the earthquake, the eclipse, and the comet were the signs of his presence. Joel 2:10; Matt. 24 : 29 ; Luke 21: 25. We should remember that this is to this day the language of poetry and religion, and that it represents one and the most important aspect of truth, the primary cause; while prose and science view the other aspect, the secondary and finite causes—that is, the laws of nature, which are the agencies of the almighty will of God.

If all things in heaven above and earth beneath were created by the word of God, they were as certainly created for the sons of God—for man. To the Hebrew nothing existed independent of some effect, good or bad, upon man. Ps. 104 : 14, 23 expresses in poetry his sober opinion.

The earth spoke to him likewise of orderly and preconcerted progress. From one day to the other, as he read the account in Genesis, there was development of higher from lower forms, until, as the crown and lord of all creation, man stood in Eden.

EARTHQUAKE. Korah and his companions were destroyed by the rending asunder of the ground where

they stood, thus engulfing them in the cavity, Num. 16 : 32 ,• in other words, by an earthquake. The earthquake mentioned in Am. 1: 1 j Zech. 14 : 5 is also mentioned by Josephus, who adds that it divided a mountain near Jerusalem, and was so violent as to separate one part some distance from the other. The earthquake was among the fearful signs which attended the crucifixion of our Saviour. Matt. 27 : 51-54.

Earthquakes are mentioned among the calamities which should, and did, precede the destruction of Jerusalem. Matt. 24: 7. Earthquakes, in prophetical language, denote revolutions and commotions in states and empires.

An earthquake, '^ conveying the idea of some universal and unlimited danger," as Humboldt says, was an appropriate illustration of the awe which strikes the soul when God seems to draw nigh. It is therefore a fitting token of his presence, IKgs. 19:11, and is used in Scripture, poetry, and prophecy in descriptions of the coming of Jehovah. Jud. 5:4; 2 Sam. 22 : 8 ; Ps. 77:18; 97:4; 104:32; Am. 8:8; Hab. 3:10.

EAST, EAST COUIV'TRY. Gen. 11: 2 ; Job 1: 3 ; Eze. 47 : 8 ; Matt. 2:1. The Hebrews used the word kedem, or " east," to describe any country which was before or in front of another—that is, to the east of it; and it generally refers to the region around and beyond the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, including portions of Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia.

EAST'ER (originally the festival of the Anglo-Saxon goddess Eostre), a mistranslation for '' Passover," the Jewish feast. Acts 12 :4. See Fkast.

EAST SEA. Eze. 47:18; Joel 2 : 20. See Salt Sea.

EAST WIND. See Wind.

EAT, EAT'ING. The Hebrews were scrupulous about eating and drinking with those of another religion or another nationality. They would not eat with the Egyptians, any more than the Egyptians would with them, Gen. 43 : 32, nor with the Samaritans, John 4 : 9, nor with " publicans and sinners," Matt. 9 : ll,andtherefusal toeat withone implied an entire separation. 1 Cor. 5:11.

Anciently, the Jews sat at table; but when they encountered the practice of

EBA

reclining upon couches during meals, resting the body on the left elbow and using chiefly the right hand, they appear to have adopted it. This peculiar position makes the scene described in Luke 7:3(3-50 perfectly natural, and also shows how one of the guests could repose his head on another's bosom.

Bomau Triclinium, illustrating Jewish Method of Eatin

John 13 : 23. Women were never present at Jewish meals as guests.

The Jews, in 0. T. times, appear to have taken their principal meal at night, after the heat of the day was over. This, to be sure, is largely conjecture, since we have no detailed information given us in the Bible. See Ruth 3:7; Ex. 16 : 12 : 18 : 12, 13. The institution of the paschal feast in the evening likewise helps to confirm the opinion. Ex. 12 : 6, 18. They made their other meal in the morning. In N. T. times they did not ordinarily breakfast until 9 o'clock, Acts 2:15, and on the Sabbath, as Josephus says, not before noon, because not till then was the service of the synagogue completed. In the evening the more substantial meal took place. In general, the Jews led the simple, abstemious life of the modern Oriental, eating the fruits of the earth in the morning, and meat only once a day, if at all. But besides this occasional reference to the ordinary life of the Jews, the Bible contains notices of numerous feasts in honor of all the events which broke the monotony of their existence. Leaving out of account the religious festivals and the formal banquets at the ratification 248

of treaties and on other public occasions, we read of feasts given at marriages, Gen. 29:22; Jud. 14:10, etc., on birthdays, Gen. 40 : 20 ; Job 1: 4, etc., burials, 2 Sam. 3 : 35 ; Jer. 16 : 7, sheep-shearing, 1 Sam. 25 : 2, 36 ; 2 Sam. 13 : 23, and at other times. According to the means of the host, an elaborate meal was prepared. The guests were formally invited, and when the day came they were invited a second time. Prov. 9:23; Matt. 22 : 3. The guests were received with a kiss, their feet and hands were waslied, their person was perfumed with ointment. Luke 7 : 44-46. The parable of the Man without the Wedding-garment has led to the conjecture that it was customary, or at least usual, in certain cases for the host to provide robes. Matt. 22:12. The present mode of eating among Eastern nations illustrates some passages of the N. T. In Syria the guests use their fingers,a knife, spoon,and plate being used only by foreigners, and that as a special privilege. The bread, which is very thin, is dipped in the vegetable soup ; and if there is a dainty morsel on the table, the master of the house takes it in his fingers and presents it to the mouth of his guest. From Matt. 26: 23 we presume that Judas was near enough to our Lord to use the same dish and receive the sop from our Lord's hand, according to the custom above described. John 13: 26, 27. See Feast.

To eat a meal together is regarded in the East as a pledge of mutual confidence and friendship ; hence the force of the expression Ps. 41: 9.

The expression John 6 : 53-58 is evidently metaphorical. ''Eating and drinking" here means believing, or appropriating the life of our Lord by faith. He is the Bread of life for our souls.

E'BAL (sfoue). 1. A descendant of Seir the Horite. Gen. 36:23; 1 Chr. 1:40.

2. A descendant of Eber, 1 Chr. 1: 22', called Obal in Gen. 10: 28,

EBA

ECC

£'IIAIj (stone, stony), one of the two mountains upon which Israel stood pronouncing blessings and cursings. Deut. 11:29; Josh. 8:30-35. Ebal and Ger-izim are opposite each other, nearly meeting at their bases, but are a mile and a half apart at their summits. Mount Ebal, the northern peak, is rocky and bare: it rises 3070 feet above the sea and 1200 feet above the level of the valley, which forms a natural amphitheatre. From repeated experiments it has been found that the voice can be heard distinctly from the top of one mountain to the other and in the valley between. In the valley lay ancient Shechem, now Nablus. The summit of Ebal is a plateau of some extent, reaching its greatest height toward the west, from which there is an extensive view of the country from Ilermon on the north to the heights of Bethel on the south, and from the plain of the sea on the west to the Hauran plateau on the east. Con-der suggests that the site of Joshua's altar may be represented by the modern sacred place called Amdd ed-Din, "monument of the faith," on the top of Ebal. See Gkrizim and Shechem.

E'BED [slave). 1. The father of Gaal, Avho conspired with the Shechem-ites against Abimelech. Jud. 9 : 26, 28, 30, 31, 35.

2. A companion of Ezra on the Return. Ezr. 8 : 6.

E'BED-ME'LECH {^lave of the king), an Ethiopian eunuch of Zedekiah, king of Judah, who was instrumental in saving the prophet Jeremiah from death by famine, and who for his kindness in his behalf was promised deliverance when the city should fall into the enemy's hands, Jer. 38 : 7 ; 39 : 15-18. His name seems to have been an official title.

EB'EN-E'ZER [stone of help), set up as a memorial by Samuel, 1 Sam. 4 : 1 ; 5 : 1; 7: 12, between Mizpeh and Shen. The curious fact that the name of this place occurs twice, 1 Sam. 4:1; 5:1, before theaccountof the naming of it, is explained by the familiarity of the place to the writer of the narrative, who of course lived sometime subsequent to the battle. While the Israelites were worshipping God at Mizpeh they received intelligence that the Philistines were approaching them with a formidable army. In this emergency they betook

themselves to sacrifice and prayer, and God interposed in a most signal manner for their deliverance. 1 Sam. 7 : 5-12. In commemoration of this event, Samuel erected a monument near the field of battle, and called it " Eben-ezer," or the stone of help, saying, " Hitherto hath Jehovah helped us." Hence it is often said, "Here we will set up our Eben-ezer." Conder places Ebenezcr at Deir Abdn, 3 miles east of 'Ain Shems. Birch disputes this, and proposes Khurbet Sa)nwil.

E'BER [beyond). 1. The great-grandson of Shem, Gen. 10 : 21, 21; 11 : 14-17; 1 Chr. 1 : 19, and the ancestor of Abraham in the seventh generation. See Hebrews, Heber.

2. Son of Elpaal, and one of the builders of Ono and Lod, with the adjacent villages. 1 Chr. 8 : 12.

3. A priest of the days of Joiakim. Neh. 12 : 20. See also Heber.

EBI'ASAPH [father of qathering), a Levite. 1 Chr. 6:23, 37 j 9:19. See Abiasaph and Asaph.

EB'ONY. Eze. 27 : 15. A black, heavy, and very hard wood, which was brought to ancient Tyre from India. It is susceptible of a fine polish, and is used for musical instruments and ornamental work. Ebony is the heart-wood of a tree [Diosjjyros ebenus) of the same genus with the persimmon of our warmer States, and, like that tree, bears an edible fruit.

EBRO'NAH [passage), a station of the Israelites near Ezion-geber, Num. 33 : 34, 35 ; site not known.

ECBAT'ANA. Ezr. 6:2, margin. The name of two cities.

1. The capital of northern Media, now known as the ruins Takht-'i-Sule'imajt, about 75 miles south-west of the Caspian Sea.

2. The larger city was the metropolis of lower Media, now called Hamadnn, one of the most important cities of Persia, having from 30,000 to 40,000 inhabitants. Both cities are referred to in the Apocrvphal books.

ECCLESIAS'TES (Koheleth), OR (as the name signifies) THE PREACHER, was written by Solomon toward the close of his splendid and eventful career as monarch of Israel, or by a later author, who impersonates Solomon and gives us the prac-

ECC

EDE

tical lesson of his sad experience. It corresponds to the old age of Solomon, as the Canticles to his youth and the Proverbs to his mature manhood. The design of the author evidently is, (1) To demonstrate the folly and madness of making this world, its pleasures, or its pursuits the objects of affection or hope; (2) To show the character, influence, and advantages of true wisdom or religion. The key-note is struck in the opening lines, repeated at the close, 12 : 8 :

"O vanity of vanities ! the Preacher saith; O vanity of vanities ! all is vanity."

The practical lesson of the book is

summed up in the concluding words,

12 : 13, 14, which, literally rendered,

read thus:

'* Fear God and keep his commandments. For this is all of man."

The writer looks from the vanity beneath the sun to the eternal realities above the sun, and from the shifting scenes of this life to the judgment-seat of God, who will judge ''every work, yea, every secret deed, both good and evil." The book represents Hebrew scepticism subdued and checked by the Hebrew fear of God and reaping lessons of wisdom from the follies of life. It is an ethical or philosophical treatise in prose, with regular logical divisions, but full of poetic inspiration, and in part also poetic in form, with enough of rhythmical flow to awaken a deep and emotional interest in these sad soliloquies of the author.

ECCLESIAS'TICUS, the title, in the Latin Vulgate, of the Apocryphal book called in the Septuagint '' The Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach." Both titles are given in the English translation. The Latin title, " The Ecdesias-^'crrZ Book," designates it as a book that was read for edification in the churches. The original Hebrew is not now extant, although Jerome asserts he saw a copy of it. The Hebrew text was composed by Jesus, the son of Sirach, between b. c. 190-170. His grandson translated it into Greek about the beginning of the second century.

In general, its contents resemble the Proverbs of Solomon, only with much greater particularity of detail, extending to all spheres of religious, civil, and domestic life, and giving rules for the 250

conduct of the same. Along with the maxims are discussions and prayers. The book closes with two discourses, one, chs. 42 : 15-43, etc., " the praise of God for his works j" the other, chs. 44-50, " the praise of famous holy men," from Enoch to Simon the high priest, the son of Onias. The final chapter is a thanksgiving and a prayer. The book is of great value as an indication of the current Jewish theology and ethics at the time of its composition.

ED {witness). This word printed in italics, is inserted in Josh. 22 : 34 as the name given to the altar set up by the trans-Jordanic tribes, but it does not occur in the received Hebrew text, which, literally translated, reads, "And the children of Reuben and the children of Gad named the altar: ' It [i. e. the altar] is a witness between us that Jehovah is God.'" Some place the altar on the east or Moab side of the Jordan. Conder put it on the west side, at Kurn Surtaheh, 11 miles north-east of Shiloh, but this identification is disputed.

E'DAR {tower of the flock). Gen. 36 : 21. Conder would place it on the Shepherds' plain, about 1 mile east of Bethlehem ; Jerome states that it was 1000 paces from that city.

E'DEN" (2ileasa»tness). 1. The home of Adam and Eve before their fall. Gen. 2 : 15. Its site has not been fixed. Two of its rivers are identified, the Euphrates, and the Hiddekel or Tigris; the others are disputed. Some say Gihon was the Nile and Pison the Indus. The best authorities agree that the " garden of Eden eastward " was in the highlands of Armenia, or in the valley of the Euphrates, but its precise location cannot be determined. The Bible, after the history of the fall of our first parents, withdraws paradise lost from our view, and directs our hope to thB more glorious paradise of the future, with its river of life and tree of life. Rev. 22 : 2.

2. A region conquered by the Assyrians, 2 Kgs. 19 : 12 : Isa. 37 : 12 : probably in Mesopotamia, near modern Balis, and same as the Eden of Eze. 27 : 23.

3. The house of Eden. Am. 1: 5. See Beth-kden.

E'DEN (pleasantness), a Levite in the days of Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 29:12; 31:15.

E'DER {flock), a Merarite Levite in

EDE

EDU

the days of David. 1 Chr. 23 : 23; 24 : 30.

E'DER (flock), a town of Judah near Edom. Josh. 15: 21. Not the same as Arad; modern site is 'Addr.

E'DOM (red), called also Idumsea and Mount Seir. The country extended from the Dead Sea southward to the Gulf of Akabah, and from the valley of the Arabah eastward to the desert of

Arabia, being about 125 miles long and 30 miles wide.

Physical Features. —A mountain-range of porphyritic rock forms the backbone of the country; above this rises sandstone, assuming fantastic forms, while on either side of these formations are limestone hills. On the west, along the valley of the Arabah, the hills are low ; on the east the mountains attain their hig-h-

Tlie Approach to Edom fiom the E

est elevation, and border on the great plateau of Arabia. The country is well watered, rich in pasturage, abounding with trees and flowers, reminding us of Isaac's prophecy : " Thy dwelling shall be the fatness of the earth." Gen. 27 : 39.

Cities. —Its principal towns were Boz-ra, Elath, Maon, Ezion-geber, Selah, or Petra. A description of them will be found under their proper titles. For a history of the people see Esau and Idum^ans.

ED'REI (strength, stronghold). 1. A capital city of Bashan. Num. 21: 33 ; Deut. 3:1-10. It was in the territory of Manasseh beyond (east of) Jordan. Num. 32 :33. It is not noticed in later Bible history, although it was an important city until the seventh century of the Christian era. Its ruins, called Edhra, cover a circuit of 3 miles. Without a spring, river, or stream, without access except over rocks and through nearly impassable defiles, without tree or garden, it is a place of security and

ast. {After a Photograph hy Frith.)

strength. Among the ruins are remains of churches, temples, and mosques. The place has now about 500 population.

2. A town of Naphtali. Num. 19 : 37. Porter identifies it with Tell Khuraiheh, near Kedesh; Conder with Yater.

EDUCA'TION. Of secular education, in our sense of the word, the Jews knew little, but they enjoined the duty and enjoyed the privilege of religious and moral training at home and in public worship far more than any nation of antiquity. They learned from their parents and their public teachers, the Levites, and later the Rabbins, to read and write and commit the Law. During the Captivity they were brought into contact with the extensive learning of the Chaldasans. Moses derived his knowledge from Egyptian priests, and Solomon was both a scholar and a wise man, to whose open mind the gathered treasures of instruction and the books of nature and human

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life brought lessons of priceless wisdom. The people at large must have been ignorant of things outside of religion, and their religious exclusiveness would tend to keep them so, but there were men among them acquainted with mensuration, Josh, 18:8, 9, and with foreign languages, 2 Kgs. 18 : 26, and who were skilled in writing, like the chron-ialers of the various kings, and in keeping accounts, like the scribes who are often mentioned. In the days of the monarchy the advantages of education were secured by many in the so-called "schools of the prophets." After the Captivity the Rabbins regularly gave instruction in the synagogues upon the Bible and the Talmud. In the entire history it holds good that boys remained up to their fifth year in the women's apartments and then their fathers began to instruct them in the Law. Later, the boys began at this age the Rabbinical books. The Captivity was in many respects an incalculable blessing to the Jews. It taught them that there was something worth learning outside of the Mosaic books. Hence, after their return, they were a greatly-improved people. It was then that sj'nagogues sprang up, furnishing practical instruction. After Jerusalem fell the Jews kept up these schools, and they exist even in this day. One valuable custom was the learning of a trade on the part of each one. Well known is the instance of Paul, who, although well trained, a pupil of Gamaliel, still could, and did, make tents. Acts 18 : .3 ; 22 : 3.

Girls were generally without much more education than the rudiments, 3'et they could attend the schools and learn more than to do needle-work, keep house, and care for the children. Women were far higher in the social scale among the Jews than at present among the Orientals.

The sect of the Essenes, by preference celibates, took great pains to instruct children, but confined their attention chiefly to morality and the Law. The Rabbins taught the physical sciences. In these schools the teachers sat on raised seats : hence Paul could say literally that he was brought up at the feet of Gamaliel. Luke 2 : 46 ; Acts 22 : 3. Unmarried men and women were forbidden to teach boys. 252

The ancient Jews enjoyed more advantages in mental training than other contemporary nations. And if they knew little about matters of common information among us, they knew more than did the great mass of people living outside of Judaea.

EG'LAH {n heifer), one of David's wives. 2 Sam. 3 : 5.

ECLAIM {two 2ionds), a place on the border of Moab, Isa. 15 : 8 ; probably the same as En-eglaim.

EG'LON (calf-like), king of the Moabites, who held the Israelites in bondage 18 years. Jud. 3 : 14. He formed an alliance with the Ammonites and Amalekites, and took possession of Jericho, where he resided, and where he was afterward assassinated by Ehud. See Ehud.

EG'LON (calf), an Amorite town in Judah, Josh. 10 : 3-5 ; 15 : 39 ; now 'Ajlan, a hill of ruins, 10 miles northeast of Gaza.

E'GYPT, the valley of the Nile, in the north-eastern part of Africa, and one of the most remarkable countries in ancient history, famous for its pyramids, sphinxes, obelisks, and wonderful ruins of temples and tombs. It figures largely in the Bible as the cradle of the people of Israel, and the training-school of its great leader and legislator.

Names. —In Hebrew, Egyjit is called Mizraim, a dual form of the word, indicating the two divisions, Upper and Lower Egypt, or (as Tayler Lewis suggests) the two strips on the two sides of the Nile. It is also known as the Land of Ham, Ps. 105:23. 27, and Rahah, ("the proud one"). Ps. 89:10; 87:4; Isa. 51 : 9. The Coptic and older title is Kemi, or Chemi, meaning "black," from the dark color of the soil. The name " Egypt" first occurs in its Greek form in Homer, and is applied to the Nile and to the country, but afterward it is used for the country only.

Situation and Extent. —Egypt lies on both sides of the Nile, and in ancient times included the land watered by it, as far as the First Cataract, the deserts on either side being included in Arabia and Libya. Ezekiel indicates that it reached from Migdol (now Tell es-Semut, east of the Suez Canal) to Syene (now Asican or Ansouan), on the border of Nubia, near the First Cataract of the

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Nile. Eze. 29 : 10, margin. The Delta and the valley of the Nile are estimated to have an area of about 9600 square miles (or a little more than the State of New Hampshire), of which only 5626 miles are fit for cultivation. In the more extended sense of later times, Egypt is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean, on the east by the Red Sea and Arabia, on the south by Nubia, and on the west by the Great Desert. The length of the country in a straight line from the Mediterranean to the First Cataract is about 520 miles ; its breadth is from 300 to 450 miles, and its entire area is about 212,000 square miles. Nubia, Ethiopia, and other smaller districts bordering on the Nile to the south of Egypt, have been brought under its sway.

The following statement of the area and population of Egypt and dependencies is from the official report of 1876 :

Egypt proper has thus an area almost as large as that of New York. Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, and Indiana combined, and the present ruler of Egypt controls a territory nearly half as large as the United States of America.

Physical Features. — The country has three great natural divisions: (1) the Delta; (2) the Nile valley; (3) the sandy and rocky wastes. The Delta is one vast triangular plain, watered by the branches of the Nile and numerous canals, and covered with I'emains of ancient cities and villages and groves of palm trees, which stand on mounds of great antiquity. The Delta extends along the Mediterranean for about 200 miles and up the Nile for 100 miles. The Tanitic branch of the Nile is on the east of the Delta, and the Canopic branch on the west, though the Delta is now limited chiefly to the space between the Rosetta and the Damietta branches, which is about 90 miles in extent. The valley of the Nile extends to the lower or First Cataract, near the island of

PhilaD, which is about 500 miles south of Cairo. It is in a rich state of cultivation, but is very narrow, and hemmed in by low mountains or rocky table-land, rarely rising into peaks, though often approaching the river in bold promontories. Behind the rocky range, which varies from 300 to 1000 feet in height, on either side of the Nile, are deserts rocky and strewn with sand. The valley is scarcely more than 10 miles wide, and there is little fruitful land beyond its limits, or such portions as are reached by its fertilizing waters on the rise and overflow of the river. See Nile.

Climate and Productions. —The climate of Egypt is remarkably equable, the atmosphere dry and clear except on the sea-coast; the summers are hot and sultry, the winters mild; rain, except along the Mediterranean, is very rare,the fertility of the land depending almost entirely upon the annual overflow of the Nile, or upon artificial irrigation by canals, water-wheels, and the shadoof. Winds are strong, those from a northerly source being the most prevalent, while the simoon, a violent whirlwind and hurricane of sand, is not infrequent. The chief fruits are dates, grapes, figs, pomegranates, oranges, apricots, peaches, lemons, bananas, melons of various kinds, mulberries, pears, and olives. Among the vegetables are beans, peas, onions, leeks, lentils, gourds, cucumbers, caraway, coriander, cummin, anise, and pepper; and of grains, wheat, barley, millet, maize, and rice. Among plants are the indigo-plant, cotton, flax, poppy, madder, and a species of saff'ron. Many kinds of reeds were found in the country, but they have wasted away, as predicted, Isa. 19 : 6, 7 ; even the famous papyrus, or bt/blus, from which paper was made, has nearly, if not quite, disappeared. Of animals, the camel, horse, mule, ass, sheep, and goat are common, and the wolf, fox, jackal, hyena, weasel, jerboa, hare, gazelle, hippopotamus, and crocodile were all found in considerable numbers ; but the last two are now found only in the upper Nile. Of birds, the vulture (Pharaoh's hen), eagle, falcon, hawk, kite, crow, lark, sparrow, hoopoe (a sacred bird), and the ostrich were the most common ; and of reptiles, the cobra, cerastes, and other species of venomous snakes abounded, and are yet

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the dread of native and of traveller. Fish abound in the Nile and in Lake Menzaleh. Insects are well represented, the scorpion being among the most dangerous, while swarms of flies, fleas, beetles (the scarabifus being held sacred by

the ancient Egyptians), and bugs of various kinds attack man and beast, and occasionally swarms of locusts sweep over the land, reminding one of the plague preceding the Exodus, and of the description of the invading army by the prophet

Joel. Ex. 10 : 12-15 ; Joel 2 :1-11. The principal minerals are granite, syenite, basalt, porphyr}', limestone, alabaster, sandstone, and emeralds. The first four were formerly prized for the purposes of architecture and sculpture.

Language. —The sources of knowledge 254

respecting ancient Egypt are chiefly four: (1) the Pentateuch; (2) the writings of Manetho, b. c. 300-250, whose work is lost, but fragments of which have come down to us through Jose-phus, Julius Afrieanus, and Eusebius; (3) the accounts of Greek travellers—

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Herodotus, B. c. 454, Diodorus Siculus, B. c. 58, and Strabo, b. c. 30 ; (4) the monumental inscriptions and papyrus rolls in the temples and tombs or about mummies. Copies of the inscriptions and many of the papyrus rolls have been discovered during the present century and transferred to museums in London, Paris, Berlin, Leyden, Turin, and Bulak, and have been deciphered by Egyptologists. The hieroglyphic signs on the monuments are partly ideographic or pictorial, partly phonetic. The hieroglyphic, the shorter hieratic, and the demotic alphabets were deciphered by Champollion and Young by means of the famous trilingual Rosetta Stone, discovered in 1799, and the Coptic language "which is essentially the same with the old Egyptian. For a summary of the respective merits of Young and Champollion with regard to the interpretation of Egyptian hieroglyphic, see Al-libone's Dictionary of Authors, vol. iii. p. 2902.

The process of decipherment was, briefly, as follows: The Rosetta Stone had an inscription in three characters, hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. The Greek, which was easily read, declared that fhere were two translations, one in the sacred, the other in the popular, language of the Egyptains, adjacent to it. The demotic part was next scrutinized, and the groups determined which contained the word Ptolemy. These were compared with other framed symbols on an obelisk found at Philae. The symbol on the obelisk which occurred in connection with the name Ptolemy was conjectured to be Cleopatra, as the number of letters also indicated. The t vo groups were then compared :

he took to be Ptolemais.

were afterward verified by comparing them with the names of other kings, and particularly with that of Alexander the Great as below:—

The second symbol in the second group, a lion, Champollion took to be I, and the same symbol has the fourth place in the first group. By a similar process of comparison, the nine letters of Cleopatra's name were ascertained, while the different letters in the case of Ptolemy

The prevailing opinion is that the ancient Egyptians were of Asiatic rather than of African origin. Their language was Egyptian, and was related, though it has not yet been proved as belonging, to the Semitic family. It had two dialects, that of Upper and that of Lower Egypt, and by degrees a vulgar dialect was formed, which became the national language not long before the formation of the Coptic. The written character of the Egyptian language was the hieroglyphic—a very complex system, which expressed ideas by symbols or by phonetic signs, syllabic and alphabetic, or else by a combination of the two methods. From this combination was formed the hieratic, a running-hand, or common written form of the hieroglyphic, principally used for documents written on papyrus. The later Coptic language was written in Greek letters, with the addition of six new characters to that alphabet. The writings of the ancient Egyptians which have come down to our times are disjointed, and, from a literary point of view, have disappointed the expectations even of warm admirers of Egyptian civilization. See Poole in Ency-cloppedia Britannica, 9th Ed., vol. vii. (1878).

Learning and Art. —The progress of the Egyptians in the various sciences was equalled by that of no other ancient people except the Greeks, and perhaps the Babylonians and the Assyrians. In astronomy, ge-9 ometry, chemistry, and the arts I their knowledge is attested by the ^ cycles they formed for the ad-•^ justment of different reckonings of time, and by their skill in shaping and moving vast blocks of stone used in building, which, considering their want of iron and the very simple mechanical appliances at the command of Egyptian builders, are an enigma to modern engineers. The hardening of bronze tools

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with which they cut granite and the mode in which Moses destroyed the golden calf indicate the progress they had made in using metals. In medicine also they were inferior only to the Greeks.

In architecture the Egyptians occupy the most distinguished place among the nations of antiquitj'. None have equalled them in the grandeur, massiveness, and durability of their structures. Mr. Fer-gusson says: '"'Xeither Grecian nor Gothic architects understood more perfectly all the gradations of art and the exact character that should be given to every form and every detail. They understood also, better than any other nation, how to use sculpture in combination with architecture, and to make their colossi and avenues of sphinxes group themselves into parts of one great design, and at the same time to use historical paintings, fading by insensible degrees into hieroglyphics on the one hand and into sculpture on the other, linking the whole together with the highest class of phonetic utterance and with the most brilliant coloring, thus harmonizing all these arts into one great whole unsurpassed by anything the world has seen during the 30 centuries of struggle and aspiration that have elapsed since the brilliant days of the great kingdom of the Pharaohs."— Handbook of Archi-

lecture. And Poole observes : " In the whole range of ancient art Egyptian may take its place next after Greek. Indeed, in some instances it excels Greek, as when in animal forms the natural is subordinated to the ideal. The lions from Gebel Barkel . . . are probably the finest examples of the idealization of animal forms that any age has produced."— Encyclopaedia Bri-tannica, vol. vii. The pyramids and sphinxes, the immense temples, tombs, and remarkable obelisks, have called forth the admiration alike of the past and of the nineteenth century.

Reli(jion. — In religion the ancient Egyptians had an idea of one supreme, self-existent creator, but this idea was mixed with the basest forms of polytheism and idolatry. Every town had its local divinities and its sacred animal or fetish. Herodotus remarked that it was easier to find a god than a man on the Nile. Seth, the destructive power of Nature, was for many centuries the special divinity of Lower Egypt, but he was at length displaced. There appear to have been various orders of gods, each town having a cycle called a society of the gods, or "the nine gods." The Egyptians explained this cycle as the self-development of Ra, the chief or supreme god, already

The Principal Egyptian Triad, Osiris, Isis, and Horus. (.After Eiehm.)

mentioned, and who appears to be identified in Egyptian history of the " eighteenth dynasty " with the sun and sun-worship. 256

Two lists of their deities are given: the first is according to the system of Memphis, the earlier capital, whost chief gods were Ptah, Ra, Shu or Mu,

Temple at Karnak. Columns in the Great Hall. {A^ier Photographs by Sebak.)

Temple of Medinet Abou at Thebes. {Ajter Photographs by heoak.)

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Seb, Hesiri or Osiris, Hes, Seth or Sethos, and Hiir. Those of the system of Thebes, the Uiter capital, were, according to Lep-sius, Amen, Mentu, Atmu, Shu, Seb, Hesiri, Set, liar, and Sebek. These two systems, however, may be treated as one, consisting of male divinities with whom are associated goddesses. Wilkinson gives a list of thirteen triads of gods, two of whom were usually of equal rank and tlie third subordinate. At PhiltB was the triad of Osiris, Isis, and Horus. Sun-worship was the primitive formof the Egyptian religion, lla was represented as a hawk-headed man, generally bearing on his head the solar disk. Osiris (in Egyptian Heairi) was usually represented as a mummy with a royal cap having ostrich plumes; he is the good being, the judge of all the dead, and is opposed to Seth, the evil being. The worship of these gods required priests, sacrifices, offerings of fruits, libations, and at some early periods human victims. Vast temples were built in honor of the deities, each town usually having at least one temple, and immense tombs were also constructed as a religious duty and connected with the worship of some of the gods, usually that of Osiris or a divinity of that group.

The Egyptians had a very strong belief in a future life, and were taught to consider their abode here merely as an inn upon the road to a future existence where there was no distinction in rank. After death the body was embalmed and often kept in the house for months or a year before the burial. See Embalm. The mummy of a deceased friend was sometimes introduced at their parties and placed in a seat at the table as one of the guests. Herodotus says that the Egyptians were the first to maintain the immortality of the soul. They also believed in the transmigration of souls. Though "'Moses was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians," the system of worship and religion which was given to the Hebrews under him is in marked contrast to the polytheistic and idolatrous forms of Egypt, and attests its divine origin.

Chronology and History. — As the father of nations, Egypt in its early history antedates all records, and is lost in obscurity. EgyjDtian history may be divided into 6 great periods : 258

(1) The Pharaohs or native kings, to B. c. 525; (2) the Persian, to b. c. 332; (3) the Ptolemies, to B. c. 30; (4) the Roman, to A. d. 640 ; (5) the Arab; (6) the Turk. Egyptian chronology is in a confused and unsettled condition. New information from the monuments has simply increased the difficulty of settling the many conflicting statements and establishing dates on a satisfactory basis. The principal facts that appear to be generally accepted are: (1) Menes is an historical person, and the first known king of Egypt. (2) The (ireat Pyramid, at Gizeh, dates from the fourth dynasty, and is an imperishable monument of the skill and resources of the people at that very remote period. (3) Manetho's lists of dynasties were chiefly, though not entirely, consecutive, as appears from the two lists of the first Pharaohs found in the temple of Aby-dos, the lists at Sakkarah, and another in Thebes: the duration of these dynasties, however, is not settled. (4) The Hyksos, or Shepherd-kings of Manetho, conquered and ruled Lower Egypt for centuries, bi-eaking the continuity of the empire, but they were expelled by Amasis I. These Hyksos are not to be confounded with the Hebrews, whom Manetho deridingly calls 'Mepers." (5) During the eighteenth dynasty the empire of Egypt was in the height of its splendor, its conquests reaching to Babylon and Nineveh on the Euphrates, and over Nubia in the south. (6) No dates can be definitively fixed before the beginning of the twenty-second dynasty. The two noted authorities on this subject—M. Mariette and Prof. Lepsius— differ over 1100 years in their tables as to the length of dynasties I.-XVII. See J. P. Thomson in liibUotheca Sacra, 1877, and Poole in JEncyelapsedia Bri-tannie.a, vol. vii. Some have conjectured that Menes, the founder of Egypt, was identical with Mizraim, a grandson of Noah. Gen. 10 : 6.

Eijyjit and the Bible. —To the Bible-reader the chief points of interest in Egyptian history are those periods when that country came in contact with tlie patriarchs and the Israelites.

1. The first point is the chronology of Egypt as compared with that of the Bible. On this it may be said that the

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chronologies of both are in such an unsettled state that there cannot fairly bo «aid to be an irreconcilable difference between them until both are more fully and definitively established. The ablest Egyptologists vary in their estimates of the duration of the empire about 3000 years. Menes, the first Pharaoh, began to reign, according to Boeckh, b. c. 5702 ; Mariette, B.C. 5004; Brugsch, b. c. 4455-4400 ; Chabas, B. c. 4000 ; Lepsius and Ebers, B. c. 3892 ; Bunsen, b. c. 3623-3039; Birch, b. c. 3000; Poole, b. c. 2700 ; Wilkinson, b. c. 2691 ; G. Raw-linson, b. c. 2450. Egyptologists generally agree that the chronology is wholly uncertain, and that we must wait for further light and better agreement among scholars. Bible chronology is likewise unsettled, some theologians holding to the *'long" system of the Septuagint, which dates the Cre-

ation b. c. 5400 (Hales, 5400 ; Jackson, 5426), and others to the shorter system of the Hebrew text (Ussher, 4004; Pe-tavius, 3983) ; hence no agreement can be attempted until the age of Solomon. From his time down there is no material disagreement in the two chronologies of Egypt and the Hebrew records.

2. The second point is the visit of Abraham to Egypt. Gen. 12 : 10-20. This visit took place, according to the shorter Hebrew chronology, about B. c. 1920, which would bring it, according to some, at the date of the Hyksos, or Shepherd-kings ; others regard this as too late a date, and put it in the beginning of the twelfth dynasty ; and his favorable reception is supposed to be illustrated by a picture in the tombs at Beni-Hassan (where are many remarkable sculptures), representing the arrival

Entrance to Tomb at Beni-Hassan. {From a Photograph.)

of a distinguished nomad chief with his family, seeking protection under Osirta-sen II.

3. The third point of contact with

Scripture is Joseph in Egypt. Gen. 37: 36. This beautiful and natural story has been shown to be thoroughly in accord with what is known of Egyptian

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customs of that age. Inscriptions on the monuments speak of the dreams of Pharaoh ; the butler's and baker's duties are indicated in pictures ; one of the olde.*t papyri relates the story that a foreigner was raised to the highest rank in the court of Pharaoh ; and Dr. Brugsch believes an inscrijition on a tomb at el-Kab to contain an unmis-

ent scholars : (1) Amosis or Aahmes I., the first ruler of the eighteenth dynasty, is identified with the Pharaoh of the oppression, and Thothmes II., about 100 years later, as the Pharaoh of the Exodus, by Canon Cook in Speaker's Commentary on Exodus, p. 44:3. (2) That Rameses II., the third sovereign of the nineteenth dynasty, is the Pharaoh of the oppression, and Menephthah the Pharaoh of the Exodus, is the view now held by a majority of Egyptologists—as De Rouge, Chabas, Lenor-mant, Vigoroux, Bunsen, Lepsius, Ebers, and Brugsch. Rameses II. is the Sesostris of the Greeks, who blended him with his father, Sethi I., or Sethos. He ruled 67 years and was the great conqueror and builder, covering his empire with monuments in glory of himself. " His name," says Dr. Ebers, "may be read to-day on a hundred monuments in Goshen." Among his many structures noted on monuments and in papyri are fortifications along the canal from Goshen to the Red Sea, and particularly at Pi-tum and Pi-rameses or Pi-ramessu ; these must be the same as the treasure-cities Pi-thom and Rameses built or enlarged by the Israelites for Pharaoh. Ex. 1 : 11. It is also said that under the reign of Rameses III., nephew of Rameses II., the name /e» Mosche —i. e. "island" or "bank of Moses "—occurs among the towns of Middle Egypt. It is noted that Menephthah, the Pharaoh of the Exodus, lost a son, who is named on a monument at Tanis, which Brugsch connects with the loss of the first-born. But another fact is of more weight. Herodotus tells us that a son and successor Profile of Rameses II., the Pharaoh of the Oppres- of Sesostris undertook no warlike ex-

sion. (After Lepsius.) takable allusion to the 7 years of famine in Joseph's time, as follows : "I gathered grain, a friend of the god of harvest. I was watchful at the seed-time. And when a famine arose through many yearn I distributed the grain through the town in every famine."

4. The fourth point of interest is the oppression of the Israelites in Egypt, and the Exodus. Ex. 1 : 8-22 : 12 :'41. Who was the Pharaoh of the oppression, and who the Pharaoh of the

peditions and was smitten with blindness for 10 years because he " impiously hurled his spear into the overflowing waves of the river, which a sudden wind caused to rise to an extraordinary height." Schaff says: "This reads like a confused reminiscence of the disaster at the Red Sea." The chief objection to this view is that it allows less than 315 years between the Exodus and the building of Solomon's temple; but the present uncertainties of the Hebrew and Egyptian chronologies deprive the

Exodus? ^^ ^_,

To this two answers are given by differ- ! objection of great weight

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5. After the Exodus the Israelites frequently came into contact with Egypt at various periods in their history. Through an Egj^ptian, David recovered

Portrait of Menephthah II., the 1 .Kiuiuii of the Exodus. {From Riehm.)

the spoil from the Amalekites, 1 Sam. 30 : 11, etc. ; Solomon made a treaty with Pharaoh and married his daughter, 1 Kgs. 3:1; Gezer was spoiled by Pharaoh and given to Solomon's wife,

1 Kgs. 9:16; Solomon brought horses from Egypt; Hadad fled thither for refuge, as did also Jeroboam, 1 Kgs. 10 : 28 ; 11: 17 ; 12 : 2 ; Shishak plundered Jerusalem and made Judaea tributary, 1 Kgs. 14 : 26, and a record of this invasion and conquest has been deciphered on the walls of the great temple at Karnak, or el-Karnak. In this inscription is a figure with a strong resemblance to Jewish features, which bears Egyptian characters that have been translated "the king of Judah." Phnraoh-necho was met on his expedition against the Assyrians by Josiah, who was slain. 2 Kgs. 23 : 29, 30. Pha-raoh-hophra aided Zedekiah, Jer. 37 : 5-11, so that the siege of Jerusalem was raised, but he appears to have been afterward attacked by Nebuchadnezzar. The sway of Egypt was checked, and finally overcome, by the superior power of Babylonia, and its entire territory in Asia was taken away.

2 Kgs. 24 : 7 ; Jer. 46 : 2. The books

of the prophets contain many declarations concerning the wane and destruction of the Egyptian power, which have been remarkably fuUillcd in its subsequent history. See It-a. 19 ; 20 ; 30 : 3 ; 31: 3 ; 36 : 6 ; Jer. 2:36; 9 : 25. 26 ; 43 : 11-13 ; 44 : 30 ; 46 ; E/.e. 29 ; 30 ; 31; 32 ; Dan. 11 : 42 ; Joel 3:19; and '' the sceptre of Egypt shall depart away." Zech. 10: 11.

6. In the N. T. there are several references to the relations of the Israelites to Egypt as they existed in 0. T. times; see Acts 2:10; 7:9-40; Heb. 3:16; 11: 26, 27; but the interesting fact in the N. T. period was the flight of the holy family into Egypt, where the infant Jesus and his parents found a refuge from the cruel order of Herod the Great. Matt. 2:13-19.

7. Among the various other allusions to Egypt in the Bible are those to its fertility and productions. Gen. 13: 10; Ex. 16 : 3; Num. 11 : 5; to its mode of irrigation as compared with the greater advantages of Canaan, which had rain and was watered by natural streams, Deut. 11 : 10; its commerce with Israel and the people of western Asia, Gen. 37 : 25, 36 ; 1 Kgs. 10 : 28, 29 : Eze. 27 : 7; its armies equipped with chariots and horses, Ex. 14 : 7 ; Isa. 31: 1 ; its learned men and its priests, Gen. 41 : 8, 45 ; 47 : 22 ; Ex. 7 : 11; 1 Kgs. 4 : 30; its practice of embalming the dead, Gen. 50 : 3 ; its aversion to shepherds, and its sacrifices of cattle. Gen. 46 : 34 ; Ex. 8 : 26; how its people should be admitted into the Jewish Church, Deut, 23 : 7, 8; the warnings to Israel against any alliance with the Egyptians, Isa. 30 : 2 ; 36 : 6 ; Eze. 17 : 15*; 29 : 6; and to the towns of the country. Eze. 30 : 13-18. The records on existing monuments have been found to confirm the accuracy of all these allusions to the customs of the people.

History. —The history of Egypt, as drawn from other sources than the Scriptures, is confused, like the chronology upon which it depends for clearness and order. Of the thirty dynasties from Menes to the second Persian conquest, B. c. 340, some of the most noted earlier kings were Thothmes I. and III., Amenoph II. and III., Scthos or Sesos-tris, and Rameses II. and III. These built many of the vast and grand tem-

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pies and palaces at Karnak and Luxor, and carried their conquests to Assyria and Ethiopia. Among the later rulers were Shishak or Sheshonk, Pharaoh-necho, Pharaoh-hophra. and Psammet-ichus. Its most populous cities were Thebes. Latopolis, Apollinopolis, Syene, Memphis, Ileraclopolis, Arsinoe, Heli-opolis, Bubastis, Sais, Busiris, Tanis, and Pelusium. The statements of some (ireek and Roman writers that Egypt in its prosperity had 7,000,000 population and 20,000 cities are believed to be greatly exaggerated. This would require it to have sustained an average poj)ulation to the squai'e mile, exclusive of the desert, twice as great as the most densely-peopled lands of modern times. Egypt was conquered by Cambyses the Persian about B. c. 525; regained its independence under Amyrteus, of the twent^'-eighth dynasty of native kings; was again conquered by the Persians under Darius Ochus, b. c. 340 ,• by Alexander the Great, b. c. 332, when he founded Alexandria. After Alexander's death it formed a kingdom under the Grecian and Macedonian Ptolemies, the Greeks becoming the dominant class (the last of the Ptolemies reigned jointly with his sister and wife, the famous Cleopatra). After the battle of Actium, b. c. 30, Egypt became a Roman province. Under the Roman rule Alexandria continued to be the great mart of trade and the centre of learning and philosophy ; for three centuries it was under Roman rule, and during that period Egypt was accounted the granary of Rome. On the transfer of the seat of empire to Constantinople, the Christians, who had been severely persecuted under its Roman rulers, gained the sway over the pagans, and for three centuries theological controversies raged with great fierceness. The Arab conquest under Caliph Omar came a. d. 040, followed by the Fatimite dynasty, A. d. 970, when Cairo was founded and made the capital. Saladin, the noted prime minister of the last of the Fatimites, assumed the sovereignty, with the title of sultan, a. n. 1170, arid was a vigorous opposer of the Crusaders. The government was overturned by the Mamelukes about A. i). 1250; again conquered by Selim 1., a. d. 1517; by Napoleon in 1798; by the combined forces of the English and the Turks in 1801 ; 262

and, soon after, Mehemet AH, an Albanian adventurer, was made pasha, being nominally a vassal of Turkey, but his power was nearly absolute. tJnder the reign of his grandson, the present khe-dive or viceroy (since 18fi3), Egypt has been restored to some extent from its low condition, schools and colleges have been founded, commerce and manufactures encouraged, numerous reforms introduced, the Suez Canal completed and opened to the commerce of the world, railways and telegraphs have been constructed ; but the condition of the people has not been improved, and poverty and misery prevail. The treasury of the khedive is nearly bankrupt. Egypt is " the old house of bondage under new masters."

The Presbyterian Church has established flourishing mission schools in Alexandria, Cairo, and Osiout, among the Copts.

Monuments and Ruins. —" Egypt is the monumental land of the earth," says Bun-sen, " as the Egyptians are the monumental people of history." Among the most interesting ancient cities are: (1) On or Heliopolis, "the city of the Sun," 10 miles north-east of Cairo, where are traces of massive walls, fragments of sphinxes, and an obelisk of red granite, 68 feet high, bearing an inscription of Osirtasen I. of the twelfth dynasty, and erected, therefore, previous to the visit of Abraham and Sarah to the land of the Pharaohs. Formerly the two "Needles of Cleopatra" stood here also, but were removed to Alexandria during the reign of Tiberius ; and one of them has lately been transported to London, and now stands on the banks of the Thames. Joseph Avas married at Heliopolis, Gen. 41: 45, and there (according to Josephus) Jacob made his home; it was probably the place where Moses received his education, where Herodotus acquired most of his skill in writing history, and where Plato, the Greek philosopher,studied. (2) Thebes "of the hundred gates," one of the most famous cities of antiquity, is identified with No or No-Amnion of Scripture. Jer. 46 : 25 ; Eze. 30 : 14-16 ; Nah. 3 : 8. The ruins are very extensive, and the city in its glory stretched over 30 miles along the banks of the Nile, covering the places now known as Luxor, Karnak, and

Ascent of the Great Pyramid of Egypt. {From a recent Photograph.)

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Thebes. (3) Memphis, the Noph of Scripture, Jer. 46: 10. "Nothing is left of its temples and monuments but a colossal statue of Kameses II., lying mutilated on the face in the mud."

Only a very brief notice of the wonderful monuments can be given here. For convenience these may be grouped into two classes: (o) The pyramids, obelisks, and statues; {b) the palaces, temples, and tombs.

The Obeli.^k of Oil. (Jleliojjolis. From a Photograph by Good.)

(a) The number of pyramids still existing in Egypt is variously stated at from 45 or 65 to 130. Brugsch says " more than 70;" Lepsius speaks of no less than 30 that had escaped the notice of former travellers (1842-184-i); others count as many as 130, including all pyramidal structures, ancient and modern. Piazzi Smyth (1874) reduces them all to 38, and gives a list of them. The largest and most remarkable are those near 264

Memphis, at Sakkara, Aboosir, Dashoor, and Gizeh. The three at Gizeh are the most interesting of all. The largest of these is that of Cheops, which was erected from 2000 to 3000 years before Christ. It was old when Rome was built, when Homer sang, when David reigned, and even when Moses led out the Israelites. This pyramid, according to General Vyse, is 450 feet 9 inches high (it was formerly about 30 feet higher), the present length of its base is 746 feet (it was formerly 764 feet), and it covers an area of about 13 acres. It has been stripped of its polished stone casing in centuries past to adorn the palaces of Greeks, Romans, and Saracens. It is the largest, and probably the oldest, structure in the world. The second pyramid is scarcely inferior to the first in height, being 447 feet 6 inches high and having a base 690 feet 9 inches square. A great part of its casing has been preserved. The third pyramid is smaller than either of the other two, but in beauty and costliness of construction is unexcelled by any other pyramid. These colossal structures were erected as monuments and tombs of the kings. The body of the dead monarch was embalmed, placed in a stone sarcophagus, put into the massive tomb, and the entrance closed. See Schaff's Bible Lands, p. 40. Near the pyramids is the great Sphinx, a massive man-headed lion in a recumbent posture, nearly 190 feet long, with immense paws, formerly 50 feet in length. The vast figure is buried in the sand, except his colossal head. There are also six other smaller pyramids near the three here described, three standing to the east of the Great Pyramid and three to the south of the third one. Southward of those at Gizeh are the pyramids at Aboosir, and about 2 miles still farther are those of Sakkara, while about 5 miles beyond are those of Dashoor, two of which are built of stone and three of brick.

(b) Of the palaces, temples, and tomb-structures, the most remarkable is the famous Labyrinth, in the Feijoom district, which Bunsen calls the most gorgeous edifice on the globe; it includes 12 palaces and 3000 saloons. The temples at Karnak and Luxor are the most interesting, the grandest among them

Temple of Haihor or Athor at Deuderah. (A]ter Photographs.)

Avenue of Sphiuxes and Propylou at Karuak. (^/ter Fhotographs.)

EGY

all being the magnificent temple of Rameses II. See No and No-Ammon. There are ruins of temples at Denderah, Abydos, Phila;, Ileliopolis, and at Ipsam-boul, 170 miles south of Philae, in Nubia. Among the noted tombs are those at Thebes, Beni-Hassan, and Oslout, and among the obelisks are those at

Luxor, Karnak, Heliopolis, and Alexandria. These wonderful ruins attest the magnificence and grandeur, but also the absolute despotism and slavery, of this land in the earliest ages and as far back as before the days of Abraham, and they also attest in the most impressive manner the fulfilment of prophecy.

Judgment of the Dead. {After Eiehm.)

In a cave near Thebes 39 royal mummies and various other objects were discovered in 1881. Among the mummies was that of Rameses II.. the Pharaoh of the oppression, which has been fully described by Maspero. A trilingual inscription, perhaps a century older than the Rosctta Stone, has also been lately found, and one of the oldest pyramids opened.

The Egyptians believed in the immortality of the soul, and that when the soul reached the Hall of Double Justice, the heart in its vase was placed in one scale, and the goddess of Truth in the other. Horus and a cynocephalus conducted the process of weighing, Anubis superintended, Thoth recorded the re-suit, and Osiris, with 42 counsellors, pronounced sentence. If the heart was light, the soul suffered the torments of hell, or was sent into a pig or some unclean animal, then returned to begin life anew, and have another trial by judges. If the heart was heavy, the soul was sent to the regions of the blest. (See Baedeker's Lower Er/i/pt, p. 137.)

For ancient Egypt see the following works : Caylus, Comte de, liccne'd d'An-tiquitea Egyptiennen, etc., Paris, 1761-67, 7 vols. 4to; Alexander, Egi/piian Monuments now in the British Museum, 266

collected hy the French Institute, 1805-7, 5 parts roy. fol.; Birch, S., Facsimiles of the Egyptian Relics discovered at Thebes in't'he Tomb of Aah Hotep, 1820, oblongfol. : Rosellini, IMonumentidell' Egitta e della Nubia, Pisa, 1832-44, 3 vols, atlas fol. and 9 vols, 8vo of text; Sharpe, Egyptian Inscriptions from the British Museum, etc., London, 1835-65, 2 series roy. fol.; Bonomi and Arun-dale. Gallery of Antiquities in the British Museum with Inscriptions by Birch, 1844, 2 parts; Bunsen, Egypt's Place in Universal History, 1848-67, 5 vols. 8vo, vol. v. being a hieroglyphical lexicon and grammar by S, Birch ; Lep-sius, Chronologic der Egypter, etc., Berlin, 1849, imp. 4to ; Lepsius, Denkmaeler aus ^Efjypten vnd ^Jthiopien, Berlin, 1849-59, 12 vols, eleph. fol. and 1 vol. of introductory text, imp. 4to ;^ Rouge, Rituel Funeraire de Anciens Egyptiens, Paris, 1861-66, 5^1ivraisons, imp. fol. ; Pleyte, Etudes Egyptologiques, Leide, 1866-69, 7 parts 4to; Brugsch, Diction-naire Hieroglyphique, Leipzig, 1867, fol.: Ebers, JEgypten nnd die Bilcher Mose's, vol. i., Leipzig, 1868, 8vo ; Pleyte, Les Papyrus Rollin de la Bibliotheque Im-periale de Paris, 1868, atlas 4to ; Frith, Eqypt and Palestine Photographed and Described, 1870, 2 vols. roy. fol.; Wil-

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kinson, Sir J. G., The Manners and Customs of the Ancient E(fi/ptinns, new edition by S. Birch, LL.D.. London, 1879, 3 vols. 8vo; Brugsch-Bey, Gcschichte Aegi/pten's nnter den Pharaonen. Nach den Denknidlern, Leipzig, LS77; EngL translation, London, 2d ed., 1881, 2 vols. ; F. A'^igouroux, La Bible et les decouvertes modernes en Eyi/pte et en Assyrie, Paris, 1877, 2 vols.; Ebers, Aegypten im Bild imd Wort, Leipzig, 1879. On modern Egypt: Lane, The Modern Egyptians, 2 vols., London, 5th ed., 1871 ; Zinke, Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Khedive, Lond., 1873; Klunzinger, Upper Egypt, London, 1878.

E''HI {my brother), a son of Benjamin, Gen. 46 : 21 ; called Ahiram, Num. 26 : 38 ; Aher, 1 Chr. 7:10; Aharah, 8:1.

E'HUD (union). 1. A great-grandson of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 7:18; 8:6.

2. A son of Gera, of the tribe of Benjamin, who delivered the Israelites from the oppression which they suffered under Eglon, king of Moab. Jud. 3 : 15. The Israelites sent Ehud to pay some tax or tribute to Eglon as a token of their allegiance. Under the pretence that he had some secret message to the king, he obtained a private audience; and while they were together, Ehud drew a dagger which he had made expressly for the purpose, and gave him a mortal wound. The custom of delivering confidential messages in secret appears to have been so common that the attendants of Eglon left his presence as soon as Ehud's wish was known. Such is the custom in Eastern courts at this day; as soon as a confidential message is announced the audience-chamber is cleared of all but the messenger. Ehud fled toward Mount Ephraim ; and summoning the oppressed Israelites to his help, they secured the fords of the Jordan, so that the Moabites, by whom their land was gai-risoned, might not escape. As soon as he had collected a sufiicient force he fell upon the Moabites, and cut them off in every direction. " And the land had rest fourscore years." Jud. 3 : 26-30.

E'KER (a rooting np)), a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2:27.

EK'RON {emigration), the most northerly of the five cities of the Philistines, Josh. 13 : 3 ; in the lowlands of

Judah, 16 : 11; conquered by Judah, 15 : 45 ; allotted to Dan, 19 : 43 ; reconquered by Samuel, 1 Sam. 5 : 10 ; 7 : 14 again a Philistine city, 1 Sam. 17 : 52 2 Kgs. 1:2; Jer. 25*: 20 ; Am. 1 : 8 Zech. 9:5; now called Akir, on a hill 12 miles south-east of Joppa, a wretched village of about 50 mud hovels. The prophecy has been fulfilled, " Ekron shall be rooted up." Zeph. 2 :4.

EL, which often occurs as an element of Hebrew words and names, signifies " strength," and is applied not only to Jehovah, but to heathen gods.

EL'ADAH, an Ephraimite. 1 Chr. 7:20.

E'LAH {terebinth). 1, An Edomite chieftain. Gen. 36 : 41 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 52.

2. The father of one of Solomon's provision oflScers. 1 Kgs. 4:18.

3. The son and successor of Baasha, king of Israel. He reigned 2 years, B. c. 930-928, and was assassinated by Zimri, one of his military officers, while revelling at the house of his steward, Arza, at Tirzah. 1 Kgs. 16:6-10.

4. The father of Hoshea, the last king of Israel. 2 Kgs. 15:30; 17:1; 18 : 1, 9.

5. A son of Caleb, the son of Jephun-neh. 1 Chr. 4: 15.

6. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 9 : 8. E'LAH {terebinth), VALLEY OF,

where David slew Goliath. 1 Sam. 17 : 2, 19; 21:9. It is now called Wady es-Sunt, or " Acacia Valley," 14 miles south-west of Jerusalem. The valley is about a quarter of a mile wide, and has steep sides rising to a height of about 500 feet. The torrent or brook has a deep channel in the middle of the valley, and its course is strewn with smooth white stones. Terebinth trees, which gave the original title to the valley, are still found there.

E'LAM {age). 1. The eldest son of Shem, and ancestor of the Elamites and Persians. Gen. 10 : 22 ; 1 Chr. 1: 17.

2. A Korhite Levite in the time of David. 1 Chr. 26:3.

3. A chief man of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8:24.

4. " Children of Elam" returned from Babylon. Ezr. 2:7; 8:7; Neh. 7 : 12.

5. Children of " the other Elam " likewise returned. Ezr. 2:31; Neh. 7 : 34. Their representative sealed the cove-

ELA

ELD

nant. Neh. 10 : 14. Some had foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 26.

6. A priest who helped to dedicate the wall. Neh. 12:42.

E'LAM, a country peopled by the descendants of Shem, and called, after his son, Elam. Gen. 10 : 22. It lay south of Assyria and west of Persia proper, and reached to the Persian Gulf. Herodotus called it Cissia. It was a province of Persia, of which Susa was capital. Ezr. 4:9; Dan. 3:2.

History. —Elam was a strong power in Abram's time. Gen. 14:9. Its people aided in the destruction of Babylon, Isa. 21: 2 ; invaded Israel, 22 : 6. Its destruction was foretold. Jer. 49 : 34-39 ; 25 : 25 ; Eze. 32 : 24, 25. A remarkable statement illustrating the truth of the Scriptures in respect to Elam has lately been deciphered from Assyrian cylinders in the British Museum. Assur-banipal records, B. c. 668-626, " In my fifth expedition, to Elam

1 directed the march. ... I overwhelmed Elam through its extent. I cut off the head of Te-umman, their wicked king, who devised evil. Beyond number I slew his soldiers. . . . For a month and a day Elam to its utmost extent I swept." There are other records equally remarkable, but there is not space to quote them.

EL'ASAH {wJiom God made). 1. The son of Shaphan. Jer. 29: 3.

2. A priest who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10:22.

E'LATH, OR E'LOTH (trees), a seaport-town of Edom, at the northern end of the eastern arm of the Red Sea. Deut. 2:8; 2 Chr. 8:17. It is usually associated in Scripture with Ezion-geber. The children of Israel passed by it; it was a part of David's conquest, Deut.

2 : 8 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 14; was a place of importance in Solomon's time, 1 Kgs. 9 : 26, 28 ; was recaptured by the Edom-ites, 2 Kgs. 8 : 20 ; was retaken by Uz-ziah, 2 Kgs. 14:22; 2 Chr. 26 : 2, who rebuilt it; was afterward taken by the king of Damascus, 2 Kgs. 16 : 6, and later by Assyria. 2 Kgs. 16 : 7-9. Stanley thinks that Elath was on the site of modern Akaba, and Robinson placed it on a mound near Akaba. Palm-groves still exist there.

EL-BETH'EL (the Godof Bethel), 268

the name given by Jacob to the place where he built an altar, or to the altar itself. Gen. 35 : 7; comp. 33 : 20. See Bethel.

EL'DAAH (whom God calls), the last named son of Midian, and a grandson of Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 26 : 4; 1 Chr. 1:33.

EL'DAD (ichom God loves), and ME'DAD (love), were of the 70 elders of Israel appointed by Moses to assist aim in the government of the people. Num. 11 : 26. When the elders were assembled around the tabernacle to seek wisdom from God on a particular occasion, Eldad and Medad were absent. The Spirit of God was, however, poured out on them in the camp, and they prophesied. Their proceeding was represented to Moses, and he was asked to prohibit them, but he declined, and, so far from wishing them to be silenced, he uttered a prayer that all the people might receive the same spirit which was upon Eldad and Medad.

The passage is important as proving the distribution of the spirit of prophecy, which had been concentrated in Moses. The mode of prophecy of these men was perhaps the extempore production of hymns chanted forth to the people. Compare the case of Saul. 1 Sam. 10:11.

ELD'ERS, a comprehensive title, the peculiar force of which must be determined by the connection. Ex. 3 :16.

1. Old Testament Usage. —During the sojourn of Israel in Egypt the elders, Ex. 4:29-31, were probably either the heads of tribes or the oldest and most judicious of the people. And though their authority was in its nature paternal, they were regarded to a certain extent as the representatives of the nation. In the Hebrew commonwealth every city had its elders. Deut. 19:12; 21: 2-9;'Josh. 20:4; Jud. 8:14; Ezr. 10: 14.

There was a body of elders, however, selected and appointed for special duties. Num. 11: 16, 17, 24, 25, and they seem to have been taken from the general class of elders. The expression is," Gather unto me seventy men of the elders of Israel, whom thou knowest to be elders of the people, and officers over them." The 70 men who were with Moses at Mount

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Sinai were also 70 of the elders of Israel. Ex. 24 : 1, 9. At a subsequent period of Jewish history we find a tribunal of 70 elders, known as the San-hedrin, which the Rabbins maintain was a continuance of the original appointment of ciders by Moses. Elders are mentioned in the Maccabsean times, about B. c. 175, 1 Mace. 7 : 33 ; 12 : 6 ; and in the N. T. are associated, but not to be confounded, with the chief priests and scribes. Matt. 16 : 21, etc. See San-

HKDRIN.

2. New Testament Usoffe. —The name elder or presbyter is no doubt of Jewish-Christian origin, a translation of the Hebrew title applied to the rulers of the synagogues, on whom devolved the conduct of religious affairs. Referring originally to age and dignity, it came to apply to office. The term bishop (borrowed, in all probability, from the political relations of the Greeks), while applied to the same office of elder or presbyter, refers to the official duty and activity of these rulers of congregations. In Acts 20 : 28, Paul addresses as " bishops " (''overseers" in our version) the very same rulers of the Ephesian church who had just before (v. 17) been called ''elders." In Phil, 1 :1 he salutes the saints in Philippi, with the "bishops and deacons," without mentioning the elders, which has been explained by supposing the latter to have been identical with the bishops. The plural form is further evidence, since there cannot be more than one diocesan '* bishop," in the latter sense, in any one church. Tit. 1: 5 and the other appropriate passages in the pastoral Epistles prove the same fact. As to the time and manner of the introduction of eldership we have no such information as is given respecting the diaconate. Acts 6. But we conjecture that it came early in the Church—perhaps was even co-eval with it; in which case it is no wonder that its introduction is not mentioned. As the office was a Christian imitation of the Jewish "rulers of the s^magogues," who conducted the prayer, reading, and exposition which constituted the service, every church had a number of elders. There is in the N. T. no set distinction made between the teaching and the ruling elder ; both offices were united in the same person. See Bishop.

Elders, Estate of the. Acts 22:5. See Estate op the Elders.

E'LiEAD {whom God jjraiscs), an Ephraimite. 1 Chr. 7:21.

ELEA'LEH {whither God ascends), a city east of Jordan ; given to the Reu-benites. Num. 32 : 3, 37 ; afterward possessed by Moab, Isa. 15 : 4; 16:9; Jer, 48:34: now cl-A'al ("the high"), 1 mile north-east of Heshbon.

ELE'ASAH {whom God made). 1. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 39.

2. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8: 37:9: 43. The name elsewhere in the A. V. is Elasah.

ELEA'ZAR {God's help). 1. The third son of Aaron, Ex. 6 : 23, and his successor in the office of high priest, which he held for upward of 20 years, and his family after him till the time of Eli. Nadab and Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar, together with their father, Aaron, were consecrated to the sacerdotal office. The first two were struck dead for offering strange fire. See Abihu. Eleazar, being the eldest surviving son, succeeded his father, and was himself succeeded by his eldest son, Phinehas, according to the covenant. Num. 25: 10, 13. The time of Eleazar's death is not given, but Jo-sephus, probably representing Jewish tradition, says it was at the same time as Joshua's, or 25 years after Moses. The office continued in Eleazar's line through seven successions, and then passed into the line of Ithamar in the person of Eli, who was both high priest and judge, but was restored to the family of Eleazar in the person of Zadok. Comp. 1 Sam. 2 : 35 ; 1 Kgs. 2 : 27.

2. The son of Abinadab, to whose caro the ark was committed when it was sent back by the Philistines. 1 Sam. 7:1.

3. A warrior of distinguished courage, two of whose exploits are recorded in 1 Chr. 11:11-lS and 2 Sam. 23 : 9.

4. A Levite, son of Merari, who is mentioned as having no sons ; but his daughters were married by their " brethren "—/. e. cousins. 1 Chr. 23 : 21.

5. A priest who took part in Nehe-miah's dedicatory feast. Neh. 12 : 42.

6. One with a foreign wife. Ezr, 10 : 25.

7. A Levite. Ezr. 8 : 33.

8. An ancestor of Joseph. Matt. 1: 15.

ELE

ELI

ELECT, ELECTION. The

Greek word {ekltktus) for "elect" or "chosen" comes from a verb meaning "to choose." It is applied to persons or things. Luke 14: 7 ; John 6 : 70. The verb is uniformly translated in A. V. "choose," but the adjective both "chosen " and " elect." Luke 23 : 35 ; cf. 18 : 7. Choice implies preference, hence approval, favor, delight, as in Luke 23 : 35 the Messiah is called " the chosen of God "— i. e. the One in whom God takes pleasure.

The elect in N. T. usage are those chosen of God unto salvation, who therefore enjoy his favor and lead a holy life in communion with him. Matt. 24: 22 ,• Mark 13 : 27 ; Luke 18 : 7 ; Rom. 8 : 33 ; Tit. 1:1. Paul once speaks of "the election," Rom. U : 7, instead of "the elect," just as he says "the circumcision" instead of "the circumcised." Rom. 2 : 26. In Matt. 22 : 14 the calling of God is distinguished from the choosing of God: "Many are called, but few are chosen." All are called who hear the sound of the gospel and are invited to accept its terms of salvation, but those only are chosen who repent and believe and persevere to the end.

Elect Lady. 2 John 1. This title is applied by John to some eminent Christian woman, or else it was a figurative expression denoting a Christian church.

EL-ELO'HE-IS'RAEL(s^-e»r/#A of God), the name which Jacob gave to an altar near Shechein, Gen. 33 : 18-20 ; probably the place where Abraham had built an altar. Gen. 12:7. The el designates God as the mighty One, able to do whatsoever he pleased. He delivered Jacob, whose other name—"Israel"— denoted his power with God.

EL'EMENTS, Gal. 4 : 3. 9. elsewhere rendered RU'DIIIENTS, Col. 2:8,20, or the first principles of an art or science, is a term applied to the ceremonial ordinances of the Mosaic law, which were weak, and beggarly, inasmuch as they consisted very much in outward observances, Heb. 9:1, and were of temporary and partial service, when compared with the disclosures of grace and mercy which they were designed to shadow forth. In the case of the Colossians. probably, these rudiments of the world embraced the doctrines of some vain and deceitful philosophy. 270

E'LEPH {the ox), a citv of Benjamin. Josh, 18 : 28. The Pal. Memoirs suggest Lifta, a village about 2 miles north-west of Jerusalem, as its site.

EL EPHANT. See Ivory.

ELHA^NAN [whom God bestoioed). 1. One of David's warriors, who slew a Philistinian giant. 2 Sam. 21 : 19 ; 1 Chr. 20 : 5.

2. Another of David's warriors. 2 Sam. 23 :24; 1 Chr. 11:26.

E'LI (ascent, elevation), a descendant of Ithamar, the fourth son of Aaron, and successor of Abdon as high priest and judge of Israel. 1 Sam. 2 : 11. In consequence of his negligence or injudicious management of his two sons, Hophni and Phinehas, he suffered severe chastisement. Samuel was directed to disclose to Eli the judgments that would come upon his family, 1 Sam. 3 : 13, 14, chiefly because of his neglect of paternal duty. The old man received the intelligence with remarkable submission, but it was not until 27 years after that God fulfilled his threatenings. Then his two sons were both slain in the same battle with the Philistines, into whose hands the ark of God fell. The aged priest, then in his 98th year, was so overwhelmed when these calamities were made known to him that he fell backward from his seat and broke his neck. He had governed the Hebrews in all their concerns, civil and religious, for the long period of 40 years. 1 Sam. 4:18. See Eloi.

ELI, ELI, LA'MA S ABACH'-THANI {)ny God, my God, ichy hast thou forsaken me), our Lord's cry upon the cross. Matt. 27 : 46. The words are Syro-Chaldaic, but are more correctly given in Mark 15 : 34.

ELI'AB {to whom God is father). 1. The name of the prince of Zebulun when the census at Sinai was taken. Num. 1 : 9; 2:7; 7:24,29: 10:16.

2. The father of Dathan and Abiram. Num. 16 : 1, 12 : 26 : 8, 9 ; Deut. 11: 6.

3. The eldest brother of David. 1 Sam. 16 : 6 ; 17 : 13, 28; 1 Chr. 2 : 13 ; 2 Chr. 11 18.

4. A Levite, ancestor of Samuel. 1 Chr. 6 : 27. In 1 Sam. 1:1 he is called Elihu, and in 1 Chr. 6 : 34, Eliel.

5. A Gadite leader who joined David when in hold. 1 Chr. 12 : 9.

ELI

and a musician. I Chr. 15 : IS, 20; 16:5.

ELI'ADA (trhoni God knows). 1. A son born to David in Jerugalem. 2 Sam. 5:16: 1 Clir. 3:8, In 1 Chr. 14: 7 he is called Beeliada—Baal substituted for El, the true God.

2. A Benjnmite, one of Jehoshaphat's r:i])tiuns. 2'Chr. 17 : 17.

ELI'ADAH {whom God knoics), the father of Rezon. 1 Kgs. 11 : 23-25.

ELI'AH {nil/ God is Jehovah). 1. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 27.

2. One who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10:26.

ELI'AHBA {whom God hides), one of David's mighty men. 2 Sam. 23 : 32; 1 Chr. 11 : 33.

ELI'AKIM {whom God establishes). 1. The master of the household of Hez-ekiah, and one of the commissioners appointed to treat with the king of Assyria. 2 Kgs. 18 : 18, 26, 37 ; 19 : 2 ; Isa. 22:20; 36:3, 11, 22; 37:2.

2. The son and successor of Josiah, king of Judah. His name was changed to Jehoiakim. 2 Kgs. 23 : 34; 2 Chr. 36:4.

3. A priest who helped to dedicate the wall. Neh. 12:41.

4. 5. Two persons in Christ's genealogy. Matt. 1:13; Luke 3 : 30.

ELI'AM {God's people). 1. The father of Bath-sheba, 2 Sam. 11 : 3 ; called Ammiel in 1 Chr. 3:5; the names mean the same.

2. One of David's warriors. 2 Sam. 23: 34.

ELI'AS, the Greek form of Elijah, used in the N. T. See Elijah.

ELI'ASAPH {xchom God added). 1. The chief of Gad when the second census was taken. Num. 1 : 14 ; 2 : 14; 7 : 42, 47 ; 10 : 20.

2. A Levite. Num. 3 : 24.

ELI'ASHIB {irhom God restores). 1. A priest in the time of David. 1 Chr. 24:12.

2. A descendant of David. 1 Chr. 3: 24.

3. The high priest in the time of Ne-hemiah. Ezr. 10 : 6: Neh. 3 : 1, 20, 21 ; 12: 10, 22, 23; 13:4, 7, 28.

4. A Levite who had a strange wife. Ezr. 10: 24.

5. 6. Two similar offenders. 10 : 27, 36. ELI'ATHAH {to ivhom God

comes), a Levite musician in the time of David. 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 27.

ELI'DAD {whom God loves), the Benjamite representative in the allotment of Canaan. Num. 34 : 21.

E'LTEL {to whom God is strength). 1. A chief of cis-Jordanic Manasseh. 1 Chr. 5 : 24.

2. An ancestor of Samuel. 1 Chr. 6 : 34.

3, 4. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8: 20, 22.

5, 6. Warriors under David. 1 Chr. 11: 46, 47.

7. A Gadite chief who joined David in the hold. 1 Chr. 12 : 11.

8. A Kohathite Levite in David's time. 1 Chr. 15:9, 11.

9. An overseer of offerings in Heze-kiah's reign. 2 Chr. 31: 13.

ElilE'NAI {toward Jehovah are mi/ eyes), a Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 20.

ELIE'ZER {God is help). 1. Abraham's steward and confidential servant. Gen. 15 : 2.

2. The second son of Moses and Zip-porah. Ex. 18 : 4; 1 Chr. 23 : 15, 17 ; 26 : 25.

3. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 7 : 8.

4. A priest in David's reign. 1 Chr. 15 : 24.

5. A ruler of the Reubenites in David's time. 1 Chr. 27 : 10.

6. A prophet who rebuked Jehosha-phat. 2 Chr. 20 : 37.

7. A prominent Jew sent by Ezra to fetch Levites. Ezr. 8:16.

8. 9, 10. Those who had foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 18, 23, 31.

11. One of Christ's ancestors. Luke 3:29.

ELIHOE'NAI {toward Jehovah are my ei/es), one who returned with Ezra. Ezr. 8:4.

ELIHO'REPH {God his recompense), one of Solomon's scribes. 1 Kgs. 4:3.

ELI'HU {God is he; i. e. Jehovah). 1. An ancestor of Samuel the prophet. 1 Sam. 1: 1.

2. The eldest brother of David. 1 Chr. 27:18.

3. A chief of Manasseh who followed David to Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 20.

4. A Korhite Levite in the time of David. 1 Chr. 26 : 7.

5. The son of Baraehel the Buzite, a friend of Job, and a kind of arbitrator in the controversy between him and three other of his acquaintances, who had como

ELI

to sympathize with him in his calamities. Job 32 : 2. Elihu was the youngest of them all, and therefore diffident about giving his o])inion in the presence of such old men, but still, in opposition to the three friends, who accused Job of secret sins, he sets forth in soothing and yet faithful discourse the idea of the disciplinary nature of suffering, and therefore tells Job to submit himself in loving confidence unto Jehovah's chastening hand. See Job.

ELI'JAH {mi/ God is Jehovah), OR ELI'AS (which "is the Greek form of the name). Matt. 17 : 3. A native of Gil-ead, and called the *' Tishbite," probably from the name of the town or district in which he lived. 1 Kgs. 17:1. He was one of the greatest of prophets. He is first introduced to our notice as a messenger from God to Ahab, the wicked king of Israel, probably in the tenth year of his reign. He was sent to utter a prophecy of a three years' drought in the land of Israel. After delivering this startling and distressing prophecy, he was directed to flee to the brook Cher-

Place of Elijah '5 Saciihce ith, where he was miraculously fed by ravens. When the brook had dried up he was sent to a widow-woman of Zare-phath, and again the hand of the Lord supplied his wants and those of his friends. He raised the widow's son to life. 1 Kgs. 17. After the famine had lasted the predicted period, Elijah encountered Ahab, and then ensued the magnificent display of divine power and of human trust upon the ridge of Carmel. ch. 18. See Ahab.

The reaction from such a mental strain left the pro])het in a weak, nervous condition, and in a fit of despondency he fled from Jezebel into the " wilderness " and desired death. But by angel-food nourished and inspirited, 272

he journeyed 40 days, until he reached Mount Sinai. There the downcast man of God was witness of Jehovah's strength and experienced Jehovah's tenderness in a very remarkable vision. 1 Kgs. 19 : 9-18. Encouraged by the assurance that contrary to his supposition he did tiot stand alone as the only worshipper of the Lord in Israel, and, moreover, having a fresh commission granted him, forth from Mount Sinai he was sent with renewed zeal and confidence. He anointed Elisha to be prophet in his room. ch.l9. He then retired into privacy, but after the dastardly murder of Naboth he suddenly appeared before the guilty king and announced the judgment of Jehovah against the royal jjair. ch. 21. Several years after occurred the prophecy of Ahaziah's death. 2 Kgs. 1: 3. See Ahaziah. The slaughter by five of the two companies of troops sent to take Elijah must have greatly increased the popular awe of the prophet.

After executing the prophetic office for probably 15 years Elijah was translated to heaven in a miraculous manner. Elisha had persisted in accompanying him across the Jordan, and it was while they were talking together that in a ''chariot of fire" Elijah was carried up. Fifty men of the sons of the prophet were witnesses of the extraordinary scene, although thej' only beheld it afar off". A fruitless search was made for the body of Elijah, under the impression that the Spirit had deposited it somewhere. 2 Kgs. 2. B. c. 896.

Malachi prophesied, 4:5, that Elijah would reappear as the forerunner of the Messiah. Our Lord explained to his disciples that Elijah did really ap})ear in the person of John the Baptist. Elijah, with Moses, appeared on the JNIount of Transfiguration, conversing with Jesus. Luke 9:28-35.

Elijah was the prophet of deeds. He left no writings save the letter to Jeho-ram, king of Judah, 2 Chr. 21: 12-15, which was delivered after his death. But he made a profound impression upon his contemporaries as a bold man, faithful, stern, self-denying, and zealous for the honor of God.

2. A priest who had married a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 21.

EJj'lKA {God is rejecter F), one of David's warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : 25.

ELI

E'LIM (trees), the second station of Israel after crossing the Red 8ea. Ex. 15:27; Num. 33 : 9. It had 12 wells and 70 palm trees, and has been identified with Wady Gharandel, which is the

first pleasant spot in the wilderness after leaving 'Aytlii Musa. The water is the best on the whole route from Cairo to Sinai. A few palm trees still remain. Others locate Elim a little farther south,

Eliiu, Siiiai ( Wady Gharandel.

in Wady Useit or in Wady Taiyibeh. It certainly must have been in this neighborhood of running brooks, feathery tamarisks, wild acacias, and stately palm trees.

ELIM'ELECH {God is his Icing), a Bethlemite, and the husband of Naomi, Ruth's mother-in-law. Ruth 1:2, 3; 2:1, 3; 4:3,9.

ELIOE''NAI {toioard Jehovah are my eyes). 1. Head of a Benjamite family. 1 Chr. 7:8.

2. Head of a Simeonite family. 1 Chr. 4:36.

3. A Korhite Levite. 1 Chr. 26: 3.

4. One of David's descendants. 1 Chr. 3:23, 24.

6. A priest who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10:22; Neh. 12:41.

6. Another who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10:27.

EL'IPHAL {lohom God judges), one of David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11: 35; called Eliphelet in 2 Sam. 23 : 34.

ELIPH'ALET {God his deliver-ance), one of David's sons, 2 Sam. 5: 16; 1 Chr. 14:7; called Eliphelet in 1 Chr. 3:8.

EL'IPHAZ, ORELI'PHAZ (Cor/ 18

After a Photograph by Fnth.)

his strength). 1. The son of Esau and Adah, and father of Teman. Gen. 36 : 4, 10-16; 1 Chr. 1:35, 36.

2. One of Job's three friends. Job 2 ; 11. He is called the Temanite; hence it has been inferred he was a descendant of the Teman mentioned above. His part in the discussions with Job is marked by dignity and ability. His theme is the unapproachable majesty and purity of God. 4:12-21; 15:12-16. See Job, Book of.

ElilPH'ELEH {whom God makes distinguished), a Levite porter and musician. 1 Chr. 15:18, 21.

ELIPH'ELET {God his deliverance). 1. One of David's warriors, 2 Sam. 23:34; called Eliphal in 1 Chr. 11 : 35.

2. A son of David, 1 Chr. 3:6; called Elpalet in 1 Chr. 14 : 5.

3. Another, and apparently the last, of David's sons, 1 Chr. 3:8; called Eliphalet in 2 Sam. 5:16; 1 Chr. 14: 7.

4. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 39. 6. One who returned with Ezra. Ezr.

8:13.

6. One who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 33.

ELI

ELK

ELIS'ABETH {God her oath; i.e. womhijjper of God), the wife of Zacha-rias, and mother of John Baptist. Luke 1:5.

ELISE'US, the Greek form of Elisha; us:ed in Luke 4 : 27.

ELl'SHA {God is s(tlvatio)i), the disciple and successor of Elijah. He was the son of Shaphat, and a native of Abel-meholah. 1 Kgs. 19:16. Elijah anointed him, by divine command, at Abel-meholah, where he found Elisha ploughing. He threw his mantle over him as the}' stood in the field, thus signifying the service to which he was called. Elisha promptly obeyed the call, and leaving his oxen in the field took leave of his father and mother and followed Elijah. He did not perform any independent service until Elijah's translation, which took place some 8 years afterward. He then became the head of the school of the prophets. He was the counsellor and friend of successive kings. He was the opposite to Elijah in most things. He lived in the city or with his students, honored and sought for, a welcome guest in the homes he graced by his presence. And yet he was filled with a " double"—/. e. an elder brother's —portion of Elijah's spirit, both to work miracles and to give counsel for present and future emergencies. He multiplied the widow's oil, and when the son of the good Shunammite—God's reward to her for her kindness to his prophet—died, he raised him to life. He cured Naaman, smote Gehazi with leprosy, misled the Syrians, foretold abundant food, and when dying gave the king the promise of victory. Strangely enough, a year after his burial, during the guerrilla-warfare kept up between the Israelites and the Moabites, when a dead man was accidentally put in his tomb, no sooner had the two dead bodies touched than the later dead revived and lived. But God did not recall his beloved back to earth. 2 Kgs. 13:21.

We find the history of Elisha recorded in 2 Kgs. 2-9 and 13: 14-21. He exercised the prophetic office upward of 60 years, b. c. cir. 892-8.32.

ELFSHAH {God is sahmtioii), a son of Javan, who is supposed to have settled upon some islands of the sea. Gen. 10 : 4 ; Eze. 27 : 7.

ELI'SHAH {God ia salvation), 274

THE ISLES OF, from whence Tyre obtained her blue and purple. Eze. 27: 7. They are generally identified with ^olis, Lesbos, Tenedos, and other islands of the Grecian Archipelago.

ELISH'AMA {ichom God hears). 1. The prince of Ephraim in the wilderness of Sinai. Num. 1:10; 2:18; 7: 48, 5;^ : 10 : 22 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 26.

2, 3. Sons of David. 2 Sam. 5:16; 1 Chr. 3:6, 8; 14:7.

4. A priest in Jehoshaphat's day. 2 Chr. 17:8.

5. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2:41.

6. The grandfather of Ishmael, who killed Gedaliah. 2 Kgs. 25 : 25; Jer. 41:1.

7. A scribe to Jehoiakim. Jer. 36 : 12, 20, 21.

ELISH'APHAT {whom God judges), a captain employed by Jehoi-ada at Joash's accession. 2 Chr. 23 :1.

ELISH'EBA {God is her oath), the wife of Aaron. Ex. 6 : 23. She was the daughter of Amminadab, and sister of Naashon.

ELISHU'A {God his salvation), a son of David, 2 Sam. 5:15; 1 Chr. 14:5 ; called Elishama in 1 Chr. 3 : 6.

ELI'UD {God his praise), one of Christ's ancestors. Matt. 1: 14, 15.

ELIZ'APHAN {tchom God pro-tects). 1. The chief of the Kohathite Levites, Num. 3:30; 1 Chr. 16:8; 2 Chr. 29 : 13 ; called Elzaphan in Ex. 6 : 22 ; Lev. 10 : 4.

2. A chief of Zebulun, commissioner in the allotment of Canaan. Num. 34 : 25.

ELI'ZUR {God his rock), the prince of Eeuben during the census. Num. 1: 5; 2:10; 7:30, 35; 10:18.

EL'KANAH {God creates), the name of several descendants of Korah mentioned in the 0. T., for we are expressly told that " the children of Korah died not" in the rebellion of Korah. Num. 26:11.

1. The only one of the name of any interest is the husband of Hannah and father of Samuel. 1 Sam. 1:1 ff.; 2:11, 20; 1 Chr. 6 : 27, 34. The few words that are spoken of him set him in a very favorable light. He was a kind and faithful husband, a pious Hebrew^ and a self-sacrificing father. Although he was a Levite, he did not apparently perform any of the usual offices. Judg-

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EMB

ing from the sacrifices he offered annually, 1 Sam. 1:4, and from the present he brought to the Lord when Samuel was dedicated, he was a man of wealth.

2. The son of Korah. Ex. 6:24; 1 Chr. 6: 23.

3. A Korhite. 1 Chr. 6 : 26, 35.

4. A Levite. 1 Chr. 9:16.

5. A Korhite. 1 Chr. 12 : 6.

6. An officer of the household of Ah:iz. probably the second in command. 2 Chr. 28 : 7. He was killed by Zichri the Ephraimite.

EL'KOSH {God mil how). Nahum is called " the Elkoshite," Nah. 1: 1, from which it is inferred that Elkosh was his birthplace. The traditional tomb of that prophet is in Assyria, about 2 miles north of Mosul, at a place called Alkimh, a town of 300 families. Grove and others, however, place Elkosh in (xalilee.

EL'LASAR (oak, or heap), the country of which Ariocli was king, Gen. 14 : 1-9 ; probably Litrsa, in lower Babylonia, on the Euphrates, between Ur and Erech. Its inscriptions indicate an earlier date than Babylon, in which it was afterward absorbed.

ELM. Hos. 4:13. The original is elsewhere translated "oak." See Oak.

ELMO'DAM {extension?), one of our Lord's ancestry. Luke 3 : 28.

EL'NAAM {God hh delight), a man two of whose sons were of David's guard. 1 Chr. 11 : 46.

EL'NATHAN {whom God hath given). 1. The maternal grandfather of Jehoiachin. 2 Kgs. 24 : 8.

2, 3, 4. Three persons in Ezra's time. Ezr. 8:16.

ELO'I, a Syro-Chaldaic form of Eli. Mark 15 : 34, 35.

E'LON {an oak). 1. The Hittite, father of one of Esau's wives. Gen. 26:34; 36:2.

2. A son of Zebulun. Gen. 46 : 14 ; Num. 26: 26.

3. A judge of Israel, who is called the Zebulonite in Jud. 12 : 11, 12.

E'LOX {oak), a town in Dan, Josh. 19 : 43 ; the Pal. Memoirs propose Beit Ello as its site.

E'LON-BETH'-HA'NAN {oak of house of grace), one of Solomon's provision-districts. 1 Kgs. 4:9. Drake places it at Beit 'Andn.

E'LOTH. See Elath.

EL'PAAL {God his wages), a Ben-iamite whose descendants built some towns. 1 Chr. 8: 11, 12, 18.

EL'PALET {God his deliverance), a son of David, 1 Chr. 14:5; called in 1 Chr. 3:(), Eliphclct.

EL-PA'RAN, literally "the oak of Paran." Gen. 14: 6. See Paran.

EL'-TEKEH {God its feur), a place in Dan ; given to the Levites. Josh. 19 : 44 ; 21 : 23. Whitney identifies it with " el-Mansurah, between Ramleh and Akir." There is an el-Mansurah between Akir and 'Ain Shems, which may be the one intended, as there is no place of this name between Ramleh and Akir. Conder places El-tekeh at Beit Likia, north-east of Latrum.

EL'-TEKON {God its foundation), a town in the hills of Judah. Josh. 15: 59. Grove places it 3 or 4 miles north of Hebron.

EL-TO'LAD, OR EL'-TOLAD {God's kindred), a town in the south of Judah ; given to Simeon, Josh. 15 : 30 ; 19 :4 ; called Tolad in 1 Chr. 4 : 29. Wilton and Grove think it was about 40 miles south of Beer-sheba, in the W(fdi/ el-Thou la.

E'LUL {naught). Neh. 6 : 15. See Months.

ELU'ZAI {God is mil praises), a Beniamite warrior. 1 Chr. 12 : 5.

EL'YMAS. See Bar-jesus, Ser-Gius Patths.

EL'ZABAD {whom God hath given). 1. A Gadite warrior who joined David. 1 Chr. 12:12.

2. A Levite. I Chr. 26 : 7.

EL'ZAPHAN {whom God protects), a Levite, chief of the Kohathites, Ex. 6 : 22 ; Lev. 10 : 4 ; called Elizaphan, Num. 3 : 30 ; 1 Chr. 15 : 8 ; 2 Chr. 29 : 13.

EMBALM'. Gen. 50: 2. The practice of embalming prevailed at a very early period. The Hebrews learned it from the Egyptians, by whom it was understood very perfectly, for embalming entered into their religious life, inasmuch as they maintained it ])re-served the body for the dwelling-place of the soul after it had completed its various transmigrations. The embalm-ers or physicians were regarded as sacred officers.

" The process of embalming was carried on in various ways. In the most

EMB

expensive method the brain and viscera 1 with bitumen and aromatic substances ; were removed, their phice being filled I the body was washed in oil or the tar

Bandaginw Mummies and making the Cases. (After Wilkinson.) Fig. 1, sawing wood ; a, timber fastened to a stand. 2. cutting the leg of a chair, on a stand, h, indicating the trade of a carpenter. 3, a man fallen asleep, c, c, wood readj- for cutting, d, onions and other provisions, which occur again at g, with vases, /,/. 4, 5, and 7, binding mummies. 6, brings the bandages. 9, using the drill. 8, 10, and 11, painting and polishing the cases, e, h, i, mummy-cases.

of cedar, bound up in linen smeared I cheap method dispensed with the evis-with spices, asphalt, and various gums ; 1 ceration, but all methods contained the

steeping in natron. It ap-

pears also that salt was freely used; and some authors believe that heat was employed."— Johnson's Encyclopaedia. After this process the body was swathed in linen bandages, with a profusion of aromatics. The price of embalming a single body was sometimes upward of SI600, and from that down to $200 or $300. The process lasted in earlier times 40, Gen. 50: ?>, but in later times 70, days, and afterward the body was placed in a coffin of sycamore-wood or of stone, and then placed upright against the walls of the house, where it often remained for years, if the family did not wish to go to the expense of burial. Finally, the bodies were placed in subterraneous vaults in the ground or in the rock, where they were often found, after the lapse of 2000 or 3000 years, in a state of perfect preservation.

We have no evidence that embalming was practised by

(After Wilkinson.) 10. Of burnt earthenware.

Different Forms of Mummy-Cases. 1, 2, 4, 9. Of wood. 3, 5, 6, 7, 8. Of stone.

and the whole was placed in a solution 1 the Hebrews, except in the cases of of natron (saltpetre) for 70 days. The I Jacob and Joseph, and then it was 276

EMB

EMM

for the purpose of preserving their remains till they could be carried into the Land of Promise, It is true Asa was laid in a " bed which was filled with

Stone Mummy-Case. {After Wilkinson.) sweet odors and divers kinds of spices prepared by the apothecaries' art," 2 Chr. 16: 14, and that mention is made of spices in the preparation for our Lord's formal burial, John 19 : 39, 40, but we cannot interpret these sentences as indicating any proper species of embalming. See Bury.

e:wbroid'er, embroid'-

ERER, E3IBROID ERY. These

words occur in A. V. in Ex. 28 : 39; 35 : 85; 38 : 23, but it is doubtful if they ^re used correctly. It seems

probable that the production called ''cunning work," Ex. 26:1, was more like embroidery than the needlework which the embroiderer is said to have made. But neither kind answers exactly to the notion of modern embroidery.

EM'ERALD (perhaps the glowing), a very precious gem of a pure green color, to which it owes its chief value, as the deepest colors are the most esteemed. Ex. 28 : 18; Eze. 27 : 16 ; 28 : 13. The emerald was anciently obtained from Egypt. There is little question that the original word should have been translated *' carbuncle." This gem is " a garnet cut with a convex face." See Stones, Precious.

EM'ERODS. 1 Sam. 5: 6, 9. The name of a painful disease sent upon the Philistines : probably it resembled the modern disease of the piles. It was customary with the heathens to offer to their gods figures of wax or metal representing the parts which had been cured of disease, whence it is inferred, in connection with 1 Sam. 6 : 5, that the priests and diviners of the Philistines recommended a similar course.

E'MIMS (terrors), a race of giants living east of the Dead Sea; related to the Anakim. Gen, 14 : 5; Deut. 2 : 10, 11.

EMMAN'UEL. See Immanuel.

EM'MAUS {hot springs), a village near Jerusalem. Luke 24:13. Its site has been disputed ; among the places suggested are, 1. A little hamlet called 'Amu-ds, and known as Nicopolis in the third century. It is on the plain of Philistia, 22 miles from Jerusalem and 10 miles from Lydda. This appears too far from Jerusalem, as Luke says it was only " threescore furlongs " distant, or less than 7 miles. 2. Robinson places Emmaus near Kuryct el 'Eiiab, 3 hours from Jerusalem, on the road to Jaffa. 3. Lange and Grove find Emmaus at Kiilonieh, 2 leagues or 4J miles west of Jerusalem. 4. Others have lately proposed Urtds, a poor village about 2 miles south-west of Bethlehem, as the site of Emmaus. 5. In the fourteenth century Emmaus was placed at Knbei-heh, a little over 7 miles north-west of Jerusalem. This view is sustained b^y Dr. H. Zschokke of Jerusalem, who has made Emmaus a special study, but

EMM

ENH

Urtna seems to have the strongest arguments in its favor.

EM'MOR {an nas). Acts 7:16. See Hamor.

ENA'BLED, in 1 Tim. 1 : 12, means "qualified."

ENA'JIM {gate of two eyes), a marginal reading in Gen. 38 : 14, 21, which some scholars understand to mean a place identical with Enam. Tayler Lewis regards the idea that it refers to a cit3' as absurd.

E'NAM {double sprinij), a town in the low country of Judah. Josh. 15: 34. Warren suggests Bier-en-Nalil for Enam j Conder suggests a ruin called 'A/in, near Thamtiali, now Tibneh, as the ancient Enam.

E'NAN {hoviiKj eyes), the father of a prince of Naphtali. Num. 1 : 15 ; 2 : 29 : 7 : 78, 83 : 10 : 27.

ENCAMPMENT. See Camp.

ENCHANT'MENTS. This word is the translation of several Hebrew terms. It comprehends the tricks of the Egyptian magicians, Ex, 7 : 11, 22 ; 8:7; the omens Balaam used. Num. 24:1 ; the charming of serpents, Eccl. 10: 11 ; and also magical spells, Isa. 47: 9, 12. In Jer. 27 : 9 the " enchanters" were rather seers or augurs. Every species of enchantment fell under the ban of the Mosaic Law. Lev. 19 : 26 ; Deut. 18 :10-12. See Divination.

EN'-DOR {spriiHi of Z'o;-),aplacein Issachar, possessed by Manasseh, Josh. 17 : 11. where Sisera and Jabin were slain, Ps. 83 : 9, 10, and where Saul consulted the witch, 1 Sam. 28 : 7. It is now a miserable village called End6r, about 6^ miles from Jezreel.

ENDOWS See Dowry.

EIV-EG'LAIM,OR EN-EGLA'-IM {/oiDitoiii of tiro heifers), apparently a place near the Dead Sea, and possibly 'Ain-Ajlah, as suggested by De Saulcv. Eze. 47: 10.

EN-GAN'NIM {fountain of gar-dens). 1. A place in the lowlands of Judah. between Zanoah and Tappuah. Josh. 15 : 34; now Umm Jhia.

2. A place in Issachar; given to the Levites, Josh. 19 : 21 ; 21 : 29: probably identical with ''garden-house " of 2 Kgs. 9 : 27. In the list of Levitical cities in 1 Chr. 6 : 73. Anem seems to have taken the place of En-gannim. The latter has been identified with modern Jenin, a 278

flourishing village of 3000 inhabitants, on the south side of the great plain of Esdraelon. Near by is a large fountain, a source of the ancient river Kishon, and gardens and orchards surround the town. The people, mostly Moslems, are fanatical, rude, and rebellious, given to fighting among themselves or with their neighbors. En-gannim was also the same as Beth-haggan.

EN-GE'DI {fountain of the kid), a place in Judah. on the west side of the Dead Sea, Josh. 15 : 62 ; Eze. 47 : 10, about midway between its northern and southern ends.

History. —En-gedi was first called Ha-zezon-tainar. Gen. 14 : 7 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 2 ; it was David's hiding-place from Saul, 1 Sam. 23 : 29 ; 24 : 1, and where David cut off the skirt of Saul's robe, 24: 4; its vineyards are mentioned. Song Sol. 1 : 14 ; now called 'Ain Jidy, near which there is a thermal spring, about 1 mile from the seashore and from 330 to 500 feet above the sea, and about 1200 below the top of the cliffs. The ancient city was probably on the slope below the spring, where there are a few ruins. EN'GINES. See War. ENGRAVE'. Engraved seals are spoken of at a very early period of the world. The names of the children of Israel were directed to be engraved on two stones, and the words " Holiness to THK Lord" were also to be engraved on the high priest's breastplate, both to be like the engravings of a signet. Ex. 28 : 11, 36. The signet is mentioned before Joseph was sold into Egypt. Job also speaks of engraving with an iron pen upon a rock. Jobl9:24. The ten commandments were engraved, Ex. 32 : 16, and graven images were undoubtedly among the earliest objects of idolatrous worship. Ex. 20:4; 32:4. Allusion is also made to the engraver's art in Eze. 23 : 14. The engraved lines were probably filled in with coloring-matter. See also Acts 17 : 29. See Seal.

EN-HAD'DAH {swift fountain), a place in Issachar. Josh. 19 : 21. Van de Velde and Thomson suggest as its site 'Ain Hand, on the western slope of Mount Carmel, 2 miles from the sea. Grove questions this view. Conder proposes Kefr 'Adan. \ EN-HAk'KORE {fountain of the i crier), a spring opened for Samson.

ENH

ENS

Jud. 15 : 19. Milton refers to it in Samson Ayoniates:

" God, who caused a foiuitain at thy prayer From the dry ground to spring, thy thirst to

aUay, After the brunt of battle, can as easy Cause light again within thine eyes to spring."

" Samson's Spring " was pointed out on the way from Sochoh to Eleutherop-olis from the time of Jerome to the fourteenth century, but Robinson rejects this site; Van de Velde suggests a large spring near Tell el-Lekiyeh, 4 miles from Beer-sheba. This, however, is 30 miles from Gaza, while Samson's exploit was probably much nearer that city. Conder found near Zoreah a spring called 'Ayun Kara, which name seemed to resemble En-hakkore.

^^'Yi.A.'ZOTi{s2yring of the village), a city of Naphtali, near Kedesh, Josh. 19 : 37; now, perhaps, Hazireh, a ruin near Dihl.

EN-MISH'PAT (fountain of judgment). Gen. 14 : 7. See Kadesh.

E'NOCH (initiating). 1. A son of Cain, after whom he named a " city," the first-mentioned city in the Bible. Gen. 4 : 17; Heb. 11 : 5.

2. The son of Jared, and father of Methusaleh. Gen. 5 : 18, 21-24. He is called "the seventh from Adam," Jude 14, to distinguish him from the son of Cain, third from Adam. We are told that he "walked with God"—an expressive figure to denote the closest communion with the divine Being and entire conformity to his will. And concerning his departure from the world, we are told that " he was not, for God took him "—a phrase which imports a mere change of residence, without suffering the ordinary dissolution of the body. In this case, as well as in Elijah's, the body was clothed with immortality, or endued with the immortal principle by the immediate power of God. 1 Cor. 15 : 50.

Enoch, Book of. There is only one reference in the Bible, Jude 14, to Enoch as a prophet, but an Apocryphal book called after hira was well known to the early fathers. It was then lost to the knowledge of Europe, excejit in fragments, until Bruce, in 1773. brought from Abyssinia three manuscript copies containing the complete ^thiopic translation. Archbishop Lawrence made an

English translation of the book, which was the basis of various subsequent editions, which were rendered comparatively worthless when, in 1851, Dr. Dillmann published a new edition of the-^thiopio text, and in 1853 a German translation. " The book consists of a series of revelations supposed to have been given to Enoch and Noah, which extend to the most varied aspects of nature and life, and are designed to offer a complete vindication of the action of Providence." It was never received by the Jews nor by the fathers as inspired. The authorship and date are unknown.

E'NOCH, a city built by Cain. Gen. 4:17.

E'NON, OR ^'NON (springs), a place near Salim where John was baptizing. John 3 : 23. Three sites have been proposed for it: 1. The traditional one, by Jerome, about 8 miles south of Beisan; not confirmed by later authorities. 2. In WadgPdrah,5 mUes north-east of Jerusalem; suggested by Dr. Barclay. 3. The more probable site, pointed out by Robinson, Stanley, and Conder. This is east of Nuhlus, near the village Salim, and north of the latter, in Wady Fara (but not the same valley as in No. 2), where there are copious springs ; and 3 or 4 miles north of the springs is a village called 'Ainun or Mnon. The site may therefore be regarded as settled with some degree of certainty.

E'NOS (/Hrr»),the first-born of Seth. Gen. 4:26: 5 : 6, 7, 9-11 ; Luke 3 : 38.

E'NOSH (man), a form of Enos. 1 Chr. 1: 1.

EN-RIM'MON (fountain of the pomegranate), perhaps the same as Ain and Rimmon, Josh. 15 : 32, and Ain Renimon, Josh. 19 : 7. and Ain Rimmon. 1 Chr. 4 : 32 ; Neh. 11 : 29. Van de Velde and Wilton place it at Uni er-Rumdniin, between Eleutheropolis and Beer-sheba, where there is a large spring.

EIV-RO'GEL (fountain of the fuller), a spring not far from Jerusalem. Josh. 15 : 7 ; 18 : 16; 2 Sam. 17 : 17, 21; 1 Kgs. 1 : 9. Some place it at the " well of Joab," in the valley of Hinnom. M. Ganneau would identify it with the Fountain of the Virgin. See Jkuusalem.

EN-SHE'MESH (fountain of the Sun), a sjjring between Judah and Benjamin, Josh. 15:7; 18:17; probably the same as that now called the " Apog-

ENS

EPH

tie's Spring," about li miles east of Bethany, and the first halting-place for travellers from Jerusalem to Jericho.

EN'SIGN. See Banners.

ENSUE' means, in 1 Pet. 3:11, ''to follow after and overtake."

EN-TAP'PUAH {apple, or citron spring), a place in Manasseh. Josh. 17 : 7. See Tappuah.

ENTREAT', when spoken of conduct, means "to treatj" as, ''to entreat well."

EP^N'ETUS {praised), one whom Paul in Rom. 16 : 5 called his "well-beloved," and '' the first fruits of Acha-ia"—better, "of Asia" —unto Christ.

EP'APHRAS {lovely, a contraction of '• Epaphroditus"), a distinguished disciple of Colossae, and a faithful minister of the gospel. Col. 1: 7. His character is described by the apostle Paul, Col. 1: 7, 8 ,• 4: 12, whose fellow-prisoner he was at Rome. Phile. 23.

EPAPHRODI'TUS {lovely), an eminent disciple who resided at Philip-pi, and was commissioned by the church in that city to visit the apostle Paul during his imprisonment at Rome; to which circumstance, and the procuring cause of it, the apostle alludes with strongcommendation. Phil. 2:25; 4:18.

E'PHAH {darkness). 1. A son of Midian. and grandson of Abraham, Gen. 25:4; 1 Chr. 1:38; descendants mentioned in Isa. 60 : 6.

2. A concubine of Caleb, the son of Hezron. 1 Chr. 2:46.

3. One of Judah's descendants. 1 Chr. 2:47.

E'PHAH (from the Egyptian, a measure, especially of corn). See Measures,

E'PHAI {weary), a Netophathite whose sons repaired unto Gedaliah. Jer. 40:8.

E'PHER (a calf). 1. A son of Midian. Gen. 25:4; 1 Chr. 1:3.3.

2. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 17.

3, A chief of the trans-Jordanic Manasseh. 1 Chr. 5 : 24.

E'PHES-DAM'^IIM {boundary of bloodshed), caUediihoVAS-jyAM'' MIM. 1 Sam. 17 : 1 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 13. Van de Velde locates it at a ruin in Wady Sunt called Damim, but Conder thinks we have a trace of the ancient Ephes - dammim in the modern Beit 280

Fased, or " House of Bleeding," near Shochoh. ( Tent-Life, ii. p. 160.)

EPHE'SIANS, the citizens of Ephesus. Acts 19:28.

Epistle to, was written by Paul to the Christians at Ephesus. The church in that renowned city was established and built up under Paul's ministry, Acts 18: 19, 21 ; 19, during the years 54-57. This letter was written by the apostle about A. d. 62, while he was in prison at Rome, and forwarded by Tychicus, a beloved biother and faithful minister. Eph. 6 : 21. While other Epistles of Paul were evidently called forth by the circumstances of the church to which they were addressed, this Epistle is of a general character, and was intended for a number of congregations in Asia Minor. He expatiates with great fervor and eloquence upon the doctrine of election, upon the richness of the Christian inheritance, uj^on the new relationship between God and us— that in Christ Jesus we become " fellow-citizens with the saints, and of the household of God." The succeeding prayer is surely one of the most marvellous outbursts of the apostle's piety, under the guidance of thtf Holy Spirit. The main doctrinal thought of the Epistle is the Church in Christ Jesus, the eternal principles of her life, her unity of many members, her warfare and her victor}', her steady growth, and her glorious end. Hence, in the hortatory portion, or last three chapters, he urges the dvity of preserving unity, and makes the relation of Christ to his Church and of the Church to Christ the ideal standard of the domestic relation between man and wife and parents and children.

The Epistle to the Colossians was written at the same time. Hence there is great similarity between them. See Colossians, Epistle to.

EPH'ESUS, the most important commercial city of Asia Minor, "one of the eyes of Asia," Smyrna, 40 miles to the north, being the other. Ephesus stood upon the south side of a plain, with mountains on three sides and the Icarian Sea on the west. The river Cayster ran across the plain.

Scripture History. —Paul visited Ephesus on his second tour. Acts 18 : 19-21 ; Apollgs was instructed there by Aquila

EPH

and Priscilla, 18:24-26; Paul dwelt there 3 years, Acts 19; charged the elders of the church, 20:16-28; the angel of the church of Ephesus is named in Rev. 2:1-7. The city is a complete desohition ; the ruins of the Stadium and theatre remain, but wild beasts haunt them. On the plain is a little Turkish village called Ayasalonk, from St. John, who is supposed to have ended his days at Ephesus. The ancient city often changed its name and its site. In the time of the Trojan war it was called Alopes, then Orthygia, next Morges, then Smyrna, Trachse, and Samornion, then Ptelte, then Ephesus, and now Ai/asalouk.

Bitildiugs. —In apostolic times Ephesus contained three remarkable buildings : 1. The Temple of Diana, one of the Seven Wonders of the world. It was erected at the joint cost of all Asia, and was 220 years in building. Its length was 425 feet, and its breadth 220 feet. Built of purest marble, it is said to have gleamed like a meteor. Columns of Parian marble, 60 feet high and 127 in number, supported the roof. Its doors were of carved cypress. The jambs were of marble, and the transom above was a single block of vast dimensions, reputed to have been put in place by the goddess herself. The hall contained famous pieces of sculpture by Praxiteles, Phidias, and other masters; in the gallery, hung with master-pieces of paintings, one by Apelles is estimated to have cost upward of $190,000. In the centre of the court was an image of the goddess, which the superstitious people believed fell down from heaven. Acts 19 : 35. See Diaxa. Ephesus fell a prey to the Goths, A. n. 262, and the remains of its magnificent temple were hidden from the world until brought to light, in 1869, by Mr. J. T. Wood, who spent eleven years, from 1863 to 1874, in exploration about the ancient city. He found two large stones containing inscriptions in Greek and Latin recording that certain walls were built by order of Augustus, B. c. 6. Twenty feet below the surface was found a pavement belonging to the most ancient of the three temples which rose successively to Diana, The first temple, enlarged and beautified and called the second temple, was set on fire B. c. 356, on the night Alexander the '. 282

Great was born. Some 2000 mediaeval coins were discovered in 1871, which are now in the British Museum.

2. The Theatre, Acts 19 : 29, the largest structure of its kind built by the Greeks, and claimed to be capable of seating 50,000 spectators. Mr. Wood estimated its seating capacity at 24,500 persons.

3. The Stadium, or Circus, 685 feet long by 200 feet wide, an arena in which the Ephesian people witnessed foot-racings, wrestlings, and fights with wild beasts. The combatants were usually condemned criminals, who were sent naked into the arena to be torn in pieces by the wild beasts. 1 Cor. 16 : 32. The victims were sometimes exposed at the end of the combat, which gives great vividness to the apostle's figure in 1 Cor. 4: 9. Some of these games were held in honor of Diana, and the silver shrines or images of the goddess made by Demetrius and his fellow-craftsmen were eagerly purchased for household idols by visitors. Acts 19 : 24. A railroad has been built from Ephesus to Smyrna by an English company.

EPH'LAL (Judgment), a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 37.

E'PHOD (ephod, or image), the father of one who helped in apportioning the land under Joshua and Eleazar. Num. 34 : 23.

EPH'OD, one of the articles of the priest's ofiicial dress. Ex. 28 : 6. It was made of plain linen, 1 Sam. 2:18; 2 Sam. 6:14, except the ephod of the high priest, which was embroidered with various colors. It consisted of two parts, one covering the back and the other the breast, clasped together upon each shoulder with a large onyx stone, upon which were engraved the names of the twelve tribes, six on each stone; and upon the place where it crossed the breast was the breastplate. See Breastplate. It was further fastened by a "curious girdle of gold, blue, purple, scarlet, and fine twined linen." The ephod, or something resembling it and called by the same name, was worn by others besides the priests. 1 Chr. 15 : 27 and passages before cited. See High Priest.

E'PHRAIM (double fruitfdnesH), the second son of Joseph. Gen. 41 : 52. Though 3'ounger than Manasseh, he was the object of peculiar favor, and the pre-

EPH

EPI

diction of their grandfather, Jacob, was literally fulfilled. Cornp. Gen. 48 : 8-20 ; Num. 2:18-21.

E'PHRAIM {double fyuitfIllness), a territory named after Joseph's second son, Gen. 41 : 50-52; its boundaries are given in Josh. 16:1-10. It lay in the centre of Canaan, south of Manasseh and north of Benjamin and Dan, extending from the Jordan to the Mediterranean Sea. It was about 55 miles long, and about 30 miles in its greatest breadth.

Physical Features. —It may be divided into three groups : 1. The valley of the Jordan ; 2. The hill-country ; 3. The plain of Sharon, on the sea-coast. All these were well watered and fertile, fulfilling the blessing of Moses in Deut. 33 : 13-16.

History. —For the early histoi*y of this territory, see Canaan. For more than 400 years Ephraim, with Manasseh and Benjamin, exercised undisputed preeminence. Joshua and Samuel were Ephraimites. In its territory, at Shi-loh, the tabernacle was set up. Josh. 18 : 1. The territory was prominent during the reigns of David and Solomon ; but after the revolt of the ten tribes from Rehoboam, Jeroboam selected Shechem in Ephraim as his capital, 1 Kgs. 12 : 25, when this territory became the chief portion of the northern kingdom of Israel. See Israel, Kingdom OF. It was desolated by the Assyrians at the time of the Babylonish Captivity, and the country was repeopled by colonists, and later its name was changed to Samaria. See Samaria.

Ephraim, Gate of, one of the gates of ancient Jerusalem, 2 Kgs. 14: 13; 2 Chr. 25 : 23 ; Neh. 8:16; 12 : 39 ; probably on the north side, as the present Damascus gate is.

Ephraim, Mount, a name applied to the hill-country of Ephraim, extending from Bethel to the plain of Jezreel; called also the " mountains of Israel," Josh. 11: 21, and '' mountains of Samaria." Jer. 31 : 5, 6; Am. 3 : 9.

Ephraim, Wood of, a forest in which the great battle was fought when Absalom was killed. 2 Sam. 18 : 6. It lay east of the Jordan, in Gilead, near Ma-hanaim. Thick woods of oaks and terebinths still exist in that region.

E'PHRAIN (Hebrew, Ephron, two

fawns), one of the places taken from Israel by Judah, 2 Chr. 13 : 19; perhaps Ophrah is meant, though some think it is the same as the *'city called Ephraim" to which Jesus retired. John 11: 54. This was in the wilderness, perhaps at el - Taii/ibeh, about 5 miles north-east of Bethel.

EPH'RATAH (fruitful), Caleb's wife, 1 Chr. 2:50; 4:4; called Eph-rath in 1 Chr. 2:19,

EPH'RATAH, and EPH'-RATH (fruitful), the original name of Bethlehem. Ruth 4:11; Ps. 132 : 6 ; Gen. 35: 16, 19; 48:7. See Bethlehem.

EPH'RATH. See Ephratah.

E'PHRON (fuion-like), the son of Zohar the Hittite, of whom Abraham bought the field and cave of Machpelah. Gen. 23:8.

E'PHRON, MOUNT (fawn-like), on the northern boundary of Judah, Josh. 15 : 19 ; probably the range of hills west of Wacly Beit-Hanina.

EPICUREANS, OR EPICU'-REANS. This was a sect of Gentile philosophers founded by Epicurus, b. c. 342-271, who was born on the island of Samos, but taught his philosophy at Athens. They were in high repute at Athens in Paul's days. Acts 17 : 18. Among their doctrines were these—that the world came into being and will be dissolved by chance, or by the effect of mechanical causes moved by chance; that all events happen by chance or are occasioned by mechanical causes; that the soul dies with the body; that there is no future retribution ; and that man's chief happiness lies in pleasure or bodily ease. This philosophy obtained a wide popularity in Asia Minor and in Rome as well as in the city and land of its originator. It derided the mythology of the ancients, but proposed nothing better. It created a frame of mind hostile to all religion, and particularly to the serious doctrines of the gospel.

EPIS'TLES, the word applied to the apostolic letters in the N. T. The existence of letters among the Hebrews and the mode of their composition will be discussed under Letter, Writing.

The Epistles of the N. T. arose from the necessity of correspondence as a substitute for the personal instruction

ERE

of the apostles with the widening of their field of labor. They may be divided into three classes : congregational, those addressed to a particular church and dealing with doctrinal or practical questions ; private, those directed to individuals, but still containing exhortation and advice fitted for many; and general, those intended for universal use. Paul contributes thirteen or fourteen : John, three; Peter, two; James and Jude, one each.

In their outward form the Epistles are such as would be expected from Jews situated in the midst of a Greek civilization. They begin (the Epistle to the Hebrews and 1 John excepted) with the writer's name and the person or church to whom the letter is addressed ; in the case of 1 and 2 Peter and Jude, with a more general address. The usual Greek and Hebrew salutation ("grace" and "peace") follows. In the letter the first person, singular or plural, is used indiscriminately. The individual messages are reserved to the close.

Since the Epistles of Paul are the most numerous and important, their form and method demand fuller treatment. His opening salutation combines the Greek "grace" with the Hebrew "peace," and transforms the prevailing ideas of physical health and temporal comfort into the deep meaning of the saving grace of God and peace in Christ. Paul employed an amanuensis. This fact explains many of his peculiarities; his sentences are sometimes involved and have the vehemence of a speaker, and not the calmness and control of a writer. In order, however, to authenticate his letters, Paul added a few words, a salutation, or a sentence in his own hand, probably employing larger letters than those in ordinary use, perhaps because of his defective eyesight. Ye see with how large letters I have written unto you with my own- hand, he writes unto the Galatians, 6 : 11. Every one of his Epistles was written to meet some emergency ; hence they bear the imprint of a historical occasion. Each Epistle has a clearly-defined fundamental idea which governs every part of it. They are tracts for his time, and yet tracts for all times and all congregations. 284

The earlier Epistles antedate the Gospels. They arose out of the necessities of the young Church. Questions would constantly be submitted to the apostles for their decision. Then, too, there were Christians to be encouraged and dangers to be pointed out, and so there were multiform occasions for these letters. It is quite manifest that our N. T. contains only a portion of this correspondence. But every letter which was in its nature adapted for the universal Church has been preserved as part of her canon. See Canon.

Thessalonians I.. Thessalonians II.

Galatiaus

Corinthians I

Corinthians II...

Romans

James

Colossians

Ephesians

Philemon

Philippians

Hebrews

Peter I \

Timothy I

Titus

Timothy II

Peter II

Jude

John I., II., III..

Corinth > Corinth 5 "*

Ephesus

Epliesus ( Macedonia J

Corinth

Jerusalem .. Rome ~i Rome 1 Rome I ■■ ■ * Rome J

Italy

Babylon ?

or Rome 5

Macedonia ..

Rome

Unknown

Ephesus ....

Date

^approximate).

56 or 57

59 62(?)

61-63

64(?)

66 f?)

66(?)

68(?)

64 and 64 and 67 or 67 or 80 and 96 and 100

ER (watchfi(l), Judah's first-born, slain for his wickedness. Gen. 38 : 3, 6, 7; Num. 26:19; 1 Chr. 2:3.

2. A son of Shelah. 1 Chr. 4:21.

3. A name in the genealogical list of Christ. Luke 3:28.

E'RAN [watchful), an Ephraimite. Num. 26:36.

ERAS'TUS {beloved). 1. One of Paul's attendants, whom he sent with Timothy into Macedonia, Acts 19 : 22, and whom he salutes in his letter to Timothy. 2 Tim. 4 : 20.

2. The "chamberlain" or treasurer of Corinth, and one of Paul's converts. Rom. 16 : 23. Some identify him with the preceding, but upon insufficient grounds; for in this case we should expect the mention of his office in the Acts and in Timothy, as in Romans— unless, indeed, he received the office after his conversion, which is very unlikely.

E'RECH (enduring), a city of Nim~ rod. Gen. 10:iO. Its people are called Achevites and noticed in connection with the Babylonians. Ezr, 4: 9, Jerome iden-

EBl

ESH

tifies Erech with Edessa, in Mesopotamia: others identity it with Orchoe or Orech of the Greek and Roman geographers. It corresponded to modern Witrka, about 120 miles south-east of BaV)ylon, where there are ruins of ancient buildings, and a ram])art of earth nearly 6 miles in circumference and some places 40 feet high. There are ruins of three considerable buildings, the most important one being 200 feet square and about 100 feet high. Many of the bricks bear the name of Urukh, a king who is said to have lived about b. c. 2250. Warka is desolate—a city of tombs which even the jackal and hyena appear to shun.

E'RI (wdtching, i. e. icorshij^ping, Jehovah), one of the sons of Gad. Gen. 46: 16; Num. 26:16.

ESA'IAS, the same with Isaiah. Matt. 3 : '.^, etc.

E'SAR-HAD'DON, son and successor of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, and one of the greatest of her kings. 2 Kgs. 19 : 37. He is the only Assyrian monarch who actuall}' ruled in Babylon. He was the builder of magnificent structures, including 3 palaces and 30 temples. His reign extended from B. c. 680 to 667, and during it Manasseh, the king of Judah, was taken prisoner by his captains and carried before him at Babylon, and kept a captive for some time. 2 Chr. 33: 11.

E'SAU, OR E'DOM, son of Isaac and Rebecca, and twin brother of Jacob. Gen. 25 : 25 ; Gen. 36 : 1. The most important events of his life are so intimately connected with the life of Jacob that they will be considered under Jacob. His family settled on Mount Seir, east of Jordan, which was hence called Edom, and his descendants were the Edomites, one of the most powerful and formidable nations of that age. See Edom.

ESCHEW (from the old French eschever) means '' to flee from." Job 1:1, 8: 2:3; 1 Pet. 3:11.

ESDRAE'LON, the great plain in Samaria. See Jezrkel.

ES DRAS, THE BOOKS OF. These two Apocryphal books are not of any historical value. First Esdras is little more than a compilation, after the Septuagint, of the canonical Ezra, prefaced by the last two chapters of 2 Chron-

icles, with a piece of Nehemiah at the end. It contains a history of the tem-])le and its services from .Tosiah to Ezra. But chs. 3 and 4 are original, and contain a legend of a contest in wisdom between Zerubbabel and two others, held before Darius. The question in debate was, " Which is the strongest power?" The king was so much pleased with Zerubbabel's answer that he promised to give him anything he might ask, and, further, a seat next him and the name of " cousin." Zerubbabel took this occasion to ask that the Jews might have permission to rebuild their city and temple. The book breaks off abruptly ; indeed, the present First Esdras seems to be only a fragment of a much larger work. We do not know the name of the compiler. It was probably written in Egypt, some time in the second century b. c. Its object was to present a picture of the liberality of Cyrus and Darius toward the Jews as a pattern to the heathen rulers of Judaea in the author's time.

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