633
The most remarkable characteristic of the ostrich is the rapidity with which it runs, and which the fleetest horse cannot equal. The surprising swiftness of this bird is expressly mentioned by Xenophon. Speaking of the desert of Arabia, he states that ostriches are frequently seen there; that none could take them, the horsemen who pursue them soon giving it over, for they escaped far away, making use both of
633
OVE
Ostrich.
their feet to run and of their wings, when expanded, as a sail to waft them along. This representation is confirmed by the writer of A Voymje to Seneynl, who says, " She sets off at a hard gallop, but, after being excited a little, she expands her wings as if to catch the wind and abandons herself to a speed so great that she seems not to touch the ground. I am persuaded," continues the writer, " she would leave far behind the swiftest English courser." See Owl, Peacock.
OTH'NI [lion of Jehovah), son of Shemaiah, and a " mighty man of valor," 1 Chr. 26:7.
OTH'NIEL, the son of Kenaz, Jud. 1: 13, who displayed his valor in seizing the city of Debir, or Kirjath-sepher, for which exploit he was rewarded by the gift of the daughter of his uncle Caleb in marriage. Josh. 15:17. Afterward he 634
was made the instrument of delivering the Israelites from the oppression of the king of Mesopotamia. Jud. 3 : 8, 9.
OU'CHES were sockets in which precious stones were set. Ex. 39: 6.
OUTLAND'ISH. The women who " caused Solomon to sin " are so called. Neh. 13 : 26. The term means " foreign."
OVENS. Ex. 8:3. In the Eastern cities the ovens at the present day are not materially different from our own. The more common way of constructing them in the country, however, is to take a jar or pot of a cylindrical shape, and, after having partly filled it with pebbles, to apply heat and use it for baking. The dough is plastered upon the outside, and, when baked (as it is almost instantly) comes off in thin cakes. All Eastern bread is of this thin sort. The bread made in this way is clean and white.
OWL
The Bedouin Arabs use three or four different ovens, the description of which may throw some light upon the oven of the Bible.
1. The sand orcn. —This is nothing more than the sand of the earth, upon which a fire is nuido until it is supposed to be sufficiently heated. The fuel and fire ai-e then cleared away, and the dough is laid on the hot sand in flat pieces about the thickness of a plate. Isa. 44 : 15, 19. These are the "ash-cakes." Gen. 18 : 6 ; 1 Kgs. 17 : 13 ,• 19 ; 6. See Cakk.
2. T/ie earth oven is a round hole in the earth. Stones are first jjut into this, and a fire is kindled upon them. When the stones have become thoroughly hot, the fire is removed and the dough spread in thin flakes upon the heated stones, and turned as often as may be necessary. The ovens used in Persia are about 2\ feet wide and not less than 5 or 6 feet deep. They resemble pits or wells, and sheep are hung lengthwise in them and conked whole. These may lie what are rendered in our version " ranges for pots." Lev. 11: 35.
3. Portable oven. — This is an earthen vessel without a bottom, about 3 feet high, smeared outside and inside with clay and placed upon a frame or support. Fire is made within it or below it. AVhen the sides are sufficiently heated thin patches of dough are spread on the inside, and the top is covered without removing the fire, as in the other cases, and the bread is quickly baked. To this we may refer the phrase oven." Lev. 2 : 4.
Convex plates of iron, pans or plates,
flat stones, etc., are often used for baking. See Bakk, Bread.
OVERSEERS'. Acts20: 28. This term denotes the pastor of a congregation of Christians, and is identical with presbyter or elder. Comp. v. 17. The same Greek word is elsewhere translated "bishop." See Bishop.
OWL. In Deut.l4: 16,17; Isa. 34: 11, 15; Ps. 102:6 this word doubtless denotes some one or other of the five species of owl common in Egypt and Syria. The Hebrew word translated
Eagle Owl " baken in the
(Bubo Maximus. After IToughton.)
" owl " in eight other cases means the ostrich, as is often indicated in the margin. Some of these birds we know
635
OZN
are very abundant in Palestine, especially among ruins, and their doleful hooting as they seek their prey by night intensities the present desolation of these former habitations of pride and glory. The prophecies of Isa. 34 find a fulfilment in modern Petra—ancient Idumasa —as described by Irby and Mangles : " The screaming of eagles, hawks, and owls, which were soaring above our heads in considerable numbers, seemingly annoyed at any one approaching their lonely habitation, added much to the singularity of the scene." See Night-hawk, Ostrich.
OX, a well-known domestic animal, clean by the Levitical Law, strong and patient of labor, of great use in agricultural pursuits, and one of the most valuable possessions of the Jewish husbandman. Gen. 24 : 35; 30 : 43 ; 1 Sam. 11 : 7 ; Job 1: 3. Oxen were used for ploughing, Deut. 22 : 10 ; 1 Kgs. 19 : 19 ; Job 1: 14 ; Prov. 14 : 4; Isa. 30 : 24; for drawing. Num. 7 : 3, 7, 8 ; for threshing or treading out grain, Deut. 25 : 4; 1 Cor. 9:9; for beasts of burden, 1 Chr. 12 : 40 ; for sacrifice, Gen. 15 : 9 ; 1 Kgs. 8 : 63; 2 Chr. 29 : 33; to produce milk and butter, Deut. 32 : 14; Isa. 7 : 22 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 29; and their flesh as food. 1 Kgs. 19: 21; 1 Chr. 12 : 39, 40 ; Matt. 22 : 4. The full-grown ox was,however, rarely slaughtered either for food or sacrifice, being esteemed too valuable for any ordinary use of this kind. The young animal was taken instead. Of the herds of Moab in our day Tristram says: " Unlike the sheep, the cattle do not find their way across Jordan to the markets of Jerusalem or Nablous. Beef is a costly luxurj', for the bullocks are as valuable for the plough as the heifers are for milch-kine." The cattle of the Jews were probably broken to service when three years old. Isa. 15 : 5: Jer. 48 : 34.
The oxen of ancient Egypt are shown by the monuments to have been large and handsome creatures, and it is likely that those of Palestine were then similar, though they have now much deteriorated, 636
in size at least. As is shown by the above synopsis, oxen were used in general as horses are now.
East of the Jordan vast herds of cattle grazed through the entire year, being driven to new pastures as old ones were exhausted. This was sometimes possible in AVestern Palestine, owing to the variety of elevation and climate. When these resources failed, a mixture of grains (as the Hebrew indicates) called "'fodder" or "provender," Job 6:5; Isa. 30 : 24, was given, or the torn " straw " left by the threshing-machine. See Thresh. In the more populous districts cattle were stall-fed, as to some extent in all parts. 1 Kgs. 4 : 23 ; Prov. 15 : 17 ; Hab. 3 : 17. At present the herds and flocks of a whole village are commonly pastured together, and at night driven into some large cave, natural or artificial. It is possible that the cave shown at Bethlehem as our Saviour's birthplace was thus used—in part at least—and was really the manger in which the new-born Christ was laid.
Various provisions of the Mosaic Law concerning cattle are recorded in the following additional references: Ex. 20 : 10 ; 21 : 28 ; 34 : 19 ; Lev. 19 : 19 ; 25 : 7; Deut. 22 : 1, 4, 10.
Herds were often left to care for themselves in the vast feeding-grounds east of the Jordan. These half-wild cattle will gather in a circle around any strange object, and, if irritated, charge upon it with their horns. Ps. 22 : 13.
The v)ild ox of Deut. 14 : 5, or wild hull of Isa. 51: 20, is probably the oryx, a powerful creature of the antelope kind, See Agrk'Ulture, Herd.
OX'-GOAD. See Goad.
O'ZEM (.stre)»fth). 1. The sixth son of Jesse. 1 Chr. 2 : 15.
2. A son of Jerahmeel. 1 Chr. 2 : 25.
OZI'AS, the same as Uzziah. Matt. 1 : 8. 9.
OZ'NI (haring ears ; attentive), a, son of Gad : called Ezbon in Gen. 46 : 16.
OZ'NITES, descendants of Ozni. Num. 26 : 16.
PA A
PAL
P.
PA'ARAI, one of David's mighty men, 2 Sam. 23 : 35; called Naarai in 1 Chr. 11 : ;57.
PA'DAN {field), Padan-aram. Gen. 48 : 7.
PA'DAN-A'RAM {the low highland), the country from which Abraham obtained a wife for his son Isaac. Gen. 24 : 10 ,- 25 : 20 ; 28 : 2, 5, 7, from whence Jacob secured his wives, and where Laban lived. Gen. 31 : 18; 33 : 18 ; 35 : 9, 26; 46 : 15. Padan-aram has usually been ideutitied with Mesopotamia, the region between the two great rivers Euphrates and Tigris, and is believed more particularly to designate the plain, in distinction from the mountainous district, in the North of Mesopotamia. Another theory in respect to the location of Padan-aram has been advocated at various periods, to which attention has been directed of late by Dr. Merrill and Prof. Paine. They suggest that Milton places Haran (and of course Padan-aram) south or west of the Euphrates, and Dr. Beke (1845) wrote a learned work to prove that Padan-aram was in the vicinity of Damascus. This view, however, is opposed by the great majority of the most eminent scholars, and has too few facts in its favor to give it much importance. See Mesopotamia and Syria.
PAD'DLE, a small spade. Deut. 23 : Vi.
PA'DON" {deliverance), ancestor of a family of Nethinim which returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr, 2 : 44 ; Neh. 7 : 47.
PA'GIEL ( God allots) was the chief of the tribe of Asher in the wilderness. Num. 1:18: 2 : 27 ; 7 : 72, 77 ; 10 : 26.
PA'HATH-MO'AB {./ovenwr of Moah), the head of one of the principal families of the tribe of Judah, whose descendants returned with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2:6; 8:4; 10:30; Neh. 3:11: 7:11; 10 : 14. With respect to the name, it may be noticed that, according to I Chr, 4 : 22, a family of Shilonites, of the tribe of Judah, had in early times *' dominion in Moab."
PA'I {bleating), a place in Idumaca. 1 Chr, 1 : 50. See Patt.
PAINT, PAINTING, and PIC-
TURE. Paint was well known as a cosmetic in Egypt and Assyria, and universally applied by the women of those countries to the eyes. Also among the Hebrews the custom obtained, though it must be noticed that it is always spoken of in terms of contempt. 2 Kgs. 9: 30; Jer. 4:30: Eze, 23:40, SeeEvK. Painting as a decoration was much practised. In the houses the walls and beams were colored, Jer, 22 : 14 ; also idols, either in the form of sculptures or in the form of drawings on the walls of temples, were colored. Wisd. 13 : 14 : Eze. 23 : 14. But pictures, in the modern sense of the word, as products of free art, were unknown to the ancient Jews, and would perhaps have been regarded as violations of the second commandment. The drawings upon mummy cases were, however, doubtless familiar to them.
PAL'ACE. In the 0. T. the word is used both in a wider sense, denoting the whole mass of buildings, courts, and gardens belonging to a roj^al residence and enclosed by the exterior wall, Dan. 1:4; 4:4, and in a narrower sense, denoting some special part of the whole construction ; for instance, the fortress or citadel. 1 Kgs. 16 : 18 ; 2 Kgs. 15 : 25. In the N. T. the word generally signifies the residence of any man of wealth or prominent social position. Matt. 26 : 3 ; Luke 11: 21; John 18:15. The '-palace" of Phil. 1 : 13 is the barrack of the Praetorian camp attached to the emperor's palace in Rome, on the Palatine. The emperor was ''praetor" or commander-in-chief; so the barrack of his bodyguard was the praetorium. The Roman governors occupied Herod's j^alace in Jerusalem.
The most interesting building of this kind mentioned in the 0, T. is the palace erected by Solomon. 1 Kgs. 7 : 1-12. It occupied an area of about 150,000 square feet, consisted of several independent structures—the house of the forest of Lebanon, the hall of judgment, the porch, etc.—and took thirteen years to build. Besides the description given of this building in First Kings, there is another by Josephus, but they remained
PAL
PAL
almost unintelligible as long as the principles of Greek or Egyptian architecture were applied to theui, while the investigations of the ruins of the pal-
Ground-plan oi boiomou'.s Palace.
aces in Nineveh and Persepolis have thrown much light on the subject.
PA'LAL ijiKhje), the son of Uzai, who assisted Nehemiah in restoring the walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 25.
PAL'ESTINE {Innd of sojourners), a country east of the Mediterranean Sea, and sacred alike to Jew, Mohammedan, and Christian. See Maps at the end of the volume.
Name. —" Palestine"—or " Palestina," which has become the most common name for the Holy Land—is found only three times in our version of the Bible, Ex. 15 : 14: Isa. 14 : 29, 31, and in the 0. T. represents the Hebrew name elsewhere rendered " Philistia." Ps. 60 : S; 87 : 4; 108 : 9; Zeph. 2 : 5. etc. The term, therefore, originally referred only to the country of the Philistines, and in its Greek form is so used by Josephus. The name is also applied to the whole land of the Hebrews by Jose])hus, Philo, and by Greek and Roman writers. Its 638
first and native name was " Canaan." Gen. 12 : 5 ; 16 : 3 ; Ex. 15 : 15 ; Jud. 3 : 1. It was also known as the Promised Land, land of Israel, land of Judah or "Judaja," and the Holy Land. Gen. 12: 7 ', Ps. 105 : 9 ; Zech. 2 : 12, etc.
Situation and Extent. —Palestine is situated at the south-eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, being the southern portion of the high table- and lowlands lying between the great plains of Assyria and the shores of that sea. This central location in the midst of the great nations of the East has been frequently noticed. It was about midway between Assyi-ia and Egypt on the south-west, and between Persia and Greece on the northwest, being on the high-road from one to the other of these mighty powers, and often the battle-field on which they fought to decide which should become the mistress of the world. This central position gave it the opportunity to become acquainted with the progress which these great nations had gained in the arts, the sciences, and in civilization. This also exposed it to the powerful religious influences which these great but idolatrous nations constantly exerted. The weakness of the Hebrew nation in following these forms of false religion and worship caused it to be frequently visited with the judgments of the Almighty.
The bovindaries of Palestine cannot now be accurately determined. While the boundaries between the tribes were defined with much care and precision, the portions bordering on other nations to the north, east, and south on their outlying sides were described in general terms only, and these border-lines seem to have varied at different periods of their history. The land promised to Abraham and described by Moses extended from Mount Hor to the entrance of Hamath, and from the '' river of Egypt" to "the great river, the river Euphrates." Gen. 15 : 18 ; 17 : 8 ; Num. 34: 2-12 ; Deut. 1: 7. Some understand by the " river of Egypt" the Nile, but, as Eastern Egypt was never held by the Hebrews, such a promise was, of course, never fulfilled. To account for this it is said that the promise was made upon conditions which the nation failed to meet, and hence the failure of the Hebrews to possess all the land which, according to this view, had been ])romised to them. Others suppose that the " river
PAL
PAL
of Egypt" means the Wad)/ el-Arish, and all this territory was actually possessed during the period of the monarchy under David and Solomon. Palestine in its greatest extent, therefore, was bounded on the north by Syria, on the east by the Euphrates and the great desert, on the south by Negeb or " the south country," and on the west by the Mediterranean Sea. Scarcely more than one-half of this region lay west of the Jordan between that river and the great sea, the other portion lyingto the eastward and including all the fertile table-land between the Jordan and the great Arabian desert, which reached to the borders of Assyria. The greatest length of Palestine is about 160 miles, its breadth not far from 90 miles; the average length of the territory, according to the latest authorities, is about 150 miles, its average breadth west of the Jordan a little more than 40 miles, and its breadth east of the Jordan rather less than 40 miles. The total area of that portion which lies between the Jordan and "the great sea" is about 6600 square miles; that portion east of the Jordan has an area of about 5000, and perhaps of 6000, square miles, making the whole area of Palestine, on both sides of Jordan, 12,000 or 13,000 square miles, or about equal to that of the two States of Massachusetts and Connecticut.
Pln/siral Features. —This land naturally divides itself into four long parallel tracts, extending north and south, two of them low and two of them elevated: (1) The plain along the sea-coast, broken at the north by Carmel; (2) The hill-country and table-land between the Jordan valley and the coast-plain, reaching from the north to the south end of the land, and broken only by the great plain of Jezreel, or Esdraelon ; (o) The valley of the Jordan, with its remarkable depression below the level of the sea; (4) The high table-land east of the Jordan, reaching from Mount Hermon on the north, through Bashan, Gilead, and Moab, and extending eastward to the Arabian desert. Each of these four natural divisions will be descril)ed, beginning with the plain along the Mediterranean Sea.
1. The coast-plain. —This district is supposed to have been formed by the denudation of the mountains, the sand-dunes along the shores, and partly by
the deposit of the Nile mud, which has been noticed as far north as Gaza. This plain extends without a break from the desert below Gaza to the ridge of Carmel ; north of Carmel is the plain of Acre, which reaches to a headland known as the " Ladder of Tyre ;" north of this headland lies the narrow plain of Phoenicia. That portion of the plain which lies between Carmel and Jaffa (Joppa) was known as the plain of Sharon. A great portion of this plain is flat, but north of Jaffa are low hillocks, through which, in ancient times, tunnels were cut to drain the marshy land lying back of them. The soil is of marvellous fertility, producing good crops without irrigation, though it is tilled in the rudest manner. " Deep gulleys intersect the plain," says Conder, "running westward to the sea, and carrying down the drainage of the mountain-system. They have generally high earthen banks, and in some cases contain perennial streams. The neighborhood of these streams is marshy, especially toward the north of Sharon, and the dunes and marshes together reduce the arable land by about one-fourth. The maritime plain is some 80 miles long, and from 100 to 200 feet above the sea, with low cliffs near the coast. Toward the north it is 8 miles, and near Gaza 20 miles, broad."— Handbook, p. 211. Wilson speaks of the broad expanse of the Philistine plain as covered in harvest-time with a waving mass of golden grain unbroken by a single hedge, and presenting one of the most beautiful sights in Palestine. The stubble becomes so dry under a scorching Syrian sun that a spark would set it on fire, and the flames would sweep over it like the fires upon an American prairie. Such a fire was no doubt kindled by Samson when he turned his three hundred foxes or jackals with their firebrands into the standing grain of the Philistines in the time of wheat-harvest. Jud. 15 : 4, 5. The Shephelah, or " low country," in which were the towns of Beth - shemesh, Aijalon, Tininah, and Gimzo, 2 Chr. 28 : 18, consisted of a series of low undulating hills lying between the great southern plain on the coast and the hill-country toward Jerusalem. There is not to be found a single good harbor along this entire coast. 2. The highlands west of the Jordan. —
PAL
PAL
Next to the coast-plain eastward comes the high-table land, including the hill-country of Judsea—a tract about 25 miles wide, and which begins at the foot of Lebanon in the north and extends southward through the hills of Galilee, is broken by the plain of Jezreel, rises again with the hills of Samaria, and extends southward beyond Jerusalem for about 50 miles. It has been designated geologically as the *' back-bone of Palestine." As seen from the sea, it has a general resemblance to a long continuous wall. The following are the heights above the sea of some of its chief points : Hebron, 2840 feet; Olivet, 2665 feet; Nebi Samwil, 2900 feet; Mount Ebal, 3029 feet: Nebi Ismail, 1790 feet; and Jebel Jermuk, 4000 feet. '' The hills are broad-backed," says Wilson, " and present none of the grander features of mountain-scenery, but every here and there a rounded summit rises above the general level of the range and affords striking panoramas of the surrounding country : such are the views from Mount Ebal, Little Hermon, Nebi Ismail, near Nazareth, and the hill on which Safed stands, each embracing no inconsiderable portion of the Holy Land. The effect of the view is increased by the transparency of the atmosphere, which diminishes apparent distances in a manner unknown in moister climes, and by the rich and varying tints that light up the steep slopes of the Jordan valley. Through the centre of the hill-country runs the main road from Jerusalem through Samaria to Galilee, following nearly the line of the watershed, and passing close to many of the chief cities of Judah and Israel. It is the route now usually followed b^^ travellers, and was probably always one of the most important thoroughfares in the country. East of this road the hills descend abruptly to the Jordan valley; west of it they fall more gradually to the coast-plain. The wonderful ramifications of the valleys which cut up the hill-country on either side of the watershed form one of the peculiar features of Palestine topography ; rising frequently in small upland plains of great richness, such as el-Mukhna, near NabKis, the valleys at first fall very rapidly, and then, after a tortuous course, reach the plain on the one side and the Jordan valley on the 640
other. The effect of this is to split up the country into a series of knife-like ridges, generally preserving an east-and-west direction, and effectually preventing any movement over the country from south to north, except along the central highway; the valley of the Kishon, which spreads out into the broad plain of Esdraelon, and the valley of Jezreel, are the only two which are more than mere torrent-beds."— Bib. Ediicdtor, vol. ii. p. 214. Near Jerusalem the tract becomes lower, about 2600 feet above the sea, and the hills are capped with chalk, but south of Jerusalem the ridge becomes higher and more rugged, the slopes to the west very steep, deep ravines running north and south, while south of Hebron is a plain upon the table-land, ])artially broken by a valley extending from Hebron to Beersheba. and thence north-westward nearly to Gaza. Pres. Bartlett, speaking of the hill-country of Judah, says: '' Perhaps no one aspect of Palestine along its central line of hills, both here and north of Jerusalem, strikes the stranger more with surprise than the amount and roughness of its rock-surface. It is not unlike the stony parts of New Hampshire in this respect. At the first glance, especially in its present wretched desolation and neglect under a government that crushes all the hopes of industry, and in possession of a people that destroy and never replace, the thought of the superficial observer is that of disappointment. He sees it almost treeless, rocky, and rough and neglected, and thinks that it is, after all, a much overrated and overpraised country. But when he looks more closely he perceives that all this rock, being limestone, and not sandstone or granite, when it pulverizes, carries with it, not barrenness, but fertility. He observes how the noble olive grows in successive tiers up the sides of seemingly hopeless hills, what sunny exposures are everywhere offered to the vine, and how green are the wheat-fields even when wedged in among the cliffs, and how all these hills appear once to have been diligently and laboriously laid out in terraces almost to their tops; and he changes his mind. He travels through a multitude of fertile valleys, and crosses plains, like that of Esdraelon, as rich of soil as a Western prairie, almost abandoned now. He
PAL
PAL
passes from the deep tropical valley of the Jordan by the Dead Sea to the high mountains of Galilee and the still higher range of Lebanon, and sees how this little country, not larger than Wales, is fitted to produce almost every species of fruit or grain, of whatever climate, upon the globe. And as he watches the brooks and springs of water, and the singular variety of surface, orchards, glens, bold mountains, fertile flowery plains, picturesque sites—such as those of Jerusalem, Hebron, Samaria, and a multitude of other places — he cannot but perceive how in its palmy days, when the heights •were crowned with foliage, the hillsides with cattle, and the fields with grain, Palestine must have been indeed a goodly land, presenting to its children home-attractions and inextinguishable recollections beyond even those of Scotland, Switzerland, or New England."— From Egypt to Palestine, p. 409.
3. The Jordan raf/ei/ and plain. —This valley, extending from the base of Her-mon to the south end of the Dead Sea, is one of the wonders in physical geography. It varies greatly in width from half a mile to 5 miles, and at some points is 12 miles broad. At the foot of Her-mon this valley is about 1000 feet above the sea; at Lake Huleh, about 12 miles south of Hermon, the valley is upon the sea-level; at the Sea of Galilee, some 10 miles farther south, the valley falls 682 feet below the level of the sea; while at the Dead Sea, about 65 miles south of Galilee, the valley sinks to the astonishing depth of 1300 feet below the ocean-level. The sea has on its shore a salt-mountain, Jebel Usdum, a long mass of rock - salt several hundred feet high, nearly 7 miles long, and from 1 to 3 miles wide. The mountain is capped with marl and gypsum, and in this region are numerous salt pillars, among them one spire which tradition points out as Lot's wife. Bitumen abounds also, and sometimes is strongly impregnated with sulphur. See Salt Sea. The mountains on either side of this immense depression rise to a height, near Beisan, of about 2000 feet above the valley, while near Jericho they are nearly 4000 feet above the river Jordan. These heights, combined with the deep depression, aff"ord a great variety of temperature, and bring into close proximity productions usually 41
found widely apart in the temperate and torrid zones. See Jokdan.
4. 7%e table-land eaut of the Jordan. —The broad eastern ])lateau beyond Jordan may be described as having a general altitude of about 2(t00 feet above the sea, though at some points it attains a height of 3000 feet ; the surface is tolerably uniform, but broken on its western edge by deep ravines running into the Jordan valley. Within this region were the ancient forests and rich pastures of Bashan, famous from a very early age, and still regarded as among the most fertile portions of Palestine. This plateau, upon its extreme eastern edge, sinks away into the Arabian desert. Eastward of the Sea of Galilee, however, it is broken by a mountainous tract extending from 40 to 50 miles from northeast to south-west. The region known as the Lejah is one vast lava-bed, broken by deep ravines, where water is found and where people dwell in caves. See Bashan.
This volcanic or basaltic tract rises gradually from the north, and is interspersed with many isolated hills, some of which are beyond doubt craters of extinct volcanoes. Nearly opposite Jericho is the range of Abarim, which includes Nebo and Pisgah, the place where Moses viewed the land and died. Deut, 34 : 1-6. See Abarim.
Mountainti, Panses, and Plains. —The only mountain of importance along the coast is the promontory and ridge of Carmel, which extends north-west and south-east, being from 12 to 18 miles in length, about 1750 feet high at its highest point, and about 600 feet high where it breaks off into the sea. Among the noted elevations of the district known as '^ the hill-country," west of the Jordan, are the following : At the extreme north the Anti-Lebanon range, and southward, in Galilee, Little Hermon, Tabor, the Horns of Hattin, the hill of Nazareth, and Mount Gilboa; still farther south. Mount Ebal, Mount Geri-zim. Gibeah, Olivet, the mountain Quar-antania, and, at the extreme south. Mount Seir. Among the mountcains in the district cast of Jordan are Mount Gilead, the range of Abarim, which included Pisgah, Nebo, and Peor. Among the noted "passes " on the west side of Jordan is that at Beth-horon,
PAL
PAL
the one in the south at Akrabbim, and ! that on the road from Jerusalem to Jericho through the Wacli/ Kelt. There are j numerous other deep ravines on both ; sides of the Jordan, like that of Mnr \ Saba, and of the Callirrhoe along the Zerka Main. Among the plains, the two most remarkable are the plain of Jezreel and the plain of Sharon. See Jezreel and Sharon.
Rivers, Lakes, and Fountains. —The great river of Palestine is the Jordan, which divides the land into two almost equal portions. It has no important tributary from the west, but there are some small streams, as the Derdarah, the Nahr el-Jalitd, rising in the fountain of Jezreel, and the Wady el-Faria. Of the streams running into the Mediterranean are the Leontes, the Belus, the Kishon—''that ancient river"—the Zerka, north of Caesarea, and the Aujeh, near Jaffa, which drains the mountains of Samaria. The streams running into the Jordan from the east are the Wady Za'areh, the Yarmuk or Hieromax, the Jabbok—now called the ez-Zerka —the Zerka Main, the Arnon—now called the el-Mojib —and the Wady Kerak. Many of the so-called *' rivers " of Palestine are only winter-torrents, whose beds are dry in summer. The lakes of importance are Lake Huleh, or the " waters of Merom," the Lake of Galilee, and the Salt or Dead Sea. A description of these is given under their respective titles. Palestine was noted of old for its fountains. Among the most important are those which constitute the sources of the Jordan, as the great fountain at Banias, the ancient" Caesarea Philippi," at Tell al-Kady, the ancient Dan, the fountain of Jezreel, the source of the Kishon, the fountain of Nazareth, that of et-Tabiijhah, the hot springs of Tiberias, the various fountains in and about Jerusalem—of which Robinson says there are not less than thirty—the "fountain of Elisha," near ancient Jericho, those near Hebron, and the noted fountain near ancient En-gedi. Upon the east of the Jordan, near the Dead Sea, were the famous hot springs of Callirrhoe, and similar springs near the Zerka, the Yarmuk or Hieromax, and, besides these, the copious fountains at some of the principal towns, as Kuna-wat, Hebron, Ornam, and Busra or Boz-642
rah. The mineral springs are found chiefly in the valley of the Jordan, and are divided by Robinson into three classes: (1) Hot sulphur springs, which are found in five places—near Tiberias, on the western shore of the lake, with a temperature of 144°; near Um Keis, in the valley of the Yarmuk, with a temperature of 109° ; at Callirrhoe, east of the Dead Sea; and in Wady Hamad. (2) Warm saline springs occur at only one place, the Wady Malih, south of Beisan, which have a temperature of 98°. (3) Warm springs in general, of which there are several. The " fountain of Elisha," near Jericho, is slightly warm, but not brackish, and the same is true of the fountains et-Tabiyhah and el-Feshkah, on the western shore of the Dead Sea, except that the latter is quite brackish.
Geoloyy. —There never has been a com-jjlete geological survey of Palestine. The general character of its formation has been ascertained, however, and will be briefly described. The Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges of mountains are chiefly composed of hard limestone overlaid with a formation of soft white chalk, the latter containing numerous fossils, those of the fish being the most common. These formations occur in Western Palestine, though in the higher hills of Galilee there is a second layer of limestone above the chalk. The upper limestone varies from white to reddish-brown, has few fossils, and abounds in caverns, the strata being sometimes violently twisted, as between Jerusalem and Jericho, and in other places blends into dolomite or magnesian limestone, as on the western shore of the Dead Sea. East of the Jordan and south of Her-mon are vast beds of volcanic rock, and in the Lejah district there is a great field of basalt covering about 500 square miles. East of the Dead Sea occurs the Nubian sandstone, while beneath this formation, especially near Petra, igneous formations are to be found, the chains of Sinai and Serbal being formed of diff"erent varieties of granitic rock. The geological origin of the great depression of the valley of the Jordan may be due to volcanic causes, though this question has not yet been settled. Some think the basins of the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea resemble era-
PAL
PAL
ters; others attribute the chasm to the gradual action of the ocean at some immensely remote period. All agree that the theory which ascribes the formation of the Dead Sea to the time of the overthrow of the cities of the plain is without any scientific support, and it is not required by the language of Scripture. The soil of Palestine is noticed under Agriculture.
Climate. —Though the present climate of Palestine appears to be unhealthy for Occidentals, it is on the whole mild, and tends toward an extreme of heat rather than of cold. The mean temperature at Beirut (a little north of Palestine proper) of each month for a period of ten years was as follows: January, 67.3°; February, 58.6°; March, 63.3°; April, 67.3°; May, 73.3° ; June, 78.1°; July, 83°; August, 83.4° ; September, 81.6° ; October, 77.8°; November, 67.6°; December, 61.5°,—making the mean for the whole period 71.1°. The coldest month, on the average, was Januarj'; the warmest, August. The average summer heat, according to Con-der, ranges between 100° in the plains and 85° in the mountains as a maximum temperature in the shade. In the plains the winter temperature seldom falls below freezing-point, but in the mountains frost and snow are of frequent occurrence. On the sea-coast the heat of the summer is tempered by the cool breezes, but in the valleys of the Jordan the heat is often terrible, sometimes reaching 110° in the shade.
According to Dr. Barclay, the highest temperature at Jerusalem is about 92° and the lowest 28°, the mean temperature being not far from 62°. About the same temperature doubtless prevails throughout the whole hill country. Mount Hermon, in the north, 9300 feet high, is never entirely clear of snow, though sometimes there is very little of it left upon its sides late in autumn. As a rule, the year consists of two seasons only, the rainy and the dry. The rainy season begins near the end of October, sometimes preceded by violent thunderstorms. This may be the " former rain " noticed in the Bible. Deut. 11: 14; Joel 2 : 23. The winds from the south and south-west bring frequent showers. De cember is usually stormy, January and February cold and rainy, the rain fall-
ing in the valleys and uplands and the snow upon the mountains. The "latter rains" come in March and April. If scanty, they impair, or even destroy, the crops ; if violent, they sometimes sweep away the fruit trees and gardens, and do not spare the mud hovels, or even the better houses of the peasantry. The average annual rainfall at Jerusalem has been found to be about 60 inches, while with us it is 45, and in California, where the climate resembles Palestine, it is only 20 inches. The annual rainfall at Beirut for the ten years noted in the previous paragraph was 63 inches, the least for any one year being 57, and the greatest 74. The average number of rainy days in a year was 63. The dry season extends from April to November, during which period the sky is almost uninterruptedly cloudless. Thunderstorms occasionally occur in May, but are very rare. 1 Sam. 12 : 17, 18. Mists hover about the mountains, but otherwise the atmosphere is generally brilliantly clear. Heavy dews fall at night, even in the midst of summer, except in the desert. The east wind, or sirocco, blows during February, March, and April, and sometimes darkens the air with clouds of fine dust. A drought of three months before harvest is fatal to the crops, the harvest coming in the valley of the Jordan a month in advance of that on the highland. The barley-harvest usually comes early in May in the valley ; the wheat-harvest is a few weeks later. But the harvest-time varies in different years, and even in different parts of the countr}^, in the same season, owing to the different elevations of the land.
In regard to the climate and seasons of Palestine now, Warren says :
" There is but one rainy season, and then a long interval of drought and desolation from July—I might say May—• to November. During this long period scarcely a green blade can be seen as far as the eye can stretchoverthe vast plains, nothing but sticks, stones, and dust, the monotony relieved only by the noise of the wild artichoke careering on the wings of the whirlwind, or by a troop of Bedouins rushing off on a plundering expedition. Toward the end of October there is a sullen stillness in the air; the attnosphere is loaded to the senses, and
PAL
PAL
the soul is heavy with melancholy, waiting for the rains. Then the spell of drought is broken; a storm occurs. For three days there is abundance of soft showers, with a few downpours, and again often some weeks of drought until the winter solstice; then there is a thorough break up : cold and rain s])read over the land. In January the rain falls now and again for three days, with a week's interval; but February is the really rainy month. I have known it to rain every day throughout the month. There is, however, no certainty in the matter; one year the rain is later than the next. In March there are pleasant showers and storms, and in April there are showers and often intervals of intense cold ; even snow I have known at Jerusalem during that month. May is frequently a month of hot winds blowing from the east, but in June there are clouds and a few showers. Now, it is this early portion of the year that would be most affected by the growth of trees and the terracing of the hillsides. The April showers would be extended into May, the June clouds and showers into July ; the latter rains of June will fall in abundance, giving a second season—a never-ending succession of crops—when the ploughman will overtake the reaper and the treader of grapes him that soweth seed. The rich soil is well prepare 1 to yield a second crop year by year; all that is required is water and warmth, and this it will have, for water will now be found gushing from the rocks, from springs which have long been silent. Carried along the hillsides in ducts, it may be used for irrigation purposes in the undulating country, and then into the plains, to be used again, or else it may assist in filling up the wells of the plain to near the surface of the ground—wells which are now 30 to 90 feet deep—with water. The water so freely used will evaporate and form clouds over the land without ever reaching the sea, thus preventing the formation of the unhealthy lagoons of half-salt, half-fresh water along the shore of Palestine, now so common.
" Philistia, Sharon, and the other plains bordering on the sea, are even now exceptionally fertile, but they may, by a regular succession of crops, be made to yield far more ^ibundantly, and the advance of the rolling sand-hills may 644
be arrested—an advance which, if not
looked to, will soon overwhelm the fairest of the maritime plains. The rich ground between Gaza and Ascalon, between Ascalon and Jaffa, which the sand has swallowed up, must again be uncovered. United action is requisite fur this, for individual efforts can be of no avail: the rolling sand-hills are a common enemy, and must be attacked by the nation.''
Of the effect of the " former rains " in October and Xovember, Tyrwhitt Drake wrote in 1872 : " These rains pro<luced an immediate change in the appearance of the country. Grass began to sprout all over the hills; the wasted grain on the threshing-floors soon produced a close crop some 6 inches high. The cyclamen, white crocus, saffron crocus, and jonquil are in full flower on the mountains ; the hallat ( Qnercus sec/ilops) is fast putting out its new leaves, and in sheltered nooks some of the hawthorn trees are doing the same. . . . These, to our notions, are hardly signs of coming winter, but the advent of numberless starlings and common plovers on the plains and woodcock in the woodlands points to rain not far distant."
Pro(h(ctio)is. —Among the trees and plants of Palestine, the more important are the cedar and the cypress, now quite rai-e; the Aleppo pine, still abundant on the slopes of Lebanon; the terebinth, evergreen oak, and the common oak, for which Bashan was famed; the locust tree, the carob—the pods of which were the " husks " the prodigal would have eaten— the walnut, the plane tree, the tamarisk, the common willow, the white or silver poplar, the maple, juniper, ash, alder, and hawthorn. Of fruit trees there are the sycamore-fig, olive, quince, mulberry, almond, banana, pomegranate, orange, pear—though not abundant—and the common fig, which is one of the staple products of the country. The prickly pear is used for hedges; the palm tree, once abundant, is now rarely seen; though the date-palm is occasionally found, yet its fruit does not ripen. Vines are very common, grapes being one of the principal products of the hill-country. Melons of various kinds, cucumbers, lettuce, purslane, endive, gourds, and pumpkins are likewise common, some of the latter attaining
PAL
PAL
great size. The egg-plant and cauliflower are also common, and artichokes and asparagus grow wild. Potatoes are grown in some places, as at Jerusalem. Among the flowering-))lants may be noticed the tuliji, various kinds of tlie anemone, the lily, the white narcissus, the iris, the flowering oleander, the honeysuckle, the jessamine, the primrose, mistletoe, acacia, poppy, geranium, and pink, and altogether more than five hundred different varieties of wild-flowers of rich and delicate color, giving the country, in the height of the season, a showy and gorgeous appearance. Indeed, the wild flowers of Palestine .are the chief natural attractions of the country. The various grains grown in Palestine are described under Agriculture and under their difi"erent titles.
The wild animals of Palestine are about the same as in ancient times, except that the lion and a species of the wild ox have become extinct. The number of species of mammals is about eighty —a large number for so small a country. Among the animals are the badger, bat, bear, zemer, coney, various kinds of deer, ferret, fox, wild goat, hare, hedgehog and porcupine, hyajna, jackal, cheetah or leopard, wild boar and wild ass, the mole, mouse, the jerboa or jumping mouse, weasel, and the wolf. Of domestic animals there are the camel, dog, cat, goat, horse, mule, ass, ox, sheep, and the half-wild swine. Of the reptiles and ''creeping things" of Palestine every traveller is painfully conscious. They are the adder, lizard, chameleon, frog, shrill-crying little gecko, the viper, and scorpions under every stone. Insects abound on every hand. The more common are the ant, honey-bee, flea, locust, wasp, hornet, spiders without number, various kinds of gnats and flies, beetles, and butterflies. Of fish the most common are the carp, perch, minnow, barbel, bream, sheat-fish, and the dog-fish, all of which abound in the Jordan and the Sea of Galilee. Larger fish are found in the Mediterranean, among them the shark, which was doubtless the ''great fish" (incorrectly rendered "whale") that swallowed the truant prophet Jonah.
The birds of Palestine are very numer-gus, more than three hundred and twenty
species having been already identified. The hills abound in fine specimens of the partridge, and quails are found in the grain-fields. Wild ducks frequent the plains of the Jordan, and pigeons swarm everywhere. Large flocks of storks and cranes hover about the plain of Jezreel, while sparrows and swallows swarm in the ruins of towns and boldly enter the very sanctuaries of the Muslims in Jerusalem and elsewhere. The most conspicuous of the birds of prey are the eagle, ospray, vulture, kite, the lapwing or hoopoe, the filthiest of scavengers among birds, the hawk, and the majestic lammergeier. The ravens are still abundant as in the days of Elijah, and are of various kinds. Singing-birds are not wanting. Cant. 2 : 12 ; Ps. 104 : 10, 12, the more common being the thrush, nightingale or bulbul, and the cuckoo, whose sweet call-notes are often heard in spring. The cormorant, heron, and pelican are also found upon the lakes or along the coast. Gulls and petrels skim the shores of the sea; jays and woodpeckers sport in the forests of Carmel, Gilead, and Bashan; kestrels, griffons, and buzzards soar over the rugged cliffs of Jordan or sweep across the marshes of the plains; bats and owls swarm in the numerous caverns in the sides of the deep ravines and limestone precipices abounding in the land ; larks and linnets are taken in snares, tamed, and used like pigeons as decoys to catch other birds; while chattering sparrows are on every hand, until we do not wonder that a single one of these birds was counted worth next to nothing — two for a farthing or five for two farthings. Matt. 10 : 29; Luke 12 : 6. While the thrift, prosperity, and true religion of the people of Palestine have disappeared, and with them the beauty and natural loveliness of the land, the prominent physical features remain as they were 4000 years ago, and our eyes behold the same valleys, hills, and mountains, our feet may cross the same streams, and our thirst may be quenched from the same fountains and wells that were fumed in the days of the patriarchs. The same kind of animals survive to bear burdens for the trader and to feed the hungry now as in those remote ages, the same kind of insects annoy and destroy the comfort of the "sojourner,"
PAL
PAL
and the same sort of birds delight the eye with their majestic flight or please the ear with their song.
Palestine is itself one vast ruin ; even the very land seems to sympathize with the general desolation which rests upon its cities and towns. A bad government has for years not only failed to protect its inhabitants: it has burdened them with taxes, and when it had brought them to poverty it added extortion to oppression, allowed justice and honesty to be disregarded by its officials, made bribery and corruption so common, and the reward to the extortionate so great, that no officer could afford to be honest or dare to be just. The whole system of civil rule is on a rotten foundation, and cannot be made solid so long as it is based on the Turkish belief that a Christian and a Jew can never be raised to an equality with a follower of Mohammed. Added to this there are great physical causes which have been suggested as reasons why a land once so fruitful has become so barren and desolate. Among these are : (1) Rains have ceased to fall in proper proportion; (2) Clouds fail to protect the soil from the sun in spring; (3) There are neither people, facilities, nor skill to till the land properly; (4) Soil once terraced on the mountain-sides is now washed into the valleys.
Respecting the possibilities of recovering the former fertility and productiveness of the Holy Land, Warren eloquently declares: '* Put the country under proper cultivation, and will not all be changed? Rich loam clogs the valleys, the hillsides are bare. The work to be done is not difficult. It is practicable; it is going on in Spain, and even in parts of Palestine at the present time. Walls of rough stones are built along the hillsides, 3 to 4 feet high, according to the steepness of the slope, and the sjjace between them and the hill filled up with the jet loam; this is continued from bottom to top until the mountain-side presents the appearance, from the opposite side, of a series of steps: from the bottom it looks like a great stone wall; from the top, like a loamy plateau. On these terraces are planted the young trees, figs, olives, mulberry, apricot, the pine, those of a more delicate nature being planted on the northern terraces in order that they may 648
suffer less from the sun's rays, the walls not being exposed to the heat. These trees thrive rapidly, as they will do in Palestine, and spread out their leaves and thrust their roots into the rocky clefts. The rain falls, but not as heretofore ; there are no bare rocks for it now to course down, no torrent is foaming in the valley. No! Now it falls on the trees and terraces, it percolates quietly into the soil and into the rocky hillside, and is absorbed, scarcely injuring the crops in the valle}', where before it would have ruthlessly washed them away.
" The water that thus sinks into the rocks is not lost, for it will shortly reissue at some distance lower down in perennial springs, so refreshing in a thirsty land. The rain that remains in the soil keeps about the roots of the trees, enabling them to spread out their leaves in rich groves over the land to protect it from the sun, whose rays are now intercepted and absorbed by the leaves and fruits, giving forth no glare or reflection, but a delicious green shade. The soil, though warm, is not burnt up at once, but every day gives out a moisture which rises above the trees, and on reaching the higher and cooler winds is condensed into visible vapor or clouds, constantly forming as the breeze jiasses over the groves, thus protecting them from the sun as with an umbrella. The climate becomes changed, for the rocks, once bare and exposed to the sun, have now upon them soil, and, sheltering the soil, trees, and, sheltering the trees, clouds. Thus where were but glaring sun, dry winds, dry with stony land, absence of vegetable products, are now to be found fleecy clouds floating through the air, the heat of the sun tempered by visible and invisible vapors, groves with moist soil, trickling streamlets issuing from the rocks, villages springing up apace—Palestine renewed."
HiHtory. — The history of the Holy Land is treated in detail under Canaan, Israel, Jubah, and Jerusalem. A concise general view may here be added for convenience to the reader. The history of this land may be not inappropriately divided into five great periods : (1) Before the Israelitish conquest; (2) Lender the Judges and kings; (3) During the Captivity ami Maccabaean period; (4) The Roman and Christian period- (5)
PAL
PAL
The Mohammedan period. An outline only can be given under each period.
1. Before the iKraelitish CniK/itest. — The earliest inhabitants of Palestine of whom we have any notice were Ilamites, descended from Canaan, and included ten or more tribes, grouped under the general name of Canaanites. Gen. 10 : 15-18. Some suppose these tribes were in two groups, Sidon and Heth, and that the curious inscriptions found at Hamath, yet undeciphered by scholars, are of Hittite origin. At an early date there may have been only four leading tribes within the bounds of Palestine—Jebus-ites, Amorites, Girgasites, and Hivites ; others were soon added, however, and appear in the days of Abraham, the Hittites probably coming from the north, as did also the Amorites. The walls of the temple at Karnak, in Egypt, bear a hieroglyphic inscription, lately deciphered, recording an invasion by Thoth-mes III. of the countries east of the Mediterranean, including Palestine, and the conquest of one hundred and nineteen towns and cities, a lai'ge portion of them being identified as cities mentioned in the Bible. For the later conquest of the land by Joshua, and the division of it among the tribes, see Canaan.
2. Under the Judyes und Kings. —During the rule of the Judges the land was not under any united or strong government. The fortunes and the possessions of the people were subject to constant fluctuations—sometimes overrun by enemies, at others victorious over them, as under the leadership of Samson, Gideon, and Jephthah ; but there was little general security, and the former tribes kept the new settlers in a state of constant alarm. They longed for a central and monarchical government, and God granted their desire, though warning them, through the prophet Samuel, of the result. Under David and Solomon the nation was consolidated and reached the highest point of temporal prosperity. The rupture followed, and for five hundred years the nation gradually declined in greatness and power, until it fell into captivity under the Assyrian and Babylonian empires. See Israel and Judah, Kingdoms of.
3. The Cnptivitif and Mnccabfrmi Bide, —After the seventy years' captivity portions of the southern nation returned to repeople Palestine. The ten tribes com-
posing the northern kingdom of Israel were " lost," and portions of their territory were repeopled by a mixed class, afterward known as Samaritans. Later, Philip and his son Alexander extended the Grecian concjuests into Asia. The decisive battle of Issus, b. c. 333, in which Darius was completely deflated, caused Palestine to pass from the Persian to the Grecian sway. The country was ruled under the Seleucidaj by governors appointed by the king at Antioch. The war of independence, under the leadership of the Maccabffian princes, is among the most important events of this period. 4. Boman and Christian Period. —About B. c. 40 the Parthians plundered Syria and Palestine; Herod I. (afterward the Great) obtained the vassal-kingship from the Romans, and was confirmed in office B. c. 37. After his death (b. c. 4), and during the ministry of our Lord, the land was divided and ruled by his sons and by Roman procurators, Herod Antipas and Pilate being among those more prominent in biblical history. A national (Jewish) insurrection broke out in consequence of the maladministration of the Roman governor, and in A. d. 70 the capital, Jerusalem, was captured after great loss of life. The whole land was soon after reduced to the condition of a colony, and the Jews excluded from their capital. Later, the eastern empire gained the ascendency in Western Asia, and under the Constantines the land was favored, Christianit}' was recognized, churches built. Christian sees established, and partial prosperity restored. The birth of the false prophet Mohammed, A. D. 670, and the rapid rise of Mohammedanism, led the way for the Holy Land to fall into the hands of the Arabs. 6. The Mohammedan Period. —The battle of Hieromax (Yarmuk), A. D. 634, opened the whole of Palestine to the Arabs, followers of Mohammed. The political history of the Arab rulers of these centuries presents a continuous scene of war and bloodshed, accompanied by an interminable series of intestine dissensions, intrigues, and murders. The Arabs, however, made considerable progress in scientific knowledge, in philosophy, and in mathematics. The internal disorders of the Muslim empire aided in giving success to the bold bands of Christian Crusaders who were detcr-
PAL
PAL
mined to wrench the Holy Land from the hand of the Muslim, and for a time they held the country, but their rule was comparatively short: and, though four or five crusades were undertaken with remarkable zeal, the Mamelukes succeeded in coming into possession of the land, to be followed by the Osmans, who have held the country under their misrule, scarcely interrupted by the famous invasion of the French under Napoleon I., who signally defeated the Turks in battle on the plain of Jezreel. The recent intervention of England and the nations of Europe was supposed to promise some reforms in misgoverned Turkey and its possessions, including Palestine, but the realization of the promise must be found in the future, if at all,
Palestine now belongs to the pashalic of Damascus, which includes the three sub-pashalics of Beirut, Akka, and Jerusalem.
Present. Inhabitants. —As no census of Palestine has been taken under its present rule, the number of its inhabitants can be only approximately determined. The estimates of the present population vary widely. The pashalic of Jerusalem, according to Ritter, has 602,000; the pashalic of Acre, according to Robinson, has 72,000 ; the remaining part of the pashalic of Sidon in Jerusalem and the East Jordanic region is estimated to contain about 150,000, making a total population of 824,000. Dr. Hitchcock, in Johnson's Cyclnps'xlia, supposes the present population "to be well on toward 400,000, less than a tenth of what it probably was in the time of Solomon," The correct number can only be ascertained by a census under a government with more trustworthy officials than the present Turkish rule sustains. Of the population of Palestine probably about 20,000 are Jews, chiefly dwelling in the four sacred cities of Jerusalem, Safed, Tiberias, and Hebron, The Samaritans number scarcely one hundred and fifty, dwelling in Nabliis. The rest of the population is Mohammedan and of a mixed character, from the ancient Syrians and their conquerors the Arabs. Computations based on the statements of Josephus make the population of Palestine in the time of our Lord from 4,000,000 to 6,000,000,- the number in 650
the most prosperous days of the monarchy under Solomon is estimated at from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000.
The peasantry of Juda?a are termed fellaheen Arabs, but M. Ganneau argues that this sedentary and not nomadic race must be distinguished from the nomad Arabs who came from Arabia with Caliph Omar. He thinks that the fellaheen Arabs are descendants, not of the conquering Arabs, but of the peasants found by them upon the soil. " Of what race, then, were these peasants? Were they Jews ? No; for the wars of extermination waged by Vespasian, Titus, Trajan, and Hadrian, and the persecutions of the Christian emperors left not one stone upon another of either political or ethnic Judaism. . . . Jewish tradition, properly so called, is for ever lost in Palestine; and all the Jews now found there have, without exception, come to the country at a comparatively recent. date," Were they Greeks ? No; for they spoke a Semitic dialect, M. Ganneau's conclusion is "that the fellaheen of Palestine, taken as a whole, are the modern representatives of those old tribes which the Israelites found in the country, such as the Canaanites, Hittites, Jebusites, Amorites, Philistines, Edomites, etc," He designates these as "pre-Israelite" races, " Each successive change in the social and political condition of the country has more or less affected it in various ways; and we must not be surprised, when we study the fellaheen, at finding Jewish, Hellenic, Rabbinic, Christian, and Mussulman reminiscences mingled pell-mell and in the quaintest combinations with traits which bring us back to the most remote and obscure periods of pre-Israelite existence,
" The tenacity with which old religious customs have been kept up is another remarkable circumstance. Not only have the fellaheen, as Robinson conjectured, preserved, by the erection ! of their Mussulman knbhehs and their I fetichism for certain large isolated trees, the site and the souvenir of the hill-sanctuaries and shady groves which were marked out for the execration of the Israelites on their entry into the Promised Land, but they pay them almost the same veneration as did the Canaanite Knoffars, whose descendants they are, These viakoms^ as Deuter-
PAL
PAL
onomy calls them — which Manasseh rebuilt, and against which the prophets in vain exhausted their invectives —are word for word, thing for thing, the Arabic makums, whose little white-topped cupolas are dotted so picturesquely over the mountain-horizon of Central Judtca.
" In order to conceal their suspicious origin, these fellah sanctuaries have been placed under the protection of the purest Mohammedan orthodoxy by becoming the tombs or shrines of shej/khfi, iveli/s, and iiebi/s —elders, saints, and prophets— deceased in the odor of sanctity. But there are many traces of their true origin beneath this simple disguise."
On account of the close connection between the names and places, Moses insisted upon destroying both. The fellaheen will " swear fluently and perjure themselves without scruple by any other sacred object, even by the Sakhrah—the rock upon which stood the altar; but if they take an oath on their local sanctuary, it is extremely rare to find them faithless or bearing false witness."
Antiquities and Explorations. —Palestine has no wonderful pyramids and obelisks like Egypt, nor has it ruins of vast temples and palaces like Assyria. There are few remains of the work and art of the Israelites, most of the ruins of edifices being not older than the Roman period. There are some coins of the Maccabrean era, some of the stones of Solomon's temple and palace have been found, and the enclosure of Abraham's tomb at Hebron has not been explored and its age is unknown. The wells at Beersheba are, however, of the patriarchal ages, and the well at Sychar has also been generally accepted as the one dug by the patriarch Jacob.
The exploration of this land may be traced back to the era of pilgrimages, when Eusebius and Jerome wrote a description of Palestine in the Ononiasticon. Little was added to the information they gathered until a recent period, when Seet-zen (1805-1807). Burckhardt (1810), Irby and Mangles (1817), and, pre-eminently, Robinson (1838 and 1852) brought a true critical and scientific method to the examination ♦f this land of lands. Besides these, a multitude of noted travellers have visited and explored the
country, and presented the results of their labors to the world.
In 1865 the English Palestine Fund was formed for an exact survey and thorough scientific exploration of Western Palestine. This has been completed, and the results have been very satisfactory, the latest being given in the admirable large sheet-maps of the whole territory between the Jordan and the Mediterranean, accompanied by full descriptive memoirs of the survey.
The American Palestine Exploration Society was formed in 1870 to make a similar survey of the Holy Land east of the Jordan. It has furnished valuable information relating to the identification of Mt. Nebo and of many places east of the Jordan. Its work of exploration has now (1884) been assumed by the English Palestine Fund. The Moabite Stone, found by Mr. Klein in 1868 (see Dibon), had caused explorers to expect rich results from a thorough survey of the East Jordanic region— expectations which may 3'et be realized.
Meanwhile, there are a number of topographical questions unsettled in respect to cities in the West Jordanic territory, as the locations of Capernaum, Chorazin, Bethsaida, Cana of Galilee, Emmaus and the sites of the lost cities of the plain, the true Calvary, and a large number of points in Jerusalem topography. Some of these will be settled more surely with the spade than with the pen: others it may be impossible to solve satisfactorily by either method. It is, however, remarkable to note how completely every successive fact in the history or topography of this land has tended to throw additional light upon the Book of books, and to add to the external evidence of its divine origin, by showing how writers of such a variety of grades of intelligence, trained under such widely-different circumstances, and at eras separated by upward of fifteen centuries, each recorded descriptions, allusions, and incidents which are now found to be in exact accord with what we know must have been the physical features of the land, the character, customs, conditions of the people, and the influences existing at each of the periods of which he professes to write. Renan happily calls Palestine "the fifth Gospel." The Book fits the
PAL
PAL
Land, and the Land testifies to the accuracy and the inspiration of the Book. The literature upon Palestine would fill a large library. Tobler notes over one thousand writers on the topic. A few of the most important and of the later works only can be given on the subject. Onvmasticon, by Eusebius and Jerome (830-338), edited by Lasson and Parthey (1862); Bescriptiones Terrse Saurta>, of writers in the eighth, ninth, twelfth, and fifteenth centuries, edited by Tobler (1874); Ahqipo to Jerusalem, by Maundrell (1697); Pnlestina Illustrata, by Reland (1714); Voyages and Travels in the Levant, by Ilasselquist (1749-1752), edited by Linnaeus (1766); Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, by Burckhardt (1822); Egyj^t, Nubia, Syria, and Asia Minor, by Irby and Mangles, (1822); Biblical Researches, by Robinson (1838-1841 and 1856); Lands of the Bible Visited and Described, by John Wilson (1847); Physical Geography of Palestine, hj Robinson(1865); Expedition to the Dead Sea and Jordan, by Lynch (1849); Sinai and Palestine, by Stanley (1857); Land and Book, by Thomson (1859, and new edition 1880); Narrative of a Journey through Syria and Palestine, by Van de Velde (1858 and 1865); Rob Roy on the Jordan, by Macgregor (1870); Land of Israel, by Tristram (1865) ; Natural History of the Bible, by Tristram (1867); Land of Moab, by Tristram (1873); Geography of Palestine, Ritter, translated by Gage (1866); Damascus; Giant Cities of Bashan, by Porter (1855-1865); Handbook of Syria and Palestine, by Murray (1875); Bible Educator, hy Plumptre (1873-1875); Handbook of Syria and Palestine, by Baedeker (1876); Bible Lands, their Modern Customs, etc., by Van Lennep (1875); Quarterlies Palestine Exploration Fund (organized, 1865-1880); American Palestine Exploration Society's Statements (1871-1877) ; Our Work in Palestine (1875); Through Bible Lands, by Schalf (1878); Tent-work in Palestine, by Conder (1878); Erom Egypt to Palestine, by Bartlett (1879); Handbook to the Bible, by F. R. and C. R. Conder (1879); Sheet Mapts and Memoirs of the Palestine Exploration Fund (1880).
PALi'LU {distinguished), the second son of Reiiben, and founder of the family 652
of the Palluites, Ex. 6:14; Num. 26: 5, 8; 1 Chr. 5:3; called Phallu in Gen. 46 :9.
PAL'LUITES. See above.
PALM TREE. The date-palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is found from the Indus to the Nile, through most of Northern Africa, and upon all the warmer shores of the Mediterranean, but it is now rare in Palestine. Yet in ancient times, when the land was peopled with many industrious inhabitants, it was very common. Lev. 23 : 40; Deut. 34 : 3; Jud. 1: 16; 3 : 13; 4:5. Ancient historians corroborate this statement, and inform us that the region of the Dead Sea was noted for the palm, of which there were groves twelve miles in extent.
The general figure and appearance of this tree is familiar to our minds from pictures and descriptions. It grows in sandy soils, in hot and dry climates, but flourishes best in the vicinity of streams and where it can be watered, and in valleys and plains, especially where the water is moderately salt or brackish. It is always green and grows to a great height—from 60 to 100 feet. Its straight and slender trunk rises very high before it puts forth any leaves, and its foliage is in one mass at the top. Cant. 7:7; Jer. 10 : 5. This ever green and stately tree is the emblem of the righteous. Ps. 1: 3 and 92 : 12. The columns of costly edifices were sometimes hewn in imitation of its trunk, as may be observed in some of the ruins of Egypt. Palm trees were carved upon the doors of the temple. 1 Kgs. 6 : 32 ; comp. Eze. 41 : 19.
It is a peculiarity of palms and similar endogenous trees that the diameter of the trunk is as great as it ever becomes when the tree first rises above the ground, as seen in the cut of young palms. Hence there is growth yet completeness almost from the first.
Strictly speaking, the palm has no branches, but at the summit from forty to eighty leaf-stalks spring forth, which are intended in Neh. 8 : 15. These are set around the trunk in circles of about six. The lower row is of great length, and the vast leaves, often 12 feet in length, bend themselves in a curve toward the earth; as the circles ascend the leaves are shorter. In the month of February there sprout from between the junctures of the lower stalks and the
PAL
PAL
trunk little scales, which develop a kind of bud, the germ of the coming fruit. These germs arc contained in a thick and tough skin not unlike leather. Ac-
Date-Palm
cording to the account of a modern traveller, a single tree in Barbary and Egypt bears from fifteen to twenty large clusters of dates, weighing from fifteen to twenty pounds each. The palm tree lives more than two hundred years, and is most productive from the thirtieth until the eightieth year. The Arabs speak of three hundred and sixty uses to which the different parts of the palm tree are applied.
The inhabitants of Egypt, Arabia, and Persia depend much on the fruit of the palm tree for their subsistence. Camels feed on the seed, and the leaves, branches, fibres, and sap are all very valuable.
When the dates are ripe they are plucked by the hand or shaken into a net, which is held below. The person
who ascends the lofty trunk is assisted by the ragged processes or scales with which the body of the tree is armed. The dates ripen at different times, so that a tree is commonly ascended two or three times in a season. When gathered they are spread upon mats in the open air, and after a few days begin to be used. Some are eaten fresh, and some are laid aside for future use. Others yield a rich syrup ; which being expressed, the remaining mass is steeped in hot water, and after being macerated and cleansed affords a pleasant drink. These diflTerent kinds of syrups are the celebrated dote-iciiie, which was greatly prized in ancient times by the Orientals. Some suppose it to be the " strong drink " often named in the Scriptures ; but this term rather designates all intoxicating liquors except wine. See Wine.
The shoots, which are annually cut away from the bottom of the tree, and the leaves themselves, are used for making ropes, baskets, sacks, mats, fans, hats, and sandals. The Hebrews were accustomed to carry the leaves, which they called " branches," in the solemn festivities of the feast of tabernacles, and to strew them in the way of triumphal processions. Thus branches were spread in the way of Christ upon his entry into Jerusalem. John 12 : 13. They were anciently used as a symbol of victor}', and carried before the conqueror in triumphal processions. Hence the force and beauty of the figure in Rev. 7:9.
The former abundance of the palm and the estimation in which the Hebrews held it are seen from many Bible names and references. Phoenicia and Phoenice came from the Greek name of the palm ; Elim and Elath, or " trees," refer evidently to this species ; Hazezon-tamar, ''the filling of the palm trees," is identified with En-gedi, Gen 14: 7 ,• 2 Chr. 20 : 2, whose palm trees are mentioned by Josephus and Pliny ; Tamar, " a palm," occurs twice in Ezekiel for a place, and, referring to the tree as tall, straight, and graceful, was a favorite female name among the Hebrews; Baal-tamar, " the sanctuary of the palm," occurs ; Bethany is " the house of dates:" and Jericho is often called " the city of palm trees." This tree is found upon
PAL
PAP
ancient Hebrew coins as the symbol of Judaea, and Roman coins struck after the conquest of Judtea have a palm with an inscription commemorating the event.
PALMCRIST, mentioned in the margin of Jonah 4:6, is the Gourd, which see.
PALiM'ER-WORM, a destructive insect of the locust tribe, figuratively spoken of in Joel 1:4; Am. 4:9 as an instrument employed to afflict the rebellious Jews. See Locust.
PAL'SY (contr. from 2>">''^h/'^''^)' * disease which deprives the part affected of sensation or the power of motion, or of both, according as the sensory or the motor nerves, or both, are attacked. As the term is used iu the N. T. it imports apoplexy, or paralysis of the whole system ; paralysis of one side; a paralysis affecting the whole body below the neck; and a paralysis caused by a contraction of the muscles, so that the limbs can be neither drawn up nor extended, and soon become emaciated and dried up. 1 Kgs. 13 : 4-6; Matt. 4: 24; 12 : 10-13; Luke 6:6; John 5 : 5-7. A fearful form of this disease is known in Eastern countries. The limbs remain immovably fixed in the position in which they were at the time of the attack, and the suffering is so exquisitely severe that death is often occasioned in a few days. Matt. 8 : 6.
PAL'TI [delirerance of Jehovah), a Benjamite, and one of the twelve spies. Num. 13 : 9.
PAL'TIEL [deliverance of God), the chief of the tribe of Issachar, and one of the twelve appointed to superintend the division of the land of Canaan. Num. 34: 26.
PAL'TITE, THE, one of David's mighty men, 2 Sam. 23 : 26; called the Pelonite in 1 Chr. 11: 27.
PAHIPHYL'IA {region of every tribe), a Roman province in Asia Minor. Acts 27 : 5. It was bounded on the east by Cilicia, on the north by Pisidia—from which it was separated by the Taurus Mountains—on the west by Lycia, and on the south by the sea. Claudius made Pamphylia an imperial proviTice. including in it the regions of Pisidia and Lycia, which are distinguished from Pamphylia proper. Acts 13 : 13, 14; 14 : 24; 27 : 5.
Physical Features. —Sweeping around the head of the bay in crescent form and 654
extending to the Taurus Mountains on the north is a plain about 80 miles long and 30 miles broad. This is Pamphylia proper. Three principal rivers intersect this plain, the Catarrhactes, the Cestrus, and the Eurynedon. The Cestrus was navigable for 7 miles to the city of Perga, which appears to have been the capital of the province, and Attalia its chief seaport. Acts 14: 25.
History. — Pamphylia, according to Herodotus, was a small territory during the Persian war, when it sent only thirty ships, while Cilicia contributed one hundred. The Romans united it to the province of Asia, but later it was detached, and was included in the jurisdiction of M. Tullius Cicero. Its capital, Perga, was the first place in Asia Minor visited by Paul on his first missionary-tour, and there Mark left him. Acts 13 : 13. On his return from Pisidia he preached at Perga, and from Attalia sailed to Antioch. Acts 14 : 24-26. Strangers from Pamphylia were at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost.
PAN is, in our version, the rendering of six different Hebrew words, of which two seem to have denoted flat plates of metal, such as are still used in the East for baking cakes of meal, while the others seem to have denoted deeper vessels, used for boiling purposes. Lev. 2:6; 6 : 21.
PAN'NAG. Eze. 27:17. Our translators wisely did not render this word into English. The most probable opinions are that it meant some kind of spice, or that it is millet. It has also been interpreted "balsam," "cassia," " sweetmeats," " panax."
PAMPER, 2 John ver. 12, PAPER REEDS, See Books, Bulkush.
PA'PHOS [hoiling, or hot), a town in the western end of Cyprus. There were two towns of this name—old Pa-phos, or Paphos of the poets, situated on a height about 2 miles from the sea, and new Paphos, on the seashore, about 10 miles to the north-west of the old town. It was founded B. c. 1184. Paul and Barnabas visited it, and the Roman governor was converted. Acts 13 : 6-11. At the old town there was a famous temple dedicated to Venus, which was visited annually by great numbers of heathen pilgrims. There are still extensive ruins and catacombs on its site. Not long before the visit of Paul and
PAP
PAR
Barnabas the new town had been destroyed by an earthquake. Augustus rebuilt it, and it became famous from its shrine and from the worship of Venus. Mingled with the ruins of palaces and churches are the poor dwellings and hovels of the Greek and Mohammedan inhabitants. The harbor is now nearly filled up. The modern name of the town is Baffa.
PAPY'RUS. Job40:21. See Reed.
PAR'ABLE (from a Greek word signifying comparison) is used in the Bible in both a wider and a narrower sense. In the first case it comprises all forms of teaching by analogy and all forms of figurative speech, and is applied to metaphors, whether expanded into narratives, Eze. 12 : 22, or not, Matt. 24 : 32 ; to proverbs and other short sayings, 1 Sam. 10 : 12 ; 24 : 13 ; 2 Chr. 7 : 20 ,• Luke 4:23; to dark utterances or signs of prophetic or symbolical meaning. Num. 23 : 17, 18; 24 : 3; Eze. 20 : 49 ; Heb. 9 : 9, etc. In the second case it means a short narrative of some everyday event, by which some great spiritual truth is conveyed to the hearer. In this sense the parable differs—
1. From the fable, by its higher aim to illustrate spiritual truth, and by the intrinsic possibility and probability of its fictitious narrative, which could have happened, though perhaps it did not actually happen; while the fable uses the wonderful, and even the impossible (thinking, talking, acting animals and plants), for teaching maxims of prudence and lower morality, the parables of Christ always keep within the limits of the simple every-day experience.
2. The parable diff'crs from the allegory by its meaning, its idea not being represented, but simply suggested. The allegory is self-interproting, the imaginary persons being named and performing acts which declare the meaning; while the parable must be inter{)reted by means of a knowledge of him who speaks it and of those to whom it is spoken. The allegory itself says what it means ; the parable receives its whole meaning from the situation which called it forth. For him who knows not Christ the parable of the Sower contains nothing beyond a common every-day experience, but to him who knows the Man sitting there in the boat and speaking to the multitude on
the shore this parable reveals a sublime spiritual truth.
From this peculiarity^ of the character of the parable it is easj"^ to understand its signification in the teaching of Christ, and easy to derive the law for its interpretation. '' The purpose of our Lord in teaching by jtarables was twofold—to reveal and to conceal the truth : to reveal to those who really sought the truth, to conce((l from those who did not desire such knowledge, thus rewarding the former and punishing the latter."— Schaff. To him who has, the parable gives more; but it takes away from him who has not. No pondering over its details will ever bring out its meaning, for, although the idea may be reflected a thousand times from every turn of the narrative, still it is not present in the words: it is a light thrown upon the words from without, from the situation, from the speaker.
Teaching by parables was an ancient method. Striking instances occur in the 0. T.— Nathan's address to David, 2 Sam. 12:1-4; the woman of Tekoah, 2 Sam. 14:6; the rebuke of Ahab, 1 Kgs. 20 : 39 ; the denunciation of Isaiah, Isa. 5 : 1-7—and later on, the method found much favor with the Hebrew teachers. But it reached its perfection by the application it found in the teaching of Christ.
Matthew gives, in ch. 13, seven parables, which represent the several stages of the kingdom of God and its relation to the world: (1) The parable of the Sower, or the beginning of the kingdom and its reception or rejection by the different classes of men ; (2) The parable of the Tares, or the kingdom of heaven in conflict with the kingdom of Satan ;
(3) The parable of the Mustard-seed and
(4) the parable of the Leaven, or the growth of the kingdom of heaven extensively, comprising all nations and intensively pervading all forms of human life; (.')) The parable of the Hidden Treasure; (6) The parable of the Pearl of Great Price; and (7) The parable of the Net cast into the Sea, or the relation between the kingdom of heaven and individual man and his efforts to grasp it and to develop it.
The parables occurring in the N. T. are:
1. The Sower. Matt. 13-. 3-8; Mark 4:3-8; Luke 8:5-8.
PAB
PAU
2. The Wheat and the Tares. Matt. 13 : 24-30.
3. The Mustard-seed. Matt. 13 : 31, 32 ; Mark 4 : 30-32.
4. The Leaven. Matt. 13 : 33.
5. The Seed cast into the Ground and Growing up Secretly. Mark 4 : 26-29.
6. The Hidden Treasure. Matt. 13 : 44.
7. The Pearl of Great Price. Matt. 13 : 45, 46.
8. The Net cast into the Sea. Matt. 13 : 47, 48.
9. The Lost Sheep. Matt. 18 : 12, 13; Luke 15 : 4-6.
10. The Merciless Servant. Matt. 18 : 23-34.
11. The Two Debtors. Luke 7 : 41, 42.
12. The Good Samaritan. Luke 10 : 30-35.
13. The Importunate Friend. Luke 11 : 5-8.
14. The Rich Fool. Luke 12 : 16-20.
15. The Return from the Wedding. Luke 12 : 35-40.
16. The Fig Tree. Luke 13 : 6-9.
17. The Great Supper. Luke 14 : 16-24.
18. The Lost Piece of Money. Luke 15 : 8, 9.
19. The Prodigal Son. Luke 15 : 11-32.
20. The Unjust Steward. Luke 16 : 1-8.
21. The Rich Man and Lazarus. Luke 16: 19-31.
22. The Unjust Judge. Luke 18 : 2-5.
23. The Pharisee and the Publican. Luke 18 : 10-13.
24. The Pounds. Luke 19 : 12-27.
25. The Laborers in the Vineyard. Matt. 20: 1-16.
26. The Two Sons. Matt. 21: 28-30.
27. The Vineyard let to Husbandmen. Matt. 21 : 33-39 ; Mark 12 : 1-9 ; Luke 20 : 9-15.
28. The Marriage-Feast. Matt. 22 : 2-14.
29. The Wise and the Foolish Virgins. Matt. 25 : 1-13.
30. The Talents. Matt. 25 : 14-30.
31. The Sheep and the Goats. Matt. 25 : 31-46.
The number of parables in the Gospels differs according to the range given to the application of the term. Greswell reckons 27 5 Trench, 30 ; Plumptre, 31; others, 50.
Matthew and Luke give us most of the parables. Mark dwells more on the acts 656
than the discourses of Christ. John has no parables proper. He took them for granted from the earlier Gospels, and gives us instead those higher discourses of our Lord respecting his relation to the Father.
The best special works on the parables are by Lisco, Greswell, Trench, Arndt, Arnot, Stier. Our Lord has himself explained the parable of the Sower and the parable of the Wheat and the Tares. His explanation must be the standard by which our interpretations are to be regulated and measured.
PAR'ACLETE. See Advocate.
PAR'ADISE, a word of Persian origin, meaning a "garden." "orchard," or other enclosed place, filled with beauty and delight. Hence it is used figuratively for any place of peculiar happiness, and particularly for the kingdom of perfect happiness, which is the abode of the blessed beyond the grave. Luke 23 : 43; 2 Cor. 12 : 4 : Rev. 2 : 7. See Edex.
PA'RAH (hei/er-fowii), a place in the territory of Benjamin. Josh. 18 : 23. It has been located south-east of Mich-mash, at the ruined village/"«*•«7i, at the junction of the Wadj/ Fa rah with the Wadi/ Siiiveiiiif, and about 6 miles northeast of .Jerusalem.
PARALYTIC* See Palsy.
PA'RAN {place of caverns), a wilderness or desert region west of the Elanitic Gulf, and within the Sinaitic peninsula. It was bounded on the north by the wilderness of Shur and the land of Canaan; on the east by the great valley of the Arabah—which separated it from the mountains of Moab—and the Gulf of Akabah ; on the south by a great sand-belt, separating it from the granitic mountains of Sinai; and on the west by the wilderness of Etham, which separated it from the Gulf of Suez and from Egypt. A range of mountains sweeps around this wilderness on all sides except the north. It is a high limestone plateau, crossed by low ranges of hills and intersected by few watercourses, always dry except in the rainy season. In this blanched and dreary waste of chalk, covered with coarse gravel, black flint, and drifting sand, upon which a slight coating of vegetation struggles for existence, the Israelites spent thirty-eight years after leaving Sinai. Num. 10 : 12. The modern name, Badiet et
PAH
fAR
Tih, or "desert of the wandering," commemorates this historic fact. Across this desert lay the road from Canaan to Egypt which was travelled by Abraham, Jacob, and Joseph. The north-east corner of the wilderness is a hilly plateau, the home and pasture-ground of the patriarchs, the Negeb, or " south country," of Scripture.
Scripture Hiatori/. —Paran is first mentioned in connection with the conquest of the confederate kings, when it apjtears to have been the home of the llorites. Gen. 14 : 6. Hagar and Ishmael, after being driven away by Abraham, went into the wilderness of Paran, Gen. 21: 21; the Israelites entered it soon after leaving Sinai, Num. 10 : 12, 3;}; 11: 3, 34, 35; 12: 16; the spies were sent up to Canaan and returned from this region : and eighteen stations of the Israelites' journev are noted in this wilderness. Num. 13 : 3, 26; 33 : 17-36 ; comp. Dent. 1 : 1. Probably, during their thirty-eight years of sojourn in the wilderness, the people were scattered over a wide extent of territory, like the modern Bedouin tribes. David found refuge in this wilderness, 1 Sam. 26 : 1, and Iladad passed through it when escaping to Egypt. 1 K<rs. 11: 18.
PARAN, MOUNT OF, the place where the Lord is said to have shined forth. Deut. 33 : 2 ; Hab. 3 : 3. It was probably the most southern portion of the mountain-})lateau in the north-eastern part of the wilderness of Paran, now Jehel Mngrali. In this region is situated 'Aln Gadls, which some identify with Kadesh, and the one encampment in the wilderness of Kadesh. Jehel Mafjrd'h would always be the most conspicuous object, and would completely shut out from view the more fertile mountains bevond.
PAR'BAR occurs only in 1 Chr. 26 : 18, where it denotes some place on the western side of the temple-enclosure.
PARCH'ED CORN, mentioned in Ruth 2:14, consisted of roasted heads of grain.
PARCH'ED GROUND. The Hebrew word thus rendered, Isa. 35 : 7, denotes that optical delusion known by the name of "mirage," and frequently occurring in the African and Asiatic deserts. On account of the different refraction of the solar rays in the various 42
layers of the atmosphere, the white, barren sand-waste suddenly assumes the as|)ect of a beautiful lake surrounded by trees and a most luxuriant vegetation.
PARCH'MENTS. The skins of beasts were early and extensively used for writing ; the lonians wrote upon sheep-skins five centuries before Christ. Very slight preparation was used, however, until under Eunienes, a king of Pergamos, a mode <'f producing a really fine material was discovered, whence the skins thus prepared were called by the Latins perf/rttjieiia, which is translated "parchments." 2 Tim. 4: 13.
PAR'DON. Ps. 25 : 11. The scriptural import of this term is very imperfectly indicated by the common acceptation of it among men. In the dispensation of grace pardon is inseparably connected with justification. Hence it is spoken of as the covering of sin, Ps. 85:2; the non-imputation of it, Ps. 32 : 2 ; a blotting out, Ps. 51 : 1, 9 ; Isa. 43 : 25 ; forgetting it, Heb. 8 : 12; passing by it or removing it to an immeasurable distance from us. Ps. 103 : 12; Mic. 7 : 19.
It is evident that God only has power to bestow pardon, Mark 2: 7, 10-12, and that it proceeds from free sovereign grace, Eph. 1 : 6, 7, through the mediation and atonement of Jesus Christ. Heb. 9 : 9-28 : 1 John 1 : 7.
Men are commissioned to preach pardon and salvation through the blood of Christ, but no man can forgive sin or pretend to the right and power of absolution without direct and daring blasphemy.
PAR'LOR. See Dwellings.
PARMASH'TA {superior), one of the ten sons of llaman; slain by the Jews in Shushan. Esth. 9:9.
PAR'MENAS {xteadfaxt), one of the seven deacons ordained by the disciples to administer alms to the widows and the poor of the church. Acts 6 : 5.
PAR'NACH (swl/t), the father of Elizaphan, chief of the tribe of Zebulun. Num. 34 : 25.
PA'ROSH (/er/). Of his descendants one group, comprising 2172 persons, returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2 : 3 ; Neh. 7:8; and another, comprising 150 males, with Ezra. Ezr. 8:3.
PARSHAN'DATHA (r/h-en by prayer), the eldest of the ten sons of
PAR
PAR
Haman ; slain by the Jews in Shushan. Esth. 9 : 7.
PAR^THIA. Originally a province of Media, on its eastern side, in the time of the apostles it had spread its sway from India to the Tigris, and from the Kharesem desert to the southern ocean. Seleucia was a chief city, and Ecbatana was its king's summer residence. Par-thia was united to the Persian empire under Cyrus, b. c. 550. But in B. c. 256 it revolted and became an independent empire. At last, however, Parthia was conquered by the Persians and united to their empire, A. d. 226.
PAR'THIANS, inhabitants of Parthia, were at Jerusalem during the Pentecost. Acts 2 : 9. They spoke the Persian language, so that, in Scripture and other ancient writing, "Persia" and " Parthia " are often used interchangeably. Coming from the ruins of the Persian empire, they were a powerful
enemy to the Romans, whom they defeated at Carrhae {Haran). Under Mithridates I. their cavalry and bowmen were very expert, and dangerous to an opposing army. They were accustomed to shoot their arrows while at full speed. They possessed, also, considerable knowledge of architecture and art. But it is for their remarkable skill in archery that they are now remembered, and for a long time they were Rome's formidable rival in the East.
PARTI'TION, MIDDLE WALL OF, is supposed to have reference to the wall in the temple which separated the court of Israel from the court of the Gentiles, Eph. 2 : 14, and is figuratively used to denote whatever in their laws or customs separated the Jews from the Gentiles, and rendered the former any more the objects of divine favor than the latter. See Temple.
Tiie Greek raitiidjze.
PAR'TRIDGE (Ileb. the caller). The Greek \i&xiv\(\gQ {Caccabissaxatilia) is very common in Palestine, and one or two other kinds are found. The modern peasants esteem the flesh of these birds a luxury : and as, when hunted, they try to save themselves by running rather than by flight, they are often chased till, being fatigued, they can be knocked 658
down with a stick or a stone. 1 Sam. 26: 20. The partridge lays many eggs, which are prized by the Syrians and gathered in large numbers. The ancients undoubtedly hunted the bird and its eggs in the same way as is now customary. Thus the partridge often laid her eggs and brooded upon them in vain, which is the meaning of Jer. 17 : 11.
PAR
PAS
PAR'UAH {hloxsonn'u;/), the father of Jehoshaphat, one of Solomon's officers. 1 Kgs. 4: 17.
PARVA'IM {eastern regions) occurs only once, 2 Chr. 3 : 6, and is the name of the country or place producing the gold which Solomon used for the decoration of the temple ; but this country or place it has not been possible to identifj'. Some regard it as an abbreviation for " Sepharvaim," or '' Sephar," supposed to be a seaport in Arabia.
PA'SACH {cut off), one of the chiefs of the tribe of Asher. 1 Chr. 7 : 33.
PAS-DAM'MIM {boundary of blood), the scene of fierce contests between the Israelites and the Philistines.
1 Chr. 11: 13. It is called Ephes-dammim in 1 Sam. 17: 1. It was on the side of the valley of Elah, and Van de Velde proposes to identify it with the ruins called Damum, 3 miles east of Shochoh, about 11 miles south-west of Jerusalem.
PASE'AH {lame). 1. One of the descendants of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:12.
2. One whose descendants returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2 : 49 ; called Phaseah in Neh. 7 : 51. One of the family, Jehoiada, assisted in rebuilding the gate under Nehemiah. Neh. 3:6.
PASH'UR {freedom). 1. The son of Malchijah, and founder of a family of priests, 1 Chr. 9:12; 24 : 9 ; Neh. 11: 12, which seems to have returned with Zerubbabel, and which, in the time of Nehemiah, was one of the chief houses, its head being the head of a course. Ezr.
2 : 38 ; Neh. 7 : 41 : 10 : 3. Sent by King Zedekiah to Jeremiah to inquire about the issue of Nebuchadnezzar's preparations against Jerusalem, Pashur received a sombre warning, Jer. 21; but when later on the siege of Jerusalem was raised by the advance of the Egyptian army, Pashur, together with other prominent men, demanded of Zedekiah that Jeremiah should be put to death as a traitor, and the prophet was actually cast into the dungeon or well where was mire. Jer. 38.
2. The son of Immer, also a priest, and chief governor in the house of the Lord. Jer. 20:1. In the reign of Jehoi-akim he caused Jeremiah to be put in the stocks because he pro])hesied evil against Jerusalem; but the prophet pronounced a fearful sentence against him,
Jer. 20 :1-fi, and his name was changed to Maoou-missabib, which see.
PAS'SIOJ^. Acts 1:3. The word, in this connection, denotes the last sufferings of Christ, or rather his death as the consummation of his sufferings. The expression in Acts 14 : 15 and Jas. 5 : 17 signifies like propensities, feelings, and susceptibilities. See Cross.
PASS'OVER, the })rincipal annual feast of the Jews, which typified the sacrifice of Christ, the Lamb of God, slain for the sins of the world. Comp. 1 Cor. 5 : 7, 8, Christ our Passover is slain for us, etc. It was appointed to commemorate the exemption or "passing over" of the families of the Israelites when the destroying angel smote the first-born of Egypt, and also their departure from the land of bondage.
At even of the 14th day of the first month (Nisan) the Passover was to be celebrated, and on the 15th day commenced the seven days' feast of unleavened bread. The term "Passover"' is strictly applicable only to the meal of the paschal lamb, and the feast of unleavened bread was celebrated on the 15th onward for seven days to the 21st inclusive. This order is recognized in Josh. 5 : 10, 11. But in the sacred history the term "Passover" is used also to denote the whole period—the 14th day, and the festival of the seven da vs following. Luke 2:41; John 2:13, 23;"'6:4: 11:55.
As to the time of the celebration of the Passover, it is expressly appointed " between the two evenings," Ex. 12 : 6 ; Lev. 23 : 5; Num. 9:3, 5, or, as it is elsewhere ex})ressed, "at even, at the going down of the sun." Deut. 16 : 6. This is supposed to denote the commencement of the 15th day of Nisan, or at the moment when the 14th day closed and the 15th began. The twenty-four hours, reckoned from this point of time to the same period of the next day, or 15th, was the day of the Passover. At sunset of the 14th day the 15th began, and with it the feast of unleavened bread. The lamb was to be selected on the 10th day, and kept up till the 14th day, in the evening of which day it was to be killed. Ex. 12 : 3-6. A male lamb was demanded, not more than one year old and without blemish; but often several households, comprising, perhaps, one hundred per-
PAS
PAT
sons, associated and had a lamb in common, in which case each person was provided with a piece at least as large as an olive. The feast began by the handing around of a cup of wine mixed with water, over which the head of the familj' or the chief of the association pronounced the benediction. The lamb, roasted whole, and the other dishes were then placed on the table, and after a second cup of wine the meal was eaten. Everybody present partook of the lamb, the bitter herbs, and the unleavened bread, and care was taken that no bone was broken. What was left of the flesh •was immediately burnt. After the meal followed the third cup of wine, then the singing of psalms and hymns, and finally a fourth, and perhaps a fifth, cup of ■wine. Then followed the feast of unleavened bread, occupying seven daj's, the first and last of which were peculiarly holy, like the Sabbath. Ex. 12 : 15, 16.
The "preparation of the Passover," John 19 : 14, or " the day of the preparation," Matt. 27 : C2. was the Paschal Friday, as in John 19 : 31 and 42, or the day preceding the regular Sabbath (Sabbath eve). It was, then, at the close of the 14th day of the month, when the feast of unleavened bread, called, in the larger sense, the Passover, Luke 22 : 1, approached, that Jesus directed the lamb for the paschal sacrifice to be prepared for himself and his disciples. This being done immediately after sunset of the 14th, which was the beginning of the 15th, the paschal supper was eaten. After this supper, and in the course of that night, Christ was arrested, tried during the night, condemned the next morning, crucified at 9 A. m., and died at 3 p. M. of the 15th of Nisan (this being a Friday). The whole series of events occurred between what we should call Thursday evening and Friday evening.
The facts of chief importance in reconciling all the evangelists are that the word "Passover" is applied sometimes strictly to the 14th day, and at other times to the whole festival of unleavened bread: that the Passover, or paschal supper, strictly speaking, was celebrated at 6 p. m. at the close of the 14th or at the beginning of the 15th day of the month, and that the 15th of Nisan, or first day of the festival, was 660
the day of the crucifixion. This has been verified by astronomical calculation, which proves that in the year a. d. 30, the year of our Saviour's death, the 15th of Nisan (April 7), fell on a Friday, which agrees with the testimony of all the evangelists.
PAS'TOR. Jer.2:8. See Shepherd.
PAT'ARA, a seaport-town on the south-west shore of Lycia, near the leit bank of Xanthus, and opposite Rhodes. Acts 21 : 1, 2. It was about 7 miles east of the mouth of the river, had a convenient harbor, and was visited by ships of all nations. The gospel was early preached there, and it became the seat of a bishopric and was represented in the Council of Nice. The city was given up to the worship of Apollo, its founder, Patarus, being reputed to be a son of that god. Patara is now in ruins, but retains its ancient name. The remains prove it to have been a city of considerable importance. Among them are a theatre, some massive walls and arches, a gate of the city with three arches nearly perfect, and numerous sarcophagi. Near the theatre is a deep circular pit, and a square pillar rising above it, which Lewin thinks was the seat of the oracle of Patareus Apollo. The port is completely filled with sand, and is a malarious swamp; all communication with the sea is cut off by a sand-beach, and the sand is also gradually encroaching upon the ruins.
PATH'ROS {region of the south), a district of Egypt near Thebes; named, as some suppose, from a town called Ha-hathor, or " the abode of Hathor," the Egyptian ^''enus. Originally it was ruled by its own kings, independent of Egypt. It was probably the Thebaid of the Greeks and the Said of the Arabs. The country is mentioned in the Prophets, and nearlv alwavs in connection with Egypt. Isa. li : 11 ,•' 19 : 11 -1:5: Jer. 44: 1-15 ; Eze. 29 : 14. Its inhabitants were known as the Pathrusim, the descendants of Ham through Mizraim. Gen. 10: 14; 1 Chr. 1: 12.
PATHRUSIM. See above. PA'TIENCE. With God, patience is a form of his infinite love which causes him to bear long with sinners, Isa. 30 : 18 ; Ptom. 3 : 25 ; 2 Pet. 3 : 9, and to send them warnings of judgments before the judgments are executed. Hos. 6:5; Am.
PAT
PAT
1:1; 2 Pet. 2 : 5, With man, patience is a grace enabling him to bear with meekness and confidence the trials which God sends him, Rom. 2 : 7 ; 2 Tim. 3:10, and to deal with his fellow-men with love and forbearance. 1 Thess. 5 : 14. In many passages of our English Version where ''patience" occurs, "endurance" or " constancy " would be a better rendering of the Greek (vn-o/oioi'Tj).
PAT'MOS, a little rugged island in the ^-Egean Sea, 20 miles south of Samos and 24miles west of Asia Minor. Rev.l: 9.
It is from 15 to 25 miles in circumference, and is very rocky and barren. The coast is rock-bound, but indented with several deep bays. It has only a few large trees, among them a palm, some olives, and cypresses. The barrenness of the island made it a suitable spot for the banishment of Roman criminals. To it the apostle John was banished by the emperor Domitian, a. n. 95. Its rocky solitude well suited the sublime nature of the Revelation. There is a grotto on a hill in the southern part of the island
Isle of Patmos,
which tradition points out as the place where John received the Revelation. Upon the summit of the mountain is a monastery built in honor of St. John, and having a library containing about two hundred and forty manuscripts. In the Middle Ages the island was called Pal-mosa, and now bears the name o{ Patmn. PA TRIARCH. Acts 2 . 29. In the early history of the Jews we find the ancestor or father of a family retaining authority over his children and his children's children so long as he lived, whatever new connections they might form. When the father died the branch-families did not break off and form new communities, but usually united under another common head. The eldest son was generally invested with this dignity. His authority was paternal. He was honored as the central point of connection, and as the representative of the whole kindred. Thus each great family
had its patriarch or head, and each tribe its prince selected from the several heads of the families it embraced. These princes were called '^ elders of Israel." See Elders. The word "patriarch" is also applied to the founder of a family or to any illustrious ancestor. Acts 2 : 29. In later ages of the Church the same title is found, but is applied to ecclesiastical dignitaries, and denotes the supposed paternal character of their authority. The sons of Jacob, as the progenitors of the Jewish nation, are called, by way of distinction, " the twelve patriarchs." Acts 7 : S.
PAT'ROBAS {life of his father f), a Christian in Rome to whom Paul sends salutation, Rom. 16 : 14, was, according to a late tradition, one of the seventy disciples, and became bishop of Puteoli, where he suffered martyrdom on November 4, which accordingly is his anniversary in the Romish calendar.
PAT
PAU
PAT'TERNS, in Heb. 9 : 23, should be " copies,"
PAU {bleating), a place in Idumaea; called Pai in 1 Chr. 1: 50; Gen. 36 : 39. It may be identical with Phauara, a ruined site in Iduma3a.
PAUL [small), OU SAUL {asked for). 1. Life. —Paul, or Saul, was a native of Tarsus, in Cilicia, and inherited the privileges of a Roman citizen. Acts 22 : 28, 29. His original Hebrew name was *' Saul," which he exchanged afterward in his intercourse with the Gentiles for the Hellenistic or Latin form, " Paul." His descent and education were Jewish, but he had also a good knowledge of the Greek language and literature, and quotes from three poets not much known—Aratus, Acts 17:28,- Menander, 1 Cor. 15:33 ; and Epimenides. Tit. 1 : 12. Being a Jew of the tribe of Benjamin, born in the Greek city of Tarsus, and a Roman citizen, he combined the three great nationalities of the Roman empire, and was providentially prepared for his apostolic mission among Jews and Gentiles, Greeks and barbarians. Under the instruction of Gamaliel, a distinguished rabbi at Jerusalem, Acts 5 : 34, he became master of the Jewish law. Acts 22 : 3; Gal. 1 : 14, and was also taught a useful mechanical trade, according to the custom of the rabbis. Acts 18 : 3. His residence at Jerusalem commenced at an early period, Acts 26 : 4, and he was probably from twenty-two to twenty-five years old when Christ commenced his public ministry. He belonged to the strict sect of the Pharisees. Acts 23:6.
The preaching of the apostles, and especially the fact of Christ's resurrection, on which they placed their chief stress, excited a violent opposition among the Jews. Stephen, an eloquent and powerful advocate of the new religion, was seized an 1 stoned to death. Among the spectators and promoters of this bloody deed was Paul. Acts 7 : 58 ; comp. 22 : 20. His temperament, talents, and education fitted him to become a leader in the persecution ; and he commenced his career with a degree of fanatical zeal bordering on madness. He even sought for authority to go to Damascus, whither many of the disciples had fled after the murder of Ste-662
phen, to bind and drag to Jerusalem, without distinction of age or sex, all the followers of Christ whom he could find.
Just before he reached Damascus, however, he was arrested by a miraculous light so intense as to deprive him of sight. Acts 9 : 8, 9. At the same time Christ revealed himself as the real object of his persecution. Acts 26: 15; comp. 1 Cor. 15 : 8. From this time he became a new man, and received from the lips of Christ himself his commission as an apostle to the Gentiles. Acts 26 : 16. The miraculous restoration of his sight, his baptism, and the gifts of the Holy Spirit followed in quick succession, and we soon find him zealously preaching the faith he had set out to subvert. Acts 9: 20, 21; Gal. 1 : 16,
To this one purpose he thenceforth gave all the energies of his mind and all the affections of his heart. Forsaking, and indeed forgetting, all other purposes and pursuits, he devoted the residue of his life to the cause of Christ with a singleness of purpose and an energy of devotion that have no parallel in history.
The Acts trace his career till the first imprisonment at Rome, which lasted two years, A. D. 61-63, and left him comparatively free to labor for the gospel. After this we are left in the dark. Some scholars maintain that he suffered martyrdom in the Neronian persecution of
The
Traditional Room in the Centurion's House at Rome in w}iich Paul was Imprisoned.
A. P. 64 J others that he was freed from the first Roman imprisonment, made new missionary tours in the East, and possibly also to the West as far as Spain, was taken prisoner to Rome a
Portrait of Paul. (From a Eoman Two-leaicd Tablet not lata- than the Fourth Century.)
PAU
PAU
second time, and suffered martyrdom A. D. 67 or 68. The hypothesis of a second Roman imprisonment has some support in an ancient tradition (mentioned by Eusebius), and explains certain historical allusions in the Pastoral Epistles, which cannot well be placed before the first imprisonment, but were probably composed between the first and the second Roman imprisonments, except Second Timothy, the last of all Pauline Epistles. Ancient tradition is unanimous as to his martyrdom in Rome, and the place of his execution by the sword is still shown a little distance from the city. He himself alludes to his approaching martyrdom in those noble words, 2 Tim. 4 : 6-8: I am already being offered, and the time of my departure is at hand, I have fought the good fight, I have finished the course, I have kept the faith: henceforth there is laid up for me the crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous Judge, shall give to me at that day : and not only to me, but also to all them that have loved his appearing.
2. Character of Panl. —Whether we regard his sudden and radical change from an enemy to a most devoted friend of the Christian religion, or the purity and loftiness of his character, or the strength and depth of his mind, or the extent of his missionary' labors, or his whole heroic career from his conversion in Damascus to his martyrdom in Rome, St. Paul is beyond doubt one of the most remarkable men that ever lived, and perhaps the greatest man in the history of Christianity. Without money, without family, without friends, lonely by land and lonely by sea, he faced a hostile world and converted it to Christ, whom he himself once persecuted, and by his Epistles and example he still rules the theology and feeds the devotions of believers in all parts of Christendom. His motives are above suspicion; his intellect is apparent on every page of his letters; it is impossible to charge him with hypocrisy or self-delusion, as even infidels admit; he furnishes an irresistible argument for the divine truth of the religion he taught and practised to the end.
3. Chronological Summary of the Chief Events in the Life of Paul (from Schaff's HiHtory of the Apostolic Church):
664
A. D.
Paul's conversion 37
Sojourn in Arabia 37-40
First journey to Jerusalem after his conversion, Gal. 1 : 18; sojourn at Tarsus, and afterward at Antioch, Acts 11 : 26 40
Second journey to Jerusalem, in company with Barnabas, to relieve the famine 44
Paul's first great missionary journey, with Barnabas and Mark; Cyprus, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe ; return to Antioch in Syria.. 45-49
Apostolic Council at Jerusalem ; conflict between Jewish and Gentile Christianity; Paul's third journey to Jerusalem, with Barnabas and Titus; settlement of the difficulty; agreement between the Jewish and Gentile apostles; Paul's return to Antioch ; his collision with Peter and Barnabas at Antioch, and temporary separation from the latter.... 50
Paul's second missionary journey from Antioch to Asia Minor, Cilicia, Lycaonia, Galatia, Troas, and Greece (Philippi, Thessalonica, Berasa, Athens, and Corinth). From this tour dates the Christianization of Europe. 51
Paul at Corinth (a year and a half). First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians 52-53
Paul's fourth journey to Jerusalem (spring); short stay at Antioch. His third missionary tour (autumn) 54
Paul at Ephesus(three years); Epistle to the Galatians (56 or 57). Excursion to Macedonia, Corinth, and Crete (not mentioned in the Acts); First Epistle to Timothy (?). Return to Ephesus. First Epistle to the Corinthians (spring, 57) 54-57
Paul's departure Ironi Ephesus (summer) to Macedonia. Second Epistle to the Corinthians 57
Paul's third sojourn at Corinth (three months). Epistle to the Romans 57,58
Paul's fifth and last journey to Jerusalem (spring), where he is arrested and sent to Csesarea 58
PauPs captivity at Csesarea. Testimony before' Felix, Festus, and Agri'ppa (the Gospel of Luke and the Acts commenced at Csesarea, and concluded at Rome) 58-60
Paul's voyage to Rome (autumn); shipwreck at Malta; arrival at Rome (spring, 61) 60,61
Paul's first captivity at Rome. Epistles to the Colossians, Ephesians, Philip-pians, Philemon 61-63
Conflagration at Rome (Jiilv); Nero-nian persecution of the Christians; martyrdom of Paul (?) 64
Hypothesis of a second Roman captivity and preceding missionary journeys to the East, and possibly to Spain. First Epistle to Timothy; Titus (Hebrews?), Second Timothy. 63-67
PAV
PEA
4. The EjnstleH of Paul are thirteen, or, if we count the Hebrews (as the product of Paul's mind, though probably not of his pen), fourteen, in number. They are the most remarkable body of correspondence in the history of literature. They are tracts for the times, and yet tracts for all times. They will be found separately considered under their titles. Here only some general remarks are given. They may be arranged differently.
(a) Chronulogicnllij :
1 and 2 Thessalonians, written a. d. 52, 53,
from Corinth. Galatians, written a. d. 56-57, from Ephesus.
1 Corinthians, written a. d. 57, from Ephesus.
2 Corinthians, written a. d. 57, from Macedonia.
Eonians, written a. d. 58, from Corinth. Colossians, Ephesians, Philippians, and Philemon, written a. d. 61-63, from Rome. Hebrews, written A. D. 64 (?), from Italy.
1 Timothy and Titus, written a. d. 65 or 57 (?),
from jNIacedonia.
2 Timothy, written A. n. 67 or 6-4 (?), from Rome.
The time of the composition of the Pastoral Epistles depends upon the question of the second Roman captivity. The Second Epistle to Timothy was at all events the last, whether written in the first or second captivity.
(6) Topically:
Romans and Galatians: doctrines of sin and grace.
1 and 2 Corinthians: moral and practical questions.
Colossians and Philippians: person of Christ.
Ephesians: the Church of Christ.
1 and 2 Thessalonians: the second advent.
1 and 2 Timothy and Titus : church government and pastoral care.
Philemon: slavery.
Hebrews: the eternal priesthood and sacrifice of Christ.
(c) As to importance, the order in our Bible is pretty correct. The Epistles are all important, but were not equally well understood in all ag^s of the Church. Thus the Galatians and Romans were more appreciated in the time of the Reformation than in any preceding century ; they are the stronghold of the evangelical doctrines of total depravity and salvation by free grace. Paul's Epistles give us the most complete exhibition of the various doctrines of Christianity and of the spiritual life of
the apostolic Church, and are applicable to all ages and congregations.
Works on the life and Epistles of Paul are very numerous, and constantly increasing. We mention only three, which are very elaborate, yet popular, and enriched with fine maps and illustrations: Conybeare and Howson {18.'J4 and later editions), Thomas Lewin (1875, 2 vols.), and Canon Farrar (1879, 2 vols.).—See map of journeys of St. Paul at the close of this volume.
PAVE'MENT, an area in Pilate's court-room, the floor of which was paved with marble or other stones. John 19 : 13. See Gabbatha.
PAVIL'ION, a small movable tabernacle or tent, chiefly used for a king, prince, or general. 1 Kgs. 20: 12-16; Jer. 43 : 10. The Psalmist sublimely describes Jehovah as surrounding himself with dark waters and thick clouds of the skies as with a tent or pavilion. Ps. 18:11.
PEACE. Employed in various phrases, such as " Peace be to thee," " Go in peace," etc., this word occurs both in the 0. T. and the N. T. as a common form of salutation. Ex. 4:18; Mark 4 : 34; Luke 10: 5; John 20 : 19, 21; Rom. 1:7.
In a more special sense, the word denotes a Christian grace obtained by faith in Christ, who by his death has restored us to peace with God. Rom. 5 : 1; Eph. 2 : 14. Peace with ourselves springs from ])eace with God, and peace with God from the assurance of pardon and reconciliation with God by the atoning merits of Christ, who " is our peace." Without such peace there can be no true happiness.
PEA'COCK. 1 Kgs. 10 : 22. This singular and beautiful bird is mentioned among the article? imported by Solomon from Tharshish, the modern Ceylon or Malabar coast of India, where the peacock is indigenous. In Job 39 : 13 another Hebrew word is found, better rendered " ostriches," and the word *' ostrich" should be translated (as it is elsewhere) " stork." The wings of the ostrich cannot raise it from the ground; yet in running it catches (or, as the word rendered '' goodly " imports, " drinks in ") the wind. The construction of the ostrich and that of the stork are thus contrasted, as are also their habits; for the stork is
PEA
PEK
as proverbial for her tenderness to her young as is the ostrich for her seeming indifference. Job 39:14-16. See Ostrich, Stork.
Peacock.
PEARL. The best pearls are produced by a shell-fish of the oyster species, though they are found in other mollusks. The pearl-oysters grow in clusters on rocks (hence called "pearl-banks") in the Persian Gulf, on the western coast of Ceylon, on the coasts of Java, Sumatra, etc., and in some parts of Europe. The shells are obtained by diving, and this is done by a class of persons trained to the business. The Ceylon pearl-fishery bank is about 15 miles from the shore, and 72 feet deep on an average. The fishery begins in April, when the sea is most calm, and continues five or six weeks. One shell contains from eight to twelve pearls. The largest are of the size of a walnut, but they are rarely as large as a cherry-stone. The shell of the pearl-oyster, or, more properly, the interior coat, is called "mother-of-666
pearl." A single pearl has been valued
at $350,000.
Pearls were anciently, as now, used in
the East as personal ornaments. 1 Tim. 2:9; Rev. 17 : 4 ; 18 : 12-
/ 16. From the various il-
lustrations in which the pearl is introduced in the N. T., it was evidently regarded as among the most precious substances, and, compared with gems, it was esteemed as more valuable than at present. Matt. 7:6; 13 : 45, 46; Rev. 21 : 21.
PED'AHEL {icliom God delivers), the son of Ammihud, chief of the tribe of Naphtali, one of the superintendents of the division of Canaan. Num. 34 : 28.
PEDAH^ZUR {whom the Kocli —i. e. God — delivers), the father of Gamaliel, and chief of the tribe of Manasseh in the time of the Exodus. Num. 1 : 10; 2: 20; 7 : 64, 59; 10 : 23.
PEDA'IAH {ichom Jehovah delivers). 1. The father of Zebudah, Jehoi-akim's mother. 2 Kgs. 23 : 36.
2. The brother of Shealtiel, and father of Zerubbabel. 1 Chr. 3 : 17-19.
3. One who assisted Nehemiah in repairing the walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 3:25.
4. A Levite who stood on the left hand of Ezra when he read the Law to the people. Neh. 8:4; called Phaldaius in 1 Esd. 9:44.
5. A Benjamite, ancestor of Sallu. 11 :7.
A Levite in the time of Nehemiah. 13 : 13.
7. The father of Joel, chief of the half-tribe of Manasseh in the reign of David. 1 Chr. 27 : 20.
PEEP, to "chirp" like young birds. Isa. 8 : 19; 10 : 14. The wizards who pretended to raise the dead spoke in low shrill tones because the dead were supposed to speak thus.
PE'KAH {o})eii-eyed), a general of
Neh. 6. Neh.
PEK
PEL
the Israelitish army who assassinated the king Pekahiah in his palace and usurped the government; but his reign, which lasted twenty years, B. c. 758-738, was highly inauspicious; the country was invaded and greatly harassed by the Assyrians, and the king himself became finally the victim of a conspiracy. 2 Kgs. 15 : 25.
PEKAHI'AH (Jehovah hits opened his eyes) succeeded his father, Menahem, as king of Israel in 760, and reigned only two years, being murdered by Pekah, b. c. 758. 2 Kgs. 15: 22-26.
PE'KOD {visitation?), a symbolical name for Babylon. Jer. 50:21. In Eze. 23 : 23 it appears to be applied to a Chal-daean pro vine e. A Pekod is mentioned in the cylinder of Sennacherib as near the Hauran, and Le-normant thinks it was the collective name of several tribes in the Euphrates valley. The exact meaning of the term is not known. Some explain it as "visitation," "punishment," others as "perfect," "noble."
PELA'IAH [whom Jehovah dis-tinyuishes). 1. A descendant of David. 1 Chr. 3 : 24.
2. A Levite who assisted Ezra in expounding the Law, Neh. 8 : 7, and sealed the covenant with Ne-hemiah, Neh. 10:10; called Biatas in 1 Esd.
PELAL I'AH
judges), a priest in the return from the 11 : 12.
PELATI'AH {whom Jehovah delivers). 1. The grandson of Zerubbabel. 1 Chr. 3:21.
2. A Simeonite captain on an expedition to Mount Seir. 1 Chr. 4 : 42.
3. One of the heads of the people, who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah. Neh. 10 : 22.
4. One of the five-and-twenty men who withstood the prophet ICzekiel and counselled the people of Israel wickedly, but was suddenly struck dead while the
{whom Jehovah Jerusalem after Captivity. Neh.
The Pelican.
prophet was uttering his prediction. Eze. 11 : 1-13.
PE'LEG {division), a son of Eber and brother of Joktan, in whose time—that is, in the age immediately succeeding the Deluge—the family of Eber was divided, the elder branch, which de-
PEL
PEN
scended from Peleg, remaining in Mesopotamia, while the younger branch, descending from Joktan, emigrated to Southern Arabia. Gen. 10 : 2o ; 11: 16 ;
1 Chr. 1 : 25. lPE,'l.t:.T (deliverance).
1. A son of Jahdai. descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2:47.
2. One of the Benjamites who joined David at Zik-lag. 1 Chr. 12 : 3.
PE'LETH {swiftness). 1. A Reubenite whose son On joined Da than and Abiram in their rebellion. Num. 16:1.
2. A son of Jonathan, and a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 33.
PE'LETHITES. 2 Sam. 8 : 18. See Chkrethites.
PELICAN (Ileb. the vomiter), a voracious water-bird, unclean by the Levitical law. Lev. 11 : IS, of singular construction and habits, resembling the goose, though nearly twice as large. Its bill is 15 inches long. The female has a large pouch or bag capable of containing 2 or 3 gallons of water, and food enough for six common men. Out of this pouch she feeds herself and her young, and from this habit and the red nail at the end of her bill came the notion that she fed her offspring on her own blood. The pelican was formerly more abundant than now in the Levant, but Dr. Thomson has seen it at Lake Huleh and the Sea of Galilee. ILaving gorged itself with fish, this bird flies miles into the wilderness, where it sits in some lonely place " for hours, or even days, with its bill resting on its breast, a picture of melancholy." Ps. 102 : 6. The margin correctly reads ''pelican" for "cormorant" in Isa. 34:11; Zeph. 2:14. (Sec cut. p. 067.)
PEL'ONITE, a designation applied in 1 Chr. 11 : 27, 36 to Helez and Ahijah, two of David's mighty men, of whom the former is called the Paltite in
2 Sam. 23 : 26.
PEN. The instruments with which the characters were formed in the writing of the ancients varied with the materials upon which the letters were to be traced. Upon hard substances, such as stone or metallic plates, a ffmrer of steel was used, the same which Job calls " an iron 668
pen." It is possible that an instrument pointed with diamond, such as glaziers now use, was not unknown, as " the sin of Judah is written with a pen of iron, and with the point of a diamond ;
Pens and Writing-Materials.
it is graven upon the table of their heart, and upon the horns of your altars." Jer. 17 :1. Upon tablets of wax a metallic pen or stylus was employed, having one end pointed to trace the letters, the other broad and flat to erase any erroneous marks by smoothing the wax.
Upon paper, linen, cotton, skins, and parchments, it was in very early times common to paint the letters with a hair-pencil brought to a fine point. The reed pen was introduced afterward, and at first used without being split at the point. The reed pen is used by the modern Turks, Sj'rians, Persians, Abys-sinians. Arabs, and other Orientals, as their languages could not be written without difficulty with pens made from quills. A particular kind of knife is used to split the reed. Jer. 36 : 23.
PENI'EL, OR PENU'EL (face of God), a place between the Jabbok and Succoth where Jacob had his mysterious wrestling with the Angel. Gen. 32 : 24-32. The usual, and probably the original, form was " Penuel," and this is the form in the Samaritan Pentateuch. Five hundred years later, when pursuing the Midianites. Gideon found a city and tower at Penuel, and slew the men of the city. Jud. 8 : 17, 18. Jeroboam went from Shechem and built Penuel. 1 Kgs. 12 : 25. Its site has long been counted as unknown, for the region in which it was situated has been only slightly explored. Dr. Merrill, however, identifies Penuel with a point on the Zerka (Jabbok), about 4 miles east of Canaan's ford and at Tabill edh Dhahuh. Sec Jabbok.
PEN
PEN
PENIN'NAH (coral), one of the two
wives of Elkanah, the father of Samuel.
1 Sam. 1 : 2.
PEN'KXIFE. Jer. 36 : 2?,. See
K\IKK.
PEN'NY. This word, so translated in our English Version for the Greek denarius, is equivalent to about sixteen cents or eight pence, and was a regular day's wages. The " penny " shown to Christ bore the likeness and name of Caesar (Tiberius), who had then been emperor for seventeen or eighteen years. Matt. 22 : 19, 21, Denarius ought to have been retained or Angliciz-ed into deitar, with a marginal note giving its precise value. See Money.
PENTATEUCH, THE, is the collective name for the first five books of the 0. T., the books of Moses. The name is of Greek origin, meaning "five volumes," and was probably introduced by the Alexandrian translators of the 0. T. As also the names of the separate books — Genesis, Exodus, etc.—are of Greek origin, referring to the contents of the books, and as, in the Jewish manuscripts, these books form only one roll or volume, it has been conjectured that the division itself is due to the Greek translators. In Scripture the Pentateuch is called "a book of the law of the Lord given by the hand of Moses,"
2 Chr. 34 : U; "the book of the law of the Lord," 2 Chr. 17 : 9 ; " the book of the law," 2 Kgs. 22:8; "the book of the covenant," 2 Chr. 34 : ?^^ ; 2 Kgs. 23 : 2, 21 ; " the law of Moses." Ezr. 7:0; " the book of the law of Moses," Neh. 8:1; "the book of Moses," Ezr. 6:18; Neh. 13 : 1 ; 2 Chr. 25 : 4 ; 35 : 12 ; or simply " the law," Matt. 12 ; 5 ; Luke 10 : 26 ; John 8 : 5, 17. Among the Jews the several books are designated by their initial letters— Bereshith ("in the beginning"), Shemoth ("names"), etc.; among the Christians, with reference to their subject-matter— Genesis giving the primitive history, as a preparation for the theocracy, from the Creation to the death of Jacob; Exodus, the foundation of the theocracy, by the legislation from Mount Sinai; Leviticus, the inner organization of the theocracy by the ceremonial laws on the Levitieal worship ; Numbers, the actual establishment of the theocracy by the march through the wilderness and the conquest of Canaan; and Deuteron-
otiii/, the final and comprehensive recapitulation of Mosaic legislation. The whole is one couipact and complete representation of the Hebrew theocracy, the first and the last books having a more universal character, the three intermediate ones a more specifically Jewish character, Exodus giving the prophetic, Leviticus the priestly, and Numbers the kingly, aspect of the theocracy.
With respect to the authorship of this work, various circumstances have during the last two centuries caused some doubt whether it can legitimately be ascribed to Moses. Moses is always spoken of in the third person, and in the last passages of Deuteronomy his death and burial are related. Names of places occur, though we know that they did not come into use until after the conquest of Canaan—such as " Dan," Gen. 14 : 14; Deut. 34 : 1 ; comp. Josh. 19 : 47, and " Hebron." Gen. 13 : 18; 23 : 2 ; comp. Josh. 14 : 15 ; Jud. 1:10. The names of the Lord, "Jehovah" and " Elohim," alternate in such a way as to indicate a double authorship, and alleged differences in style and language and repetitions seem to point the same way. On these grounds a school of modern critical scholars contends that the Pentateuch, at least, in its present shape, was not written by Moses, or by any single author, but is a compilation of much later date and from very different sources.
However ingenious many of the arguments against the Mosaic authorship may be, the collected evidence in its favor is nevertheless overwhelming. The unity of the com]>osition, as set forth above, is so strong that no attempt at breaking it has ever succeeded, and the book itself, directly and indirectly, bears testimony to its essential Mosaic origin. In Deut. 31 : 9-12, 24-26 we are told that Moses wrote " this law," and when he was done with it he placed it in the hands of the Levites, to be kept in the ark of the covenant and to be read to the peo])le every seventh year on the feast of the tabernacles. " This law" may mean Deuteronomy alone, and not the whole Pentateuch ; but other passages refer in exactly the same manner to other parts of the work. He Avrote, by divine command, the book of the covenant and the I ten commandments, Ex. 24 : 3-7 ; 17 :
PEN
PEO
14, and also the camping-stations of the Israelites in the wilderness. Num. 33 : 2 ff. The presumption is that he wrote the rest, unless there are convincing arguments to the contrary (as in the account of his death at the close of Deuteronomy, which is evidently added by a later hand). The Mosaic authorship of the great body of the Pentateuch is sustained by uninterrupted and unanimous tradition of the Jewish Synagogue and the Christian Church, and by the internal evidence of the work itself. Moses was, of all men, best qualified to write it. He had the best preparation, he knew all about the events in which he figured so prominently. The book contains so many and so close references to Egypt —the land, the people, and the civilization—that its author must not only have lived for a long time in Egypt, but also have received the benefit of a thorough Egyptian education and partaken in Egyptian life from a superior position; see, for instance, the references to irrigation, Deut. 11: 10 ; to Avar, Deut. 20 : 5 ; to mining, Deut. 8:9; to criminal punishment, Deut. 25 : 2, etc. Next, the narrative of the passage through the desert gives so correct and so fresh a description of the event that it could never have been made by any one who had not taken part in that long trial, and hardly by any other than by him who was the leader. The language, also, and the theology (especially the eschatology) of the Pentateuch are archaic, and antedate the compositions of the Davidic, and still more of the post-Exilian, period. There is no man in the whole subsequent history of Israel, as far as we know, who could at all account for the peculiarities of the Pentateuch near so Avell as the great lawgiver, who is the central figure of the book. Ezra, for instance, to whom some ultra-critics assign the authorship, never was in Egypt nor in the wilderness, and lived in the reproductive period of reconstruction or restoration of the theocracy founded by .Jehovah through Moses centuries before. Thus from various sides we are led to feel not only that Moses has written the Pentateuch, but also that he was the only one who could have written it; and the objections have so much the less power, as a Mosaic authorship by no means excludes either 670
the use of earlier documents or the addition of later notes.
For further details see the special articles on the separate books : Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
PEN'TECOST (from a Greek word signifyingy?/ifi'e^/0 is the name by which the N. T. denotes the second great festival of the Jews, called by them " the feast of weeks " or " the day of first-fruits." It was celebrated on the fiftieth day (hence the name) after the Passover, reckoning from the second day of the Passover (the 16th of Nisan), Lev. 23 : 11, 15, to the morrow after the end of the seventh week. Lev. 23 : 15, 16 ; Deut. 16 : 9. It was originally a simple thanksgiving for the harvest, which in Palestine fell in the weeks between the Passover and the Pentecost. The festival was kept only for one day, and the principal rite consisted in the offering of two loaves made of the finest flour of the last crop's wheat.
Later on, however, after the destruction of Jerusalem and the dispersion of the Jewish nation, the feast assumed an historical character. It was made out from Ex. 19 that the giving of the Law on Mount Sinai took place on the fiftieth day after the deliverance from Egypt, and in course of time, and among Jews living in other climes with another harvest-season, this became the principal signification of the festival.
In the Christian Church, Pentecost is celebrated seven weeks after Easter, in commemoration of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the disciples, as the birthday of the Christian Church. Acts 2: 1-14.
PENU'EL {face of God). 1. A Ju-dite. 1 Chr. 4 : 4.
2. A chief Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 25, 28
iPENU'EL. See Peniel.
PE'OR {cleft), the mountain-peak to which Balak brought Balaam to curse Israel. Num. 23 : 28. The camp of Israel was at this time in the Jordan valley, near the Dead Sea. Beth-peor was "over against" the camp. Deut. 3 : 29 ; 34 : 6. Peor is described as " facing Jeshimon," and this is also said of Pis-gah. The Rev. J. A. Paine proposed to identify Pisgah with Jebel Siaghah in the Abarim range opposite Jericho. Of
PER
PER
the three summits of Siaghah he suggested the first or western as one station of Balaam. Num. 22 : 41, and the second summit as the top of Peor, but his theory is disputed by Dr. Merrill and others. Balaam was first at ''the top of Pisgah " and then upon "the top of Peor," Num. 23 : 14, 28, another peak evidently not far from Pisgah. From this he exclaimed, " How goodly are thy tents, 0 Jacob !" See Pisgah.
PER'AZIM (6>-eacAe«), a mountain upon which divine vengeance would be manifested. Isa. 28 : 21. It is not elsewhere mentioned in Scripture, but has been regarded as identical with Baal-perazim of 2 Sam. 5 : 20 and 1 Chr. 14: 8-17, where David won his victory over the Philistines. The latter place was in the valley of Rephaim. See Baal-per-
AZIM.
PE'RES. Dan. 5 : 28. See Mene.
PE'RESH {(lung), son of Machir, and descendant of Manasseh. 1 Chr. 7 : 16.
PE'REZ (a rent). See Pharez.
PE'REZ-UZ'ZA, OR UZ'ZAH (breaking of Uzzah), a place called also Nachon and Chidon. 2 Sam. 6 : 6-8; 1 Chr. 13 : 9-11; 15 : 13. It was near Jerusalem, and there Uzzah died for his presumptuous rashness in attempting to steady the ark of God.
PERFECTION. That which is entire and complete in all its parts, without defect or blemish, is perfect. Thus even the most insignificant thing can be perfect—perfect in its kind; and, although perfection can never raise a thing above its kind, it nevertheless confers on it the highest value which it ever can reach. When Christ says, *' Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect," Matt. 5 : 48, the meaning is not that we should be perfect as God, but simply that we should realize all the possibilities which are involved in our nature and conditions as his children—that is, we should be entire in our faith and without blemish in our love.
PERTUME. Ex. 30 : 35. The use of perfumery to give an agreeable odor to the person and apparel is. and ever has been, widely prevalent in Eastern countries. In the passage cited, however, the composition which is called a perfume was to be used in the tabernacle
service. The composiiion of it is prescribed with great particularity, and the making or using it for any other purpose was forbidden under severe penalties. It is of little importance what the ingredients were, or what was specially denoted in the manner of using it. It had its value as a test of obedience, and may have had some significancy to the view which we cannot appreciate. The "art of the apothecary," after or according to which the compound was to be made, probably consisted quite as much in the preparation of perfumes as in the sale of drugs and medicines. See Incense.
PER'GA {extreinifij, or place of nap-tialn), a city of Pamphylia. a province of Asia Minor, and situated on the river Cestrus, about 7i miles from the sea. It was the original capital of the province. The inhabitants were Greeks, and had a temple, a stadium, theatres, and a far-famed temple of Diana, standing on a high eminence. Coins of Perga have been found bearing the image of this celebrated goddess. Paul and Barnabas, with Mark, landed at Perga in the spring, when the roads to Pisidia would be cleared of snow. Paul preached in the city, and Mark here forsook him and returned to Jerusalem. Acts 13 : 13; 14:25. There are extensive ruins at the place, which is now called Eski Kalessi by the Turks.
PER'GAMOS {place of nuptials), a celebrated city of Mysia, about 3 miles north of the river Caicus and 20 miles from the sea. It was noted for its Avealth, which had its origin, it is said, from the time that 9000 talents were entrusted by Lysimachus, a successor of Alexander, to the keeping of Philataerus, who (b. c. 283) appropriated the money, declared himself independent, and founded a successful dynasty, which lasted for over four centuries, when the treasure was bequeathed to the Romans. The city was celebrated for (1) literary character; (2) idolatry. It had avast library of 200,000 volumes (rolls), rivalling that at Alexandria, but Antony presented this library to Cleopatra, when it was removed to Egypt, and, with the Alexandrine Library, destroyed by Caliph Omar. At this city also the art of preparing skins for writing was greatly improved, and our word "parchment" is derived from the Latin charta per-
PER
PER
gavioia, or "paper of Pergamos." The city had, in a grove near by, a cluster of famous temples dedicated to Zeus, Minerva, Apollo, Venus, Bacchus, and ^sculapius. One of the seven churches of Asia was at Pergamos,'' where Satan's seat is." Rev. 1:11:2:12-17. The term "Satan's seat" some regard as referring to the worship of ^sculapius, whose common emblem Avas the serpent. Others think it denotes the particular wickedness of the various idolatries and the trials which had come upon the church, one faithful member, Antipas, having already suffered martyrdom. The city is now called Berqama, and has a population of from 20,000 to 30,000, of which about 2000 are Christians, having several churches. The rest of the inhabitants are Turks and Mohammedans. There are ruins of fine churches and temples, indicating the former grandeur of the city, but the modern houses are small and mean.
PERI'DA. See Perupa.
PER'IZZITES {villagers). The Canaanites apparently lived in the cities of Palestine, while the Perizzites lived in the open country; accordingly, the two together made up the inhabitants of the country, and were scattered over the land, from which they were, however, in great measure expelled during the Conquest. Gen. 13 : 7 ; 34 : 30 ; Josh.
17 : 15 ; Jud. 3 : 5 ; 1 Kgs. 9 : 20 ; 2 Chr. 8:7: Ezr. 9 : 1.
PERSECU'TION is the application of coercive means in matters of conscience, or the infliction of pains and penalties for conscience' sake. Under the Mosaic dispensation, which considers God as the King of the Hebrew nation, the enforcement of religious views was a part of the criminal law. To worship another god was treason, and was punished as such. Deut. 13. Foreigners who dwelt in Palestine were not compelled to embrace Judaism, but they would not obtain full citizens' rights unless fulfilling this condition, Ex. 12 : 48, and for open idolatry they were punished. Lev.
18 : 26; 20 i 1-5.
Under the Christian dispensation, which considers God as the Father of all men, persecution becomes itself a crime, which, however, does not encroach on the right of the Christian Chui-ch to exclude any member for heretical doc-43
trine or scandalous conduct. 1 Cor. 5 : 3-5, 13.
Persecution in the Christian Church has indeed been defended by reference to the Mosaic Law, but it is manifestly contrary to both the spirit and action of Christ and the apostles, who had rather suffer than inflict punishment, and who trusted to the power of the truth, and not to carnal weapons, for the universal success of their religion. Thus Jesus said, " My kingdom is not of this world." John 18 : 36. And Paul affirms, " The weapons of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty through God to the pulling down of strongholds." 2 Cor. 10 : 4.
PERSEP'OLIS, a celebrated city, and the capital of Persia. It is not mentioned in the canonical books of the Bible, but is noticed in the Apocrypha. 2 Mace. 9:2. It was probably founded by Darius Hystaspes, and became a residence of Persian monarchs until the time of Alexander the Great, Avho wantonly burned the city. It partially recovered, and was again attacked by Antiochus Epiphanes, who attempted to plunder it. The city was situated near the plains of Merf/nnhf, where extensive and magnificent ruins still exist, and are called Cliehl-Minar, or " fortv pillars."
PER'SIA (Heb. Pharas, 'pure, or tigers ?), a country in Central Asia. The term is generally applied in Scripture to the entire Persian empire, but in Eze. 38 : 5 it appears to designate Persia proper. The latter country was bounded by Media on the north, Carmania on the east, Susiana on the west, and the Persian Gulf on the south. The Persian empire, however, extended from the Indus on the east to Thrace on the west, and from the Black and Caspian Seas on the north to the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea on the south. It included all Western Asia and portions of Europe and Africa. Persia proper was in general an unproductive country, low and sandy on the gulf, hilly and mountainous inland. The interior was a great plateau, having an average elevation of 4000 feet above the sea, broken by mountains and valleys and interspersed with fruitful plains.
Ilisfori/. —Persia Avas settled originally by Aryan tribes from the east, probably about B. c. 880. They were brave and enterprising, and divided into ten castes
PER
PET
or tribes, of which the Pasargadse were the nobles. Their hinguage was closely allied to the Sanscrit, and in their religion they were dualists, believing in one supreme god and in one great power of evil. These good and evil beings were regarded as co-eternal and coequal. The founder of the Persian dynasty was Achgemes, and it was tributary to the Medes for a time, until a revolt under Cyrus about B. c. 588. Their sway was then raj^idly extended over Asia Minor, and in B. c. 539 over Babylon, where the Persians came into contact with the captive Jews, Cyrus issuing a decree permitting these captives to return to their own land. 2 Chr. 36 : 20-23; Ezr. 1 : 8. Cyrus died in B. c. 529, and his tomb is still pointed out near the ancient capital, now known as Mitrghah. A later king, called Ar-taxerxes in Scripture, forbade the rebuilding of the temple, but Darius Hystaspes authorized the work to go on. Ezr. 4:5-24; 6:7-12. Xerxes, who was probably the Ahasuerus of the book of Esther, succeeded him, and was defeated by the Greeks, assassinated, and succeeded by his son Artaxerxes Longi-manus, who was friendly to the Jews. Ezr. 7 : 11-28; Neh. 2 : 1-9. Only one of his successors is noticed in Scripture, Darius the Persian. Neh. 12 : 22. After lasting about two hundred years the Persian empire was overthrown by Alexander the Great, b. c. 330, and followed by the Macedonian, the third great woi'ld-empire. Dan. 8 : 3-7.
Presoit Conditio)!. —Persia now has an area of about 500,000 square miles and a population of about 10,000,000. Its principal seaport-town is Bushire, a city of 30,000 inhabitants having considerable trade with England. The chief ruler is called the Shah. The province of Shiraz is properly the ancient kingdom of Persia before Cyrus. "Within it are the ruins of Persepolis, the palace of Darius, which was burned by Alexander the Great when in a drunken frolic, fire-temples, inscriptions, altars, and various mementoes of the old Persian faith, which is still held by the Parsees. Christian missions have been established among the Nestorians in Persia by the American Congregational, and the American Presbyterian Board of Missions, which have met with encouraging success. 674
PER'SIANS, inhabitants of Persia. Dan. 6 : 28. See Pkhsia.
PER'SIS (« Persian woman), a Christian woman in Rome to whom Paul sends his salutation. Rom. 16 : 12.
PERU'DA (kerne/), a servant of Solomon whose descendants returned with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2 : 55; called Perida in Neh. 7 : 57.
PES'TILENCE expresses all sorts of distempers and calamities. Jer. 21 : 6. The Hebrew word, which properly signifies the ''plague," is applied to all epidemical and contagious diseases.
Pestilences are still very common in Asia and Africa. It is supposed to have been by a species of pestilence that the first-born of Egypt were cut off. Ps. 78 : 60, 51.
A pestilent fellow is one who is mischievous and disposed to corrupt and ruin a multitude. Acts 24 : 5. See Plague.
PE'TER (stone, or rock; Syriac Cephas; Greek Petros), one of the twelve apostles, one of the three favorite disciples (with John and James), and the most active of all in word and deed (excejjt Paul, who did not belong to the twelve). His original name was "Simon" or "Simeon." He was a son of Jonas (John, according to the reading of the best manuscripts), a brother of Andrew, probably a native of Beth-saida in Galilee. He was a fisherman by trade, and resided at Capernaum with-his wife and mother-in-law, who was healed by Christ of a fever. See John 1: 42 ; 2i : 15 ; Matt. 16 : 18 : Luke 5 : 3-10 ; Matt. 8 : 14, 15; Mark 1: 29-31 ; Luke 4 : 38. When he forsook all to follow Christ he must have made a considerable sacrifice. His new name " Peter " (" rock-man ") was given him when he was called to the apostleship, John 1: 42. and was solemnly confirmed when he, in the name of all the other apostles, made that remarkable confession of the divinity of our Lord which is the fundamental creed of Christendom and the immovable foundation of the Christian Church. Matt. 16 : 18. The name "Peter" or "Cephas" was a prophecy of the prominent position which he, as the confessor of Christ, would occupy in the primitive age of the Church. He laid the foundation of the Church among the Jews on the day