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of Pentecost, Acts 2, and, after a special revelation, among the Gentiles also, in the conversion of Cornelius. Acts 10. He appears throughout in the Gospels and the lirst part of the Acts as the head and mouthpiece of the twelve. He had an ardent nature, a sanguine, impulsive, hopeful temperament, was frank, open, fresh, enthusiastic, and energetic, and born to take the lead, but apt to overrate his strength and liable to change and inconsistency. He was the first to confess and the first to deny his Lord and Saviour, yet he repented bitterly, and had no rest and peace till the Lord forgave him. He had a great deal of genuine human nature, but divine grace did its full work, and overruled even his faults for his advancement in humility and meekness, which shine out so beautifully from his Epistles.
The labors of Peter are recorded in the Acts. Chs. 1 to 12 and ch. 15. He was the leading apostle from the day of Pentecost to the Council of Jerusalem, in A.D. 50. After that time his whereabouts are involved in obscurity. Paul mentions him as being at Antioch, about A. D. 52, and censures him for inconsistency of conduct, which he showed at that time toward the Gentile converts, from fear of offending the Judaizing party. The alienation of the two apostles was merely temporary. We must admire the meekness and humility with ■which Peter bore the sharp rebuke of his younger colleague, and with which he alluded afterward to the Epistles of his " beloved brother Paul," 2 Pet. 3 : 15, as much as the boldness and fearlessness with which Paul stood up for principle and the rights and liberty of the Gentile Christians. Paul mentions him again, A.D. 57, 1 Cor. 9 : 5, as engaged, in company with his wife, in missionary journeys and labors, perhaps among the dispersed Jews in Asia Minor, to whom he addressed his Epistles. 1 Pet. 1 : 1. This allusion to Peter's wife is important as proving that he did not give up the family ties when he entered upon his spiritual calling. Clement of Alexandria expressly states that Peter and Philip had children, and that both took about with them their wives, who aided them in ministering to women at their own homes. It is a singular fact that he whom Roman Catholics hold to be the
first pope should have been and remained a married man and thus protested against clerical celibacy.
According to the unanimous testimony of Christian antiquity, Peter suffered
Portraits of Peter and Paul. (From a Gilded Glass Cup found in the Catacombs of Rome.)
martyrdom in Rome under Nero, but the length of his residence in Rome and the year of his martyrdom are uncertain. When Paul arrived at Rome, a. d. 61, and during his imprisonment, a. d. 61-63, no mention is made of Peter. It is therefore improbable that he reached Rome before the close of 63. The report of a twenty or twenty-five years' residence of Peter in Rome rests on a chronological miscalculation of Eusebius and Jerome, who assume that he went to Rome A.I). 42, immediately after his deliverance from prison (Acts 12 : 17, "he went into another place"), and is entirely irreconcilable with the silence of Scripture, and we may say even with the mere fact of Paul's Epistle to the Romans, written in 5S; for Paul says not a word of previous labors of Peter in that city, and never built on other men's foundation. Peter's martyrdom may have taken place either in A. D. 64, during the terrible Neronian persecution after the great confi.agration, or in 67. He is said to have been crucified, and thus he followed his Lord literally in the mode of his death. Comp. John 21 : 18, 19. Origen adds, however, that Peter, deeming himself unworthy to be, in the mode of his death, conformed to his Master, was at his own request crucified with his head downward.
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The Epistles of Peter belong to the last years of his life, and are addressed to churches in Asia Minor, chiefly planted by Paul and his companions. They contain precious consolations and exhortations, and confirm the harmony of his doctrine with that of the apostle of the Gentiles. 1 Pet. 5 : 12; 2 Pet. 3 : 15. They breathe a sweet, gentle, lovely, humble spirit, thoroughly mastered and softened by divine grace, and are full of joy and hope in view of the threatening persecutions.
The First Epistle is dated fromBabylon, 1 Pet. 5 : 13 : but commentators diflFer. Some refer it to the famous Babylon in Asia, which after its destruction was still inhabited by a Jewish colony, and remained for several centuries a chief seat of rabbinical learning ; others refer it to Babylon in Egypt, now called Old Cairo; still others understand it mystically of heathen Rome, in which serkse " Babylon " is certainly used in the Apocalypse of John. The last view is favored by the terms co-elect ("elected together with yon ") and Marcus my son, which occur in the same verse, and which scarcely bear a literal interpretation ("Peter's wife and son''), but probably mean the Christian Church and Mark the evangelist, who was his spiritual son. In this case the passage would be the first, and the only scriptural, proof for Peter's presence in Rome. If the letter was written during or after the terrible persecution of 64, he might have had good reason to call Rome by the name of Babylon, the ancient enemy of the people of God. Mark was a companion and interpreter of Peter in his missionary labors. The Epistle was transmitted by Silvanus, 1 Pet. 5 : 12, a disciple and fellow-laborer of Paul, and a connecting link between him and Peter, well qualified to assure the Jewish converts in the churches of Asia Minor of the harmony of the two great apostles in all the essential doctrines of salvation.
The Second Epistle is a valedictory of Peter, written shortly before his martyrdom, with warnings against Antinomian heresies, which began to disturb the harmony and purity of the Church. The external testimonies in favor of the Second Epistle are not so numerous as those in favor of the First, nor was it as much used. But the author expressly 676
designates himself as an eye-witness of the transfiguration of Christ on the mount, 2 Pet. 1 : 16-18, and bears ample evidence of apostolic depth and unction. It attests some of the most important facts in our Lord's ministry: it confirms the unity of apostolic teaching; it adds the doctrine of the final destruction of the material universe to make room for a new heaven and a new earth "wherein dwelleth righteousness;" and it appropriately closes with the exhortation to " grow in grace and in the knowledge of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Chi-ist. To him he glory both now and for ever."
PETHAHI'AH {whom God sets free). 1. The head of the nineteenth course of the priests in the reign of David. 1 Chr. 24 : 16.
2. A Levite who had married a foreign woman in the time of Ezra, Ezr. 10 : 23, and probably the same who conducted the solemn service of the fast. Neh. 9 : 5.
3. A descendant of Judah who held an office at the Persian court. Neh. 11 : 24.
PE'THOR [soothsayer ?), the native place of Balaam, situated " upon the river," probably the Euphrates, as it was in Mesopotamia. Num. 22 : 5; Deut. 23 : 4. Pethor has been supposed to be identical with Balis, on the Euphrates, where Benjamin of Tudela states there is the "tower of Balaam, son of Beor." Some scholars have recently proposed, however, to locate the country of Balaam in Syria, but this view lacks sufficient support. See Pad.vn-aram.
PETHU'EL [vision of God), or perhaps METHU'EL [peace of God), the father of the prophet Joel. Joel 1 : 1.
PE'TRA. Isa. 16 : 1. See Sela.
PEUL'THAI [wages of Jehovah), a Levite porter, the eighth son of Obed-edom. IChr. 26 : 5.
PHA'LEC, same as Peleg, the son of Eber. Luke 3 : 35.
PHAL'LU [distinguished). Gen. 46 : 9. See Pallu.
PHAL'TI [deliverance of Jehovah), called PHAL'TIEL, 2 Sam. 3:15, the man to whom Saul gave Michal, the wife of David. 1 Sam. 25 : 44.
PHAL'TIEL. See above.
PHANU'EL [face of God), father of the prophetess Anna. Luke 2 : 36.
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PHA'RAOH, an Egyptian word applied by the Egyptians themselves to their kings as a generic name or title, and adopted into Hebrew, where it was used either alone or with the addition "king of Egypt," or, as in two cases, followed by a proper name—Pharaoh-nechoh and Pharaoh-hophra. The word was formerly derived from the Egyptian article Pi or Ph and the word Ra, denoting " the sun," as the Egyptian king was considered the representative on earth of the sun-god, or from the Coptic onro, "• king." Modern Egyptologists (De Rouge, Brugsch, and Ebers) define its meaning as "the great house," and its application would thus be equivalent to our " the sublime porte." On account of the great uncertainty which still surrounds Egyptian chronology, it has proved very difficult to identify the different Pharaohs mentioned in the Bible, but, in many points, the investigations of Egyptologists and biblical scholars have reached pretty certain conclusions. Ten Pharaohs are mentioned in the 0. T.
1. The Pharaoh of the time of Abraham. Gen. 12 : 15. He is probably identical with Salatis, the head of the fifteenth dynasty, one of the Shepherd-kings (Hyksos), foreigners of the Semitic race, who conquered Egypt and, having become Egyptianized, ruled it for several centuries. The date of Abraham's visit to Egypt is most probably fixed at about B. c. 2080.
2. The Pharaoh of Joseph, Gen. 41, was the last, or the last but one, of the fifteenth dynasty; probably identical with Apophis, who reigned at least 26 years, b. c 1876-1850.
3. The Pharaoh of the Oppression— "the new king over Egypt who knew not Joseph," Ex. 1 : 8, and under whose reign Moses was born—is now by most Egyptologists identified with Rameses II., the third sovereign of the nineteenth i dynasty (the Sesostris of the Greeks), ' the most prominent of the Pharaohs, a I conqueror of many lands, the master-builder of Egypt, whose statues and | temples in ruins are found all over the Nile valley from Zoan (Tanis) to Kar- I nak and Aboo Simbel. The other theory, i which seeks the Pharaoh of the Oppres- j sion in Aahmes I. (the Amosis of .Jose-phus), who began to reign b. c. 1706 as ,
the first sovereign of the eighteenth dynasty, is now pretty generally abandoned. See Egypt.
4. The Pharaoh of the Exodus, Ex. 5 : 1, before whom Moses wrought his miracles, and who perished with his army in the pursuit of the Israelites, was Menephtha, the thirteenth son of Rameses II., who began to rule b. c. 1325. His reign was inglorious and marked a period of decline. He did not even finish his father's tomb. On a monument of Tanis mention is made of the fact that he lost a son, and Dr. Brugsch connects this with the death of the first-born, the last of the plagues.
5. The Pharaoh whose daughter, Bithiah, was given in marriage to Mered, a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 18.
6. The Pharaoh who gave the sister of his queen in marriage to Hadad, an Edomite of royal blood, who escaped thf massacre of Joab and fled to Egypt. ' Kgs. 11 : 18-20.
7. The Pharaoh whose daughter Solo mon married and brought "into thecit; of David until he had made an end of building his own house, and the house of the Lord," 1 Kgs. 3:1, consequently before the eleventh year of his reign, in which year the temple was finished. 1 Kgs. 6 : 37, 38. This Pharaoh afterward made an expedition into Palestine, took Gerar, slew the Canaanites who dwelt in the city, and gave it to his daughter, Solomon's wife. 1 Kgs. 9 : 16.
8. The Pharaoh in whom King Heze-kiah put his confidence in his war with Sennacherib, 2 Kgs. 18 : 21, probably identical with Sethos or Zet.
9. Pharaoh-nechoh, also called simply Necho, was the fifth or sixth ruler of the Saite dynasty, and reigned from b. c. 610 to 594. He made an expedition against Assyria, but was encountered by Josiah, king of Judah, who sided with Assyria, but was defeated and killed at Megiddo. 2 Chr. 35 : 20-24; 2 Kgs. 23 : 29, 30. The Jews then raised Jchoahaz, the younger son of Josiah, to the throne, but he was deposed by Necho, who gave the sceptre to Jehoiakim, the elder son of Josiah. Necho's army was afterward defeated at Carchemish by Nebuchadnezzar, and he lost all his Asiatic possessions. 2 Kgs. 24 : 7. See Necho.
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10. Pharaoh-hophra, the Apries of secular historians, was the second successor of Necho, and entered Palestine, probably in b. c. 590, in order to relieve Jerusalem, which was besieged by Nebuchadnezzar. Jer. 37 : 5-8; Eze. 17: 11-13; comp. 2 Kgs. 25 : 1-4. The campaign was of no avail. Jerusalem fell, and Nebuchadnezzar made a successful invasion into Egypt. Pharaoh-hophra was afterward deposed by his own subjects, and, though he was at first treated kindly by his successor, Amosis, he was finally strangled. In their prophecies Jeremiah and Ezekiel give a very striking picture of this king, his arrogance and conceit, which corresponds closely with that given by Herodotus.
PHARAOH'S DAUGHTER. Three Egyptian princesses are mentioned in the Bible.
1. Moses' preserver. Ex. 2 : 10.
2. Bithiah, the wife of Mered, an Israelite. 1 Chr. 4 : 18.
3. A wife of Solomon. 1 Kgs. 3 : 1. PHA'RES. Matt. 1:3; Luke 3 : 33.
See Pharez.
PHA'REZ (a breach), a son of Judah, and twin-brother of Zarah, Gen. 38 : 29 ; 46 : 12, the ancestor of a great family called the Pharzites, Num. 26: 20 ; Ruth 4 : 12, 18 ; 1 Chr. 2:4; 4:1; 9:4; called Perez in Neh. 11: 4, 6, and Phares in Matt. 1:3; Luke 3 : 33.
PHARISEES, THE (from a Hebrew word meaning separated), formed one of the most conspicuous and powerful sects or parties among the Jews in the time of our Lord. The name does not occur before the N. T. period, and the origin of the sect is somewhat obscure. It is probable, however, that the Pharisees were simply a continuation or development of the As-sideans {" the pious ") in the time of the Maccabees. 1 Mace. 2 : 42; 7 : 13; 2 Mace. 14 : 6. Under the foreign rule, and more especially under the Syrian government, which left no means unemployed—even resorting to violence—in order to effect an amalgamation of the different nationalities under its sway, it was natural that there should rise among the Jews a party which opposed this influence and labored to preserve the national integrity. The Pharisees were this party, and much of their influence with the people was no doubt due to 678
their political position. On the accession of Herod, 6000 Pharisees refused to take the oath of allegiance, but were " put down with a strong hand;" and, again, it was the Pharisees who originated and organized that desperate resistance to the Romans which finally led to the dispersion of the whole nation. In a constitution, however, like that of the Hebrew theocracy, a political party must always be a religious sect at the same time, and with the Pharisees their political position was a simple consequence of their religious standpoint. As they were national in politics, they were orthodox in religion; and in opposition to the two other sects, the Sadducees and the Essenes, they stood among the people as the true expounders of the Law. In the time of our Lord, however, their orthodoxy had degenerated into mere formalism.
The principal points of difference between the Pharisees and the Sadducees were the doctrine of the immortality of the soul and a future reward or punishment ; the doctrine of a divine Providence acting side by side with the free will of man ; and the doctrine of an oral tradition descending from Moses and involving the same authority as the written Law,—all of which doctrines the Pharisees accepted, while the Sadducees rejected them. It was, however, more especially the last-mentioned doctrine which gave the Pharisees their peculiar character, and which caused our Lord to denounce them so often and so severely. Teaching that God had given to Moses, on Mount Sinai, an oral explanation with respect to the proper application of the written Law, and commanded him to transmit this explanation by word of mouth, the Pharisees ended by placing the oral explanation above the written commandment, the tradition above the Law. Entangled in the minute and subtle application of the Law, they missed its spirit; and though to the very last there were found noble characters among them, such as Nicodemus, .Joseph of Arimathea, Gamaliel, and others, self-conceit, arrogance, and hypocrisy became the general characteristics of the sect. They were exceedingly particular in refraining from anything which had not been duly tithed, but they forgot to pay that tithe which is most necessary
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of all, and which consists in meekness and mercj'. Matt. 23 : 23 ; Luke 18 : 12. They were exceedingly particular in av'oiding anything which the Law declared unclean, but they forgot to acquire that cleanness which is the most important of all, and which consists in the purity of the heart. Matt. 16 : 11. And while they themselves degenerated into empty formalists, they troubled the conscience of the people by the absurd importance they ascribed to the most futile questions, such as what material the wick of the Sabbath-lamp was to be made of, whether or not it was permitted to eat an egg laid on a Sabbath-day, etc. Hence we understand how the}' could at the same time be the true bearers of Judaism in politics and in religion, and yet be punished by our Lord by the severest denunciations.
PHA'ROSH. Ezr.8:3. SeePAROsH.
PHAR'PAR (swift), a river of Damascus named by Naaman. 2 Kgs. 5 : 12. It is about 8 miles from Damascus, and is the modern Awaj, while the Abana is the modern Barada. The Pharpar, or AivaJ, rises high up on the eastern side of Hermon, near the mountain-village of Beit Jann. There are several other small streams, which unite near Sasa, and the river flows eastward in a serpentine course through a deep glen and thickets of poplars and willows, and through green meadows rendered fertile by its waters. It empties into a lake or marsh called Bah ret Hijaneh, about 4 miles south of the lake into which the Barada falls, and about 16 miles south of Damascus. In spring and summer these so-called "meadow-lakes" are of considerable size, but in autumn and winter they are mere morasses. The Awaj flows across the plain of Damascus, but its waters are diminished by canals constructed to irrigate the fields and gardens almost up to the walls of the city. Its length is from 30 to 40 miles, and it is a much smaller stream than the Barada, for it is described as a little and lively stream, often dry in the lower part of its course, while the Barada is perennial and is a copious stream in the hottest season. The traveller from Banias to Damascus now crosses a deep ravine east of Hermon, through which runs the Nalir Barhar, a name in which the ancient Pharpar survives, according
to Baedeker, but it no longer falls into the el-Awaj.
PHAR'ZITES, a family descending from Pharez, and belonging to the tribe of Judah. Num. 26 : 20.
PHASE'AH. See Paskaii.
PHASE'LIS, a town on the border of Lycia and Pamphylia, where the Jews settled. It was at one time a place of considerable im])ortance, but later became a resort of pirates. It is now called Tckrova. It is mentioned only in the Apocryphal book of Maccabees. 1 Mace. 15 : 23.
PHE'BE (shining). See Pho:be.
PHEN'ICE, OH PHENI'CE. I. Another and more accurate form for Phoenicia. Acts 11: 19 ; 15:3. See Phoenicia.
2. A town and harbor, more properly Phoenix (from the Greek word for the palm tree, which was indigenous to Crete). The town was on the south-west coast of the island of Crete. It had a safe winter harbor, into which the captain of the ship upon which Paul was a prisoner attempted to sail after leaving Fair Havens. He was caught in the storm, however, and his ship was wrecked on the island of Melita. Acts 27 : 8, 12. PhaMiix or Phenice has been identified with the harbor of Lntro, about 35 miles west-north-west from Cape Matala. It has lately been shown that this place has an admirable harbor with a good depth of water, and sheltered from the winter winds.
PHI-BE'SETH. See Pi-beseth.
P H I' C H O L (according to some, strong; according to others, mouth of all), chief of the army of Abimelech, king of the Philistines of Gerar in the times of Abraham, Gen. 21: 22, and of Isaac. Gen. 26 : 26.
PHILADEL'PHIA (hrothcrl,/ love), a city on the borders of Lydia and Phrygia, about 25 miles south-east of Sardis. It was built by Attains Phila-delphus, king of Pergamos, who died B. c. 138. It then came into the hands of the Romans; was destroyed by an earthquake A. d. 17; was restored, and continued a place of importance to the Byzantine age; was taken by the Turks in A. D. 1392. Philadelphia is menitioned in the N. T. as the seat of one of the seven churches. Rev. 1 : 11; 3 : 7-13. The church at this place was highly commended, and it is noticeable that the
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city has survived all the vicissitudes of earthquakes and wars until the present day. Its bishojis were at the councils of NicEea, Laodicaja, and Constantinople; and when Tamerlane destroj^ed the seats of the other Christian churches and massacred the Christians, Philadelphia escaped, and was an asylum for some of the Christians of Sardis. Even the sceptical Gibbon speaks of its preservation as remarkable. A solitary pillar is still one of the most conspicuous features of the town, and the modern name is Allah Shehr, or "city of God," seeming to illustrate the promise in Rev. 3 : 12. The modern city, situated upon four or five flat summits at the foot of Mount Tmolus, contains about 3000 houses and 10,000 inhabitants, mostly Turks. The dwellings are mean and badly built, and the streets filthj^. The ruins include a wall and about 25 churches. In one place there are four large marble pillars which may have once supported the dome of a church. Tradition points out an old mosque in which the primitive Christians addressed in the Apocalypse are said to have worshipped. Earthquakes have frequently overthrown the city and rendered even its walls unsafe.
PHILE^MON, a native of Laodiesea and a resident of Colossae, was a man of means and influence, the head of a large household and of a Christian congregation in his own house. He had been converted to Christianity through Paul, probably during the apostle's stay at Ephesus, A. D. 54-57, and appears, from the letter addressed to him by Paul, to have been a large-hearted and sympathetic character.
The Epistle of Paul to Philemon was written at the same period as those to the Ephesians and Colossians—that is, toward the close of the apostle's first captivity in Rome, A. d. 62 or 63. Ones-imus, a slave of Philemon's, had committed some crime—theft, it would seem —and fled from the house from fear of punishment. Arrived at Rome, he met with Paul, and was converted to Christianity : and when he was ready to return penitently to his former master, the apostle furnished him with a letter bespeaking for him a good reception as a brother and freeman in Christ.
About the genuineness of the letter there can be no doubt, and, though short 680
and occasioned by a private aff'air, it is a " gem of Christian tenderness," and an invaluable testimony to the character of the apostle as a perfect Christian gentleman.
PHILE'TUS (amiable), one whom Paul associates with Hymeneus as an errorist. 2 Tim. 2 : 17. "They appear to have been persons who believed the Scriptures of the 0. T., but misinterpreted them, allegorizing away the doctrine of the resurrection, resolving it all into figure and metaphor. The delivering over unto Satan seems to have been a form of excommunication declaring the person reduced to the state of a heathen, and in the apostolic age it was accompanied with supernatural or miraculous effects upon the bodies of the persons so delivered."— Waterland: Importance of Doctrine of Holy Trinity.
PHILaP [lover of hor.,es). 1. The apostle, a native of Bethsaida, and known to the Lord before called to follow him. He is always mentioned as the fifth among the twelve, Matt. 10 : 3 ; Mark 3 : 18; Luke 6:14: John 1: 43-46 ; Acts 1: 13, but the Gospels contain only a few notices of him. According to tradition, he preached in Phrygia and died at Hier-apolis.
2. The evangelist, one of the seven persons appointed to the ofiice of deacon in the primitive church in Jerusalem, Acts 6 :3-5, and who preached the gospel with great success in Samaria. Acts 8 : 6-S. While there he received a divine intimation to go southward from Samaria to the road leading from Jerusalem to Gaza. In the course of his journey he found a distinguished Ethiopian traveller on his way home from Jerusalem —probably either a Jew or a proselyte to the Jewish religion—who had been to the city to celebrate some feast. He was an ofiicer of high rank in the court of Candaee, queen of Ethiopia, and as he was sitting in his chariot in the leisurely pursuit of his journey he read aloud a portion of the Jewish Scriptures. At this time Philip saw him, and was divinely admonished to approach him. Without hesitation he obeyed the suggestion, and ran to overtake the chariot. He overheard the traveller reading Isa. 53 : 7, 8, and immediately inquired of him if he understood the force and scope of the passage. The traveller meekly ac-
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knoAvledged his need of instruction, and invited Philip to take a seat with him in the chariot. The hitter then explained the great subject of redemption, to which the passage so naturally led ; and the result was that the traveller became a convert to the faith of the gospel and was baptized. Philip was next found at Azotus, about 40 miles from Gaza, and afterward settled, it is supposed, in Ciysarea. Acts 21 : 8. He had four daughters, who were endued with gifts of prophecy. Acts 21: 9.
3. The tetrarch. Luke 3 : 1. See Herod.
4. The husband of Herodias. Matt. 14 : 3. See Herod.
5. The foster-brother of Antiochus Epiphanes, who appointed him regent of Syria and guardian of his son, Antiochus V. 1 Mace. 6 : 14, 15, 55. He is probably identical with that Philip who was made governor of Jerusalem in B.C. 170. 2 Mace. 5 : 22; 6 : 11.
6. King of Macedonia, B. c. 359-336, father of Alexander the Great. 1 Mace. 1:1,- 6:1.
7. Another king of Macedonia, b. c. 220-179, defeated by the Romans. 1 Mace. 8 : 5.
PHILIP'PI (see Philip), the chief city of the eastern division of Macedonia, situated near the borders of Thrace and 8 miles north-west of Neapolis, which was its seaport. It lay between two mountain-ranges, and a paved Roman road led over the steep range Sym-bolum from Neapolis to Philippi, over which Paul went.
History. —The place was at first called Crenides, or ''fountains," from its numerous springs. It also at one time bore the name of Datum. Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, took it from the Thracians, garrisoned it as a frontier-town, and gave it his name. It is made famous by the noted battle of Philippi, fought, B. c. 42, between Octavius and Antony on the one side, and Brutus and Cassius on the other. In honor of this victory Augustus made Philippi a " colony." These colonies were miniature Romes established on foreign soil. The Roman law was administered, and the Roman language was used even among natives who spoke Greek.
Scripture References. —Philippi was the first place in Europe to receive the
gospel. Paul and Silas preached there; Lydia became a conirert; the apostles cast out the " spirit of divination " from a damsel; were thrown into prison and miraculously delivered ; the jailer was converted. Acts 16. Afterward, Paul revisited Philippi, and perhaps remained for a considerable time. Acts 20 : 1-6. The Christians of that city on four occasions sent contributions for his support, and he wrote to them the Epistle to the Philippians. Ignatius visited the city, A. d. 107, on his way to Rome, where he sviffered martyrdom, and Polycarp sent the church at Philippi all the letters of Ignatius which Sardis had received, thus keeping up their sympathy with the suff"ering Christians.
Present A2)pearance. —The ruins of the citadel are still seen on the summit of a rounded hill. The circuit of the walls which enclosed the hill and a part of the plain can be traced. Next to the theatre is a temple of Silvanus, and various tablets show the list of donors, the members of the sacred college, etc. Four massive pillars mark the site of the forum, where the apostles were publicly scourged.
About 10 furlongs to the west of Philippi is a small river called the Gangas or Gangites, now the Bournabaclii, which is probably the place where the Jews had their place of prayer.
PHILIPPIANS, EPIS'TLE TOj is the eleventh in the order of the books of the N. T., and was addressed by Paul to the Christians at Philippi, with whom he appears to have entertained particularly friendly relations. They had kindly ministered to his necessities by sending Epaphroditus to him with a present of money ; and when Epaphroditus returned to Philippi, Paul acknowledged the kindness shown to him in grateful and affecting terms, and took occasion to warn the church in Philippi against certain Judaizing teachers. The second chapter contains one of the most important passages on the doctrine of the person of Christ and his states of humiliation and exaltation. The Epistle was probably written about 62, when Paul was a prisoner at Rome. About its genuineness there can be no reasonable doubt.
The following is the analysis of the Epistle given by Dr. Braune in Lange's
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Commeniary: I. Address and salutation.
1 :1, 2. II. Situation and labors of the apostle at Rome. 1 : 3-26. III. The Lord's example and pattern for the observance of the church. 1 : 27-2 : 18. IV. Paul's assistants and colaborers.
2 : 19-30. V. Warning against Juda-istic false teachers and wicked deceivers, in contrast with the apostle. 3 : 1-4 : 1. VI. Final exhortation to cooperation between himself and the Philippian church. 4:2-20. VII. Salutation and benediction. 4 : 21-23.
PHIJjIS'TIA {land of sojourners), in Ps. 60 : 8; 87 : 4; 108 : 9, the only places where the word '' Philistia " occurs, is the same Hebrew word elsewhere translated " Palestine." " Palestine " originally meant only the district inhabited by the '• Philistines." In Ps. 83 : 7 the word is rendered " Philistines." Josephus calls these people " Palestines."
Situation and Extent. —Philistia, or the '' land of the Philistines," included the coast-plain on the south-west of Palestine, from Joppa on the north to the valley of Gerar on the south, a distance of about 40 miles, and from the Mediterranean on the west to the Judsean hills. Its breadth at the northern end was 10 miles, and at the southern about 20. It appears to have extended as far inland as Beersheba. Gen. 21 : 33, 34; 26 : 1, 14-18; Ex. 23 : 31; Josh. 13 : 2, 3. Warren limited it, somewhat more closely, to the plain reaching 32 miles from Ekron to Gaza, with a breadth of from 9 to 16 miles. It is bounded on the north by the plain of Sharon, east by the hill-country, south by " the south country," and west by the Mediterranean.
Physical Features, —Along the whole sea-board are white sandy dunes. Behind these is the broad undulating plain, from 50 to 300 feet above the sea-level, with a deep rich soil. To the east of this plain is found a series of low spurs and undulating ground culminating in hogs' backs, running nearly north and south, and rising in places 1200 feet above the ocean; to the east of these is a steep descent of about 500 feet to the valleys, and east of these the hill-country of Judah begins. From the deep and narrow ravines of the hill-country rapid torrents roll during the rainy season. On coming into the plain the water forms marshes and pools, and quietly sinks 682
away, most of the water reaching the ocean underground. The sand from the shore is constantly encroaching upon the fertile land. This whole great maritime plain was called in the Hebrew the She-phelah, signifying properly '*low country," and sometimes so rendered in the English version, 2 Chr. 26:10; 28:18, as likewise the " low plains," 1 Chr. 27 : 28 ; 2 Chr. 9:27; the " plain," Jer. 17: 26; the "valley." Josh. 11 : 16; Jud. 1:9.
History. —The origin of the Philistines has been a matter of much discussion. That the Hebrews regarded the Philistines as a branch of the Caphtorim is clearly stated in Jer. 47 : 4; Am. 9:7; Deut. 2 : 23. In the last text, " the Caph-torims which came forth out of Caphtor " are said to have destroyed " the Avim which dwelt in Hazerim "—/. e., in the villages — "even unto Azzah " (Gaza). These could certainly have been no other than the Philistines. The Hebrew words in Gen. 10 : 14 which are translated "out of whom"— i.e., the Casluhim— "came Philistim " appear to mean, not that the Philistines were descended from the Casluhim, but that they came out of or passed through their country. The purport of the two passages seems therefore to be that the Philistines (or Caphtorim) who took possession of the Holy Land entered it on the south-west by way of the land of the Casluhim (Egypt), having, as is probable, come thither from Crete. But although the balance of authority places the Caphtorim in Crete, the evidence is by no means conclusive. The Vulgate in several places identifies them with the Cappadocians, and some modern critics identify them with the Cyprians. Baedeker (Handbook) says: " Their original home, the land of Caphtor or Kaftor (Kaft) being the same word as Oypt in Egypt), must have been in the Delta of the Nile, and not in Crete, as was once supposed."
It would seem that the Philistines who were settled in the land in the time of Abraham, whose capital was Gerar and whose king was called Abiinelcch, Gen. 21: 34; .26: 14, did not possess Gaza or either of the five Philistine cities that became povverful in later times. In Gen. 10: 19, Gaza is named as the frontier-town of the Canaanites in the direction of Gerar, and from Deut. 2: 23 it ap-
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pears that the Avims held it till they were driven out by the Caphtorim. This seems to indicate a second immigration of Philistines, probably direct from Crete or Cyrus, that may have taken place but little before the time of Moses. Abraham found them in possession of the "'south country," but they seem then to have treated with him as an equal in power. He made a treaty with their chief, Abimelech, at Beersheba, and this treaty was renewed in the days of Isaac. Gen. 21 : 32, 33: 26 : 12-23.
But at the Exodus the Philistines seem to have been such a mighty and warlike people that it was thought best for the Israelites to avoid their land, lest "the people repent when they see war, and they return to Egypt." Ex. 13 : 17.
Thenceforward, during the whole period of 0. T. history, the Israelites and the Philistines were frequently brought in contact. The Philistines are mentioned three hundred and ten times in the 0. T. from Genesis to Zechariah, but the limits of this article will allow of only the briefest outline of the leading events.
Philistine. (From an Egy^dian Painting.')
The land of the Philistines was within the limits of the land promised to Israel, Num. 34 : 5, 6; Eze. 13 : 17; 23 : 31, and it was assigned to Judah and Dan,
Josh. 15 : 45-47; 19 : 41-45, but no attempt to conquer it was made under Joshua's leadership. They had a league of their five chief towns, Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron, under the direction of the five lords or kings.
After Joshua's death Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron were taken, Jud. 1:18, but not ])ermancntly held, by Israel. The Philistines gained the ascendency and long held it, although occasionally shaken off for a brief period, as by Shamgar, Jud. 3 : 31; 10 : 7; and Samson. Jud. 13 to 16. Even Samson, who broke up the subjection of forty years, did not succeed in permanently delivering his people from the Philistine yoke. Under Eli the Israelites again resisted, but were defeated at Aphek, 30,000 slain, and the ark captured. 1 Sam. 4 : 1-11. Under Samuel's leadership success crowned the arms of Israel. 1 Sam. 7 : 11-14. When Saul became king he continued the contest against the ancient foe, and Jonathan and his armor-bearer began the fight which terminated in the slaughter of the Philistines at Michmash. 1 Sam, 13 and 14. David killed Goliath later, and the Philistines were pursued to the gates of Gath and Ekron with great slaughter (30,000 killed and 60,000 wounded, according to Josephus). 1 Sam. 17.
David, after inflicting many defeats upon the Philistines, sought refuge among them from the malignity of Saul.
1 Sam. 19 : 8: 23 : 1-5: 27 : 1-7; 29; Ps. 56, title. Saul and his sons were slain at Gilboa by the Philistines. 1 Sam, 31; 1 Chr. 10 : 1. When David became king the Philistines attacked him. He defeated them at Baal-perazim and Rephaim. During Solomon's reign the Philistines were subjects, 1 Kgs. 2 : 39, 40; 4 : 21, 24, and he fortified Gezer and some other border-towns. After the division of Israel the Philistines engaged in hostilities at various times with both kingdoms. 1 Kgs. 16 : 15;
2 Chr. 21 : 16,17. Jehoshaphat, Uzziah, and Hezekiah defeated them. 2 Chr. 17: 11; 26 : 6; 2 Kgs. 18 : 8. As Philistia was on the great route between Egypt and Assyria, it was often involved in the great wars between those powers. Ashdod was taken by Sargon, king of Assyria, after a siege of three years, Isa. 20 : 1, and to Sennacherib most of the towns
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became subject. Isa. 36. Pharaoh took Gaza. Jer. 47 : 1.
Before the Jewish Captivity the kingdom of the Philistines had disappeared, and a few of their towns only retained some importance. Upon the return from captivity* some of the Jews married Philistine women, " wives of Ashdod." Neh. 13 : 23. After the time of Alexander the power of the Philistines was entirely gone. Later the country shared in the reverses and desolations of the Syrian and Egyptian, Maccabsean, and Jewish and Roman wars.
Customs, Relifjion, etc. —According to all accounts, the Philistines far surpassed the Hebrews in culture, and in war-chariots and cavalry they were superior to the Israelites. 1 Sam. 13 : 5.
The heavy-armed soldiers wore a I'ound copper helmet, a coat-of-mail, brazen greaves. Their weapons were a javelin and long lance, and each had an attendant to bear his shield and weapons, like the Greeks in the Homeric poems. The light-armed soldiers were archers. The Philistines had fortified encampments, surrounded their towns with lofty walls, and kept the territories they had conquered in subjection by means of garrisons. They were a commercial as well as a warlike people, and not only competed with the Phoenicians by sea, but endeavored to keep in their own hands the inland and caravan traffic. Their chief god was Dagon, Jud. 16 : 23 ; 1 Sam. 5 : l-o, who, as well as the goddess Derketo, had the form of a fish. Baalzebub, 2 Kgs. 1:2, 3, 6, 16, the fly-god of Ekron, was famed for his oracles. On their' various campaigns thev took their idols with them. 2 Sam. 5 : 21; 1 Chr. 14 : 12. Their seers or prophets seem to have formed a distinct profession.
Present Condition. —It is a remarkable fact that the principal towns of Philistia, Gaza, Ashkelon, Joppa, Ashdod, Lachish, and Gath, have never once disappeared from history, but exist at the present day under the names of Gazzeh, Askalun, Yafa, Esdud, Umm Lukis, and Beit Jihrin — that is, Beth - geborim, *'the house of the giants." Many other of the modern names also preserve the memory of the old Philistine history and worship. Low mounds at intervals show the sites of former cities. Four 684
and a half miles from Gaza a colossal marble statue has recently been discovered (1879). The total height of the figure is 15 feet. The hair hangs in long ringlets down upon the shoulders, and the beard is long, indicating a man of venerable age. The right arm is broken in half, while the left arm is crossed over the breast to the right shoulder, the hand being hidden by the drapery of a cloth covering the shoulders. There is no inscription on the figure or the pedestal, which is a huge block carved in one piece with the figure. The statue was found in a recumbent position, buried in the sand, on the top of a hill near the sea. It had evidently been removed from its original site, which is unknown. Its estimated weight is 12,000 pounds. Lieut. Conder thinks it is the statue of Marnas (the Cretan Jupiter), the god of Gaza, which once stood in the principal temple of Gaza, but which had been buried, perhaps at the time of the destruction of the temple, by Porphyrins, A. D. 406. See Palestine Exploration Fund's Quarterly Statement for January, 1880.
The inhabitants are a race distinct from the rest of the inhabitants of Palestine, and it has been suggested that the fellaJnn, or peasantr}^, are of Canaanite origin, though no doubt a mixed race as now constituted.
For the present condition of the land of the Philistines, see Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, Gaza, Gerar, Gibbethon, Jabneel. Metheg-amma, Palestine.
PHILIS'TIM, PHILIS'TINE. See above.
PHILOL'OGUS(?earHe(;), a Christian in Rome to whom Paul sends a salutation. Rom. 16 : 16.
PHILOS'OPHY. During his visit to Athens, Paul was encountered hy certain philosophers of the Epicureans and of the Stoics, Acts 17 : 18, the two great moral schools of Greek philosophy. This is the only instance related in the N. T. of an encounter between Christianity and Western speculation. But Eastern speculation, in many ways and under many forms, tried from the earliest times to penetrate into the mysteries of Christianity, and in the philosophy against which Paul warned the Colos-sians, Col. 2 : 8 e( seq., we recognize not only an outgrowth of Eastern speculg,-
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tion, but the prototype of that phantastic mysticism which afterward phiycd so conspicuous a part in the history of the Eastern Church under the name of (Inos-ticism. Conip. 1 Tim. 6 : 20.
PHIN'EHAS [brazen mouth). 1. A son of Eleazar, and grandson of Aaron, Ex. 6 : 25: 1 Chr. 6:4, 50 filled the office of high priest of the Jews for nearly twenty years. His zeal and promptitude in punishing the sin of Zimri turned away the anger of the Lord against the nation, and was rewarded by the promise to his family of perpetual succession in the Jewish priesthood. Num. 25 : 6-15. This promise was fulfilled; for except the interval from Eli to Zadok, the priesthood continued in the family of Phinehas until the destruction of the temple and the captivity of the nation.
2. A son of Eli, and noted for his wickedness. 1 Sam. 1:3; 2 : 34; 4:4, 11, 17, 19 ; 14 : 3.
3. A Levite in the time of Ezra. Ezr. 8 * 33.
PHLE'GON (flame), a Christian in Rome to whom Paul sent salutation. Rom. 16 : 14.
PHCE'BE, a distinguished member of the church at Cenchra?a, a city of Corinth. Rom. 16 : 1. She is called a "servant of the church" (see Dkacon-Ess); and the strong commendation of the apostle shows her to have been prominent in works of faith and labors of love.
PHfENlCE. See Phenice.
PHCENI'CIA, a country north of Palestine, so named by the Greeks, either from the abundance of palm trees or from Phoenix, the brother of Cadmus. It was a narrow strip of country between the Lebanon mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. It varied in extent at diff"erent periods, sometimes extending about 30 miles from the " Ladder of Tyre" to the Nahr Auly, 2 miles north of Sidon, and sometimes about 120 miles north of the " Ladder of Tyre." Along the shore it was sandy, but behind this sand-belt was fertile land, and upon the slopes of the mountain good pasture and excellent timber. Promonotories jut out into the sea, making good harbors and sites for towns, as at Tyre, Sidon. and Beirut. The country is well watered, its principal rivers being the Leontes, Bos-
trenus, Lycus, or "dog river," Adonis, and Eleutherus. Its principal towns are Arvad, Tripoli, Beirut, Sidon, and Tyre.
Phoenicia was included in the Land of Promise, but it was not occupied by the Israelites. Josh. 13 : 4-6 ; Jud. 1:31,32. David and Solomon traded with its king, receiving timber from its territory, and employing its sailors, laborers, and skilled workmen. 2 Sam. 6 : U ; 1 Kgs. 5: 9, 17,18. Ahab married a princess of this country, and there Elijah found a refuge. 1 Kgs. 16 : 31; 17 : 9 ; Luke 4 : 26. Jesus also visited this country—the only time he passed the borders of Palestine. Matt. 15 : 21; Mark 7 : 26. Paul visited Tyre, Sidon, and Ptolemais. Acts 21: 2, 3, 7 : 27 : 3.
The name "Phoenicia" does not occur in the 0. T.; in the N. T. it appears once as "Phoenicia" and twice as " Phenice." Acts 21 : 2; 11 : 19; 15 : 3. There are numerous prophecies in the 0. T., however, concerning the overthrow of cities in this country, which have been signally fulfilled. See Tyre and Sidon.
Present Condition. —Phoenicia is now a land of ruins, the whole shore from the " Ladder of Tyre " northward, according to Porter, being strewn with them. " Heaps of hewn stones and quantities of marble tessera? lay in my path, while broken shafts and mounds of rubbish were seen to the right and left, here crowning a cliff, there washed by the waves. One thing I specially noticed: from the time I left Achzib till I reached the fountains [of Tyre] I did not see a human being; a mournful and solitary silence reigns along Phoenicia's coast." — Giant Cities, p. 277. Stanley writes in a similar strain : " There is one point of view in which this whole coast is specially remarkable. 'A mournful and solitary silence now prevails along the shore which once resounded with the world's debate.' This sentence, with which (iibbon solemnly closes his chapter on the Crusades, well sums up the general impression still left by the six days' ride from Beirut to Ascalon : and it is no matter of surprise that in this impression travellers have felt a response to the strains in which Isaiah and Ezekiel foretold the desolation of Tyre and Sidon. In one sense, and that the highest, this feeling is just. The Phoenician j)ower which the prophets denounced has en-
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tirely perished."— SiJiai and Palestine, p. 266.
PHCENIC'IANS. At the very dawn of history the Phoenicians appear to occupy one of the most prominent phices among the nations of the earth. They were closely related to, if not identical with, the Canaanites, Gen. 10 : 15, and of the whole group of Semitic languages their language was nearest allied to the Hebrew; indeed, the few remnants of the Phoenician tongue — names of persons and places, inscriptions on coins and monuments, etc.—which are still extant can be interpreted only by means of Hebrew. The nation, though cultured in literature and art, was debased by its religion. The worship of Baal was made corrupt and revolting in the extreme. While the burning of children to this god may have originated in the idea that sin required some blood-expiation, the form of the sacrifice was so cruel, and many features of the worship were so shameless, that they tended to destroy all virtue in the people, and the nation died of immoral rottenness. Passion and licentiousness were deified in connection with the worship of Astarte, the Phoenician Venus. 2 Kgs. 23: 7 : Deut. 23:17, 18; 1 Kgs. 14:24; 15:12; 22: 46; Hos. 4 : 14. Their religion was a kind of Nature-worship, centering in the idea of generation, and most of their gods, such as Baal, Ashtaroth, etc., seem to have had a double signification—one allegorical and lofty, and another literal and sensuous. Their occupation was commerce. They maintained commercial stations on the shores of the Red Sea and all along the coasts of the Mediterranean. They worked the silver-mines of Spain and the lead-mines of Cornwall, and their sailors brought amber from the Baltic and tin from Britain. Through their commerce they became the bearers of civilization, and from them both the Greeks and the Romans learnt the use of letters and of coins, of the compass and of astronomy in navigation, of glass, purple, etc.
Between the Jews and the Phoenicians friendly relations seem to have been established very early. Palestine was the granary of the Phoenician cities, and, indeed, all its surjjlus products—wheat, honey, oil, balm, etc.—were exported from Tyre and Sidon, Eze. 27 : 17, as the 686
Jews had no ports themselves. Under King David these friendly relations grew into an alliance, and the conquest of Edom and the establishment by the Jews of a harbor at Ezion-geber, on the Red Sea, did not cause any disturbance. Phoenician mechanics worked at the erection of the temple in Jerusalem beside Jewish, and Phoenician vessels sailed together with Jewish from the port of Ezion-geber for Ophir and other places. 1 Kgs. 10 : 11, 22 ; 9 : 26-28 ; 1 Chr. 14 : 1; 2 Chr. 8:18; 9:10. After the secession of the ten tribes the Phoenicians sided with the kingdom of Israel and broke the old covenant with Judah, Joel 3:4-8; Am. 1 : 9, 10 ; Isa. 23 ; Eze. 28 ; they even went so far as to sell the Jews to the Edomites as slaves. The influence, however, of the Phoenician idolatry on the Israelites was very baneful, though it would seem that the Phoenicians themselves were not so very an.\ious to make proselytes: at least, they did not interfere when Elijah sIcav four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal at the brook of Kishon. 1 Kgs. 18 : 40.
PHRYG'IA {cb-i/, barren), a district of Asia Minor, whose limits varied so much at different times that no exact boundaries can be given. Its settlement was very early. Phrygian traditions and those of the Egyptians make them the most ancient race of men in the world. Profane writers say that the Phrygians migrated from Macedonia long before the Trojan war. Phrygia is mentioned in Homer's Iliad. It then appears to have included a large part of Central Asia Minor. Later it was divided into Phrygia Major on the south, and Phrygia Minor on the west. It was of a very irregular and undefined shape; and when Galatia was a part of it, Phrygia touched, so it was said, upon every other province in Asia Minor. The Romans divided it into three districts. Part of it belonged to the province of Asia and part to Cilicia, and in N. T. times it was not a regularly-defined Roman province, but an ancient country, apportioned to other provinces, but mostly included in the province of Asia. Within its limits were the cities of Laodica^a, Hierapolis, Colossal, and Antioch of Pisidia.
Phrygia is mentioned three times in the book of the Acts. People from there
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were present at Pentecost. Acts 2 : 10, and the apostle Paul twice traversed the country. Acts 16 : G ; 18 : 23. Some converts were made, and we find Paul " strengthening all the disciples.'' Acts 18 : 23. At the Council of Nice, A. n. 325, the Phrygian churches were represented bj' eight bishops, and still more attended the Council of Constantinople, A. I). 3S1.
PHU'RAH {hom/h), the armor-bearer of (iideon, who accompanied him into the camp of the Midianites. Jud. 7 : 10, 11.
PHUT, Gen. 10 : G, or PUT, Nah. 3 : 9 (probably a botr), the name of the third son of Ham and of the country occupied by his descendants.
VH.\JT\afflicted, or a bow?}, Gen. 10:6; more properly, PUT, 1 Chr. 1: 8. Phut was a son of Ham, and progenitor of an African people of the same name, though sometimes the name is rendered "Libvfv'' or "Libyans." Jer. 46 : 9; Eze. 27 :10 ; 30 : 5 : 38:5; Nah. 8 : 9. These people probably occupied Libya, in North Africa, to the west of Lydia, or Ludim, near the Mediterranean coast. This is the land of the Moors in modern times.
Mr. Poole would identify Phut with Nubia, south of Egypt. The Egyptian monuments mention a people called ** Pet," whose emblem was a bow unstrung, and who dwelt between Egypt and Ethiopia. Phut may be Pet, or To-Pef, and therefore modern Nubia, as To-meni-Pet of the monuments answered to the island of Meroe.
PHU'VAH {mouth), a son of Issa-char, Gen. 46 : 13; called Pua in Num. 26 : 23, and Puah in 1 Chr. 7 : 1. I PHYGEL'LUS {fugitive), a Christian of Pronconsular Asia who "turned away" from Paul. Nothing more is known of him than his name and this circumstance. 2 Tim. 1 : 15.
PHYLACTERIES {preservation, OT sofegiiard, with reference either to the preserving of the words of the Law in the memory or to the preservation of the person from danger, as by the amulets or charms of modern superstition). The practice of using phylacteries was founded on a literal interpretation of Ex. 13 : 9, 16; Deut. 6:8; 11 : 18, where God commands the Hebrews to bear the Law in their hearts and in their heads, and it
is still continued in our days. There are two kinds of ])hylacteries — one to be worn on the forehead, between the eyebrows, and another to be worn on tlie left arm. The former was called a " frontlet," and was composed of four pieces of parchment, on the first of which was written E.\. 12 : 2-10 ; on the second, Ex. 13 : 11-21 ; on the third, Deut. 6 : 4-9; and on the fourth, Deut. 11: 18-21. These pieces of parchment, thus inscribed, were inclosed in a piece of tough skin, making a square, on one side of which was placed the Hebrew letter «/(?», ty, and this box was tied to the forehead with a thong or riband. Some wore them both evening and morning, and others only at morning prayer.
The Phylactery.
The other kind of phylacteries consisted of two rolls of parchment, written in square letters, Avith an ink made on purpose, and with much care. They were rolled up to a point, enclosed in a sort of case of black calfskin, and then put upon a square bit of the same leather, whence hung a thong of the same, about a finger in breadth and about two feet long. These rolls were placed near the elbow of the left arm, and after one end of the thong had been made into a little knot in the form of the Hebrew letter i/od, ">, it was wound about the arm in a spiral line, which ended at the top of the middle finger.
PHYSI'CIAN. It was natural that the Jews should have learned something about medicine in Egypt, where, at the time of their stay in the country,
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this art was cultivated with great zeal. It also appears from several passages in the books of Moses that at his time there were not only midwives, but also surgeons and physicians, among the Jews. Thus it was ordained, Ex. 21 : 19, that he who hurt another should not only pay for the loss of time, but also "cause him to be thoroughly healed." At a later period surgeons and physicians became quite numerous. 2 Chr. 16 : 12 ; Jer. 8 : 22; Mark 5 : 26. A special physician was appointed at the temple, and every parish had its surgeon and physician. The art, however, never reached any high degree of perfection in Palestine, because the people were jjrevented from acquiring sufficient anatomical knowledge by their great aversion to contact with dead bodies; and to the last we find them employing amulets, charms, invocations, etc., as remedies. Some medical knowledge was demanded of the priests, who exercised a kind of sanitary superintendence; also the prophets gave medical advice. 2 Kgs. 4 : 18; 20 : 7. But generally medicine was cultivated as a separate profession. Luke was a physician. Col. 4 : 14.
PI-BE'SET H, OR PIB'-ESETH, a city of Lower Egypt, named from the goddess Bubastis. The hieroglyphic name is " Pe-Bast," " the house of Bast," the Egyptian Artemis, the goddess of fire, the calf-headed goddess, also shown with a lion's head. The name appears in Scripture only as one of the cities of Egypt which Ezekiel foretold would be destroyed. Eze. 30 : 17. From this it would seem to have been a city of great importance. The name appears occasionally in Egyptian annals. An earthquake is mentioned on Mane-tho's list which took place there about B. c. 2470. Herodotus speaks of the temple of the goddess Bubastis, whom he identifies with the Greek Artemis, as the most beautiful he had ever seen. It was built of the finest red granite, in the j midst of a sacred enclosure 600 feet I square. }
Ruins still bearing the name of Fel i Besta mark the site of the ancient city, ' which was situated on the eastern or i Pelusiac branch of the Delta, some 20 : miles from the Nile and 40 miles north- I east of Memphis. Remains of the an- i cient houses of brick and of a fortress \ 688
are found. The temple is entirely ruined, but the names of several of the sovereigns have been traced out, including those of Rameses II. and Shishak. The city was taken by the Persians, b. c. 352, and the walls were overthrown. It continued to exist, however, as a considerable city under the Roman empire.
PICT'URE. See Paint.
PIECE OF GOLD— 6.(7, 2 Kgs. 5 : 5—should be " shekels of gold," as there was no coined money in Palestine before the Persian period.
PIECE OFMON'EY. See Money.
PIECE OF SILVER. In the 0. T. the word " pieces," in every passage but one, is inserted in the A. V., the phrase being " a thousand," or the like, " of silver," and may be interpreted "shekels," as the shekel was the common weight for money. See Money.
In the N. T. ''piece of silver" is the translation of " drachma," Luke 15 : 8, and of a coin of uncertain value, probably shekel. Matt. 26 : 15.
PI'ETY occurs only once in our version, 1 Tim. 6 : 4, where it denotes the reverence which children owe their parents.
PIG'EON. See Dove.
PIHAHI'ROTH [moutTi, or entrance of caverns, or i)lfice of reservoirs), the last place where the Israelites encamped before crossing the Red Sea. Ex. 14 : 2, 9; Num. 33 : 7, 8. Robinson identifies it with Ajrud, 12 miles from Suez, now a watering-place for caravans, and is approved by Lepsius. In a curious papyrus deciphered by Chabas it is said that Pehir (which seems to be the same as Pihahiroth) was the place from which King Rameses was supplied with garlands of beautiful flowers. Stanley says that there is now no appearance of verdure there.
PI'LATE, John 19 : 1, or PON'-TIUS PI'LATE, Matt. 26 : 2, was appointed procurator of Judaea, A. D. • 29. The proper residence of the procurator was Caesarea, but it was customary for him to go to Jerusalem at the great festivals for the purpose of securing order and safety in the city, and thus it happened that Pilate was present in Jerusalem during the Passover when our Lord suffered death. The chief duty of the procurator respected the revenues, but in a minor territory, such as Ju-
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daea, which was dependent on a larger contiguous province (Syria), the procurator was the head of the whole administration, and held the highest military and judicial authority; and thus Pilate became the judge of our Lord.
The administration of Pilate was extremely oflfensive to the Jews, and more than once he drove them to the very verge of insurrection. He seems to have nourished a special contempt for them and taken pleasure in showing it, but when, by cruelty and perfidy, he had brought them into a rage, he generally became frightened and yielded. Having transferred the military headquarters from Caesarea to Jerusalem, he sent the standards with the images of the emperor into the city. As soon as this became known the Jews rushed in great multitudes down to Csesarea, and demanded to have the standai'ds removed, because, as idols, they defiled the Holy City. Pilate permitted the multitude to be surrounded by soldiers, and told them to disperse quietly or else they would be massacred. But when the Jews declared that they would die rather than tolerate the images of the emperor within the walls of Jei*usalem, Pilate was frightened and yielded.
The principal feature in the character of Pilate was weakness, and it became piteously apparent during the trial of our Lord. When Jesus was arraigned before him he was not only anxious to avoid trying him, but he once and again, in the most solemn and impressive manner, even in presence of his malicious and bloodthirsty persecutors, declared his conviction of his perfect innocence. He even remonstrated with them on the iniquity and unreasonableness of their conduct, and would fain throw upon them the whole responsibility of the deed they were about to perpetrate. Nevertheless, as soon as he saw that the acquittal of Jesus might be so construed as to arouse the suspicion of the emperor, he renounced his own conviction and delivered up the innocent Saviour to the hands of the enraged multitude to be crucified.
In 36 the governor of Syria raised some severe accusations against Pilate, who went to Rome to defend himself before the emperor. He did not succeed, however, and was banished to Vienne, in 44
Gaul, and there, or, according to another tradition, on the mountain near Lake Lucerne which bears his name, he committed suicide shortly after. The Fathers speak often about an oflficial report of the trial and condemnation of our Lord sent by Pilate to Tiberius, but the Acta Pi/ati now extant are spurious.
PIL'DASH (Jlame of fire), a son of Nahor, Abraham's brother. Gen. 22 : 22.
PIL'EHA, one of the chiefs who signed the covenant with Nehemiah. Neh. 10 : 24.
PILi'LAR. This word is often used metaphorically in the Bible, thus a pillar of fire, cloud, smoke, etc., denoting a fire, a cloud, or a mass of smoke in the form of a pillar. Ex. 13 : 21; Jud. 20 : 40. Besides, in architecture, where it was employed both as support and ornament, it was common to erect a pillar as a monument of some distinguished person or event. Gen. 28 : 18; 35 : 20; Josh. 24 : 26.
" The plain of the pillar," Jud. 9 : 6, properly the " oak of the pillar," a tree near Shechem under which Abimelech was crowned.
PIL'LAR OF SALT. See Salt.
PILL'ED. Gen. 30:37. The same with "peeled."
PIL'LiOW, a cushion for the head. Mark 4 : 38. Jacob used a stone for his pillow. Gen. 28 : 11, 18; in Eze. 13 : 18, 20 pillows are spoken of as an ajipli-ance of luxury.
PIL'TAI (rohom Jehovah delivers), a priest. Neh. 12 : 17.
PINE. Isa. 41 : 19 ; 60 : 13. This is mentioned as a tree of Lebanon. The root of the original word denotes "curvature " or " duration," neither of which meanings suits the pine. Tristram suggests the elm, a species of which grows upon Lebanon, and Gesenius the oak, but the proper translation is very doubtful. Another word is rendered "pine branches " in Neh. 8:15, where the Oil Tree (to which refer) is undoubtedly meant. (See cut, p. 690.)
PIN'NACliE. The word translated " pinnacle," Matt. 4:5; Luke 4 : 9, signifies, not a summit, but a wing ; and the part of the temple to which our Lord was taken by Satan was probably the elevation over the roof of Solomon's
PIN
PIS
porch, to which there was a passage by stairs, and which overlooked the valley on the east, and had beneath a perpendicular depth of 000 or 700 feet, for at this part of the valley a wall had been
The Eastern Pine.
carried up to a level with the ground on which the temple stood (some historians say 750 feet).
PI^NON {darkness), one of the dulses of Edom. Gen. 36 : 41; 1 Chr. 1 : 52. His tribe was settled, according to later traditions, at Punon, one of the stations of the Israelites in the wildei-ness.
PINS. See Nail, Weaving.
PIPE, OR FLUTE, similar to the present instrument, was the principal perforated wind instrument among the Hebrews, as the harp was the principal string instrument. It was made of different materials, reed, copper, bronze, etc., and was played on all occasions—the procession, 1 Kgs. 1 : 40, the banquet, Isa. 5 : 12, the wedding, the funeral. Matt. 9 : 23. Thus, in times of joy and in times of sorrow, in the religious festivals and in pi'ivate life, the pipe, the simplest, and probably the oldest, 690
musical instrument, was heard. See Mrsic and Musical Ixstruments.
Pl'RAM{\)erha.Y>sJieetastheioildass), king of Jarmuth, one of the Amorite chiefs in the time of Joshua. Josh. 10 : 3.
PIR'ATHON {princely), Si place in Ephraim, the home and burial-place of Abdon, one of the judges of Israel. Jud 12 : 15. One of David's mighty men was a Pirathonite. 1 Chr. 27: 14; 11 : 31 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 30. Robinson proposed Ferata, 6 miles from Shechein ; the Pal. Memoirs suggest Feron, a hamlet on the edge of a plain, 10 miles west of Samaria, as its site.
PIRATHONITE, THE. 1. One of the judges of Israel, Abdon ben-Hillel. Jud. 12 : 13, 15. 2. A captain in David's army, and one of the king's guard. 1 Chr. 27 : 14; 2 Sam. 23 : 30; 1 Chr. 11 : 31.
PIS'GAH"(/^///, or the height), the summit from which Moses, before his death, gained his view of the Promised Land. It was in Moab, one of the mountains of Abarim, and the top of Nebo. It was in the territory afterward assigned to Reuben, and thus was north of the Arnon. Num. 21: 20 ; Deut. 3:27; 4: 49 ; 34 : 1; Josh. 13 : 20. Pisgah had cultivated land. Balaak brought Balaam ''into the field of Zophim, to the top of Pisgah," and there '' built seven altars." Num. 23 : 14.
Situation. —While the general position of Pisgah is clearly given in the Scriptures, the precise location has been sharply disputed, and is yet unsettled. So able a writer as Dean Stanley says : "In the long line of those Eastern mountains which so constantly meet the view of the traveller in all the western parts of Palestine, the eye vainly strives to discern any point emerging from this horizontal platform which may be fixed as the top of Nebo. Nothing but a fuller description than has ever yet been given of
PIS
PIS
these regions can determine the spot where the great hiwgiver and leader of his people looked down upon their embattled ranks, and over the * land which he was to see with his eyes, but was not to go in thither.'"— Sinai and Palestine, p. 294.
Some scholars have questioned whether "pisgah"is a proper name. It occurs eight times in Scripture : four times with Ashdoth. In Deut. 4 : 4, 9 the English version reads '* springs of Pisgah." The Septuagint renders " Pisgah " and '*Ash-doth-pisgah " as a proper name only four times; the Jewish Targums render it "hill." The English version regards it as a proper name, and it has a prominent place in Christian literature.
The great interest which Nebo and Pisgah possess, as the scene of the last days of Israel's lawgiver, has led recent travellers carefully to explore the region in order to discover the location of these historic peaks. Robinson long ago suggested that the name Nehd might represent the ancient Nebo. In 1868, De Saulcy, when about an hour's ride from Hesban on his way to Ma'in, found a peak which the Arabs called Jehel Nebd. This he regarded as the long-lost Nebo, and says he was proud to recover the famous mount so long searched for without success. Among other explorers who have visited the region are Tristram in 1864, and again in 1872 ; Due de Luynes, 1864; Captain Warren, 1867; and the expeditions of the American Exploration Society in 1873 and 1877.
In 1875 the American Society issued an extended statement on the identification of Pisgah by the Rev. J. A. Paine. He thinks De Saulcy mistook the height of Nebi 'AhdiiUdh for Jehel Nebd; he likewise rejects the description of Tristram as inaccurate, and infers that Due de Luynes may have " suppressed the real name, Jebel Nebd, and endeavored to substitute a term of his own, Jebel Mnsd, as the Arabic name of the mountain," though he holds *' that the members of Due de Luynes' party were the first to ascend Mount Nebo with a consciousness that they were standing on the summit supposed to be made sacred by the death of the great lawgiver." Mr. Paine claims to have discovered that the name Jebel Siayhah is aj>plied by the Arabs to the extreme western headland
or peak near Jebel Nebd ; and after noticing the extent of the view and the grandeur of the scenery declares : " Two conclusions are irresistible—namely : the highest portion of the range is Nebo : the extreme headland of the range is Pisgah." He urges in favor ».f this identification of Pisgah with Jebel Sint/hah: (1) the similarity in the names; (2) the position of Siaghah, " the only headland overlooking the circuit of the Jordan— the place above all others to be selected for the sake of a remarkable view;" Mr. Paine says: ''Two-thirds of the Dead Sea stretches out an azure sheet to the southward, and beyond it the Negeb Moses saw." Deut. 34 : 1-4.
His theory of the site of Pisgah is sharply questioned by Wolcott, Tristram, Warren, and others, chiefly on the ground that it fails to meet the requirements of the biblical narrative, and that Siayhah is not the modern equivalent of Pisgah. Merrill, as the results of a later exploration, says :"Mr. Paine makes the lowest and most western of his five flat summits to be the Pisgah of Moses. The most prominent summit directly south of 'Ayfin Mtisa is called by Due de Luynes Jebel Musa, and is covered with ruins." Mr. Paine's theory places Pisgah a quarter of a mile south-west of this ruin summit, while Due de Luynes regards a higher peak in the opposite direction as Pisgah. Merrill favors this "highest point and most commanding outlook" as the probable point to which Moses ascended. (See East of the Jordan, pp. 242-250.) The biblical statement seems to designate the summit of Nebo, Deut. 34 : 1 ; and if Nebo is Jebel Nebd, as many explorers now hold, then Pisgah should be its most prominent peak. The Due de Luynes gives the following graphic description of the view from this mount:
"Observing that a second height of this mountain seemed more elevated and to give a perspective of greater extent over the Dead Sea and the Holy Land, we proceed thither. In spite of the hazy state of the horizon, we ascertained that from this elevation one discerned the north and the north-west shore of the Dead Sea from the mouth of the Jordan as far as nearly to Jebel Esdoum and to Jebel Safda, the whole mountain-chain from Hebron to the Quarantania Mount,
PIS
PIT
all the land from the mountain of Hes-ban, of Jehel Oshn, and of es-Salt, even into the Ghor, to the mountains of Nahlus, of Jenin, and of Nazareth, Mount Tabor, a part of its plain, and even Banias, as our guides assured us: only they said that one could not see the snow of Hermon, even in the purest atmosphere. The perspective of that elevated spot was without limits, and its effect of the utmost majesty. It is understood that tradition [Scripture] causes Moses to be conducted to this place by Jehovah, in order to show him all the Promised Land. The view from this second height does not reach as far as the place where Segor is admitted to be, the refuge of Lot, whether situated at Wddy es-Safieh, or supposed to lie in Wddy Eddida. . . . We were, then, on the summit of Pisgah, among the heights of Mount Nebo, and in the chain called Abarim: we were beholding the same spectacle that Jehovah spread before Moses, after having prohibited him from crossing the Jordan."— Voyage d'Ex-2)lorati<}n a la Mer Morte (1866-67), pp. 150-152.
PISID'IA {pitchy), a district of Asia Minor. The boundaries varied at different times. It lay to the north of Pamphylia and to the south of Phrygia, and was during the republic contained in the province of Cilicia.
The ranges of the Taurus Mountains extended through it, and the mountains are cut by deep defiles, through which dash rapid torrents. The inhabitants also were rough highlanders, famous for their warlike character, and long maintaining their independence. They were also notorious robbers, and in this region Paul may have been " in perils of waters, in perils of robbers." 2 Cor. 11 : 26.
Paul twice visited Pisidia, passing directly north from Perga to Antioch, Acts 13 : 14, and again returning through Pisidia to Pamphylia. Acts 14 : 21-24. See Antioch.
PI'S ON {the full-flowing, Gesenius, or the free-flowing, Fiirst), one of the four " heads " into which the stream that watered Eden was parted. Gen. 2 : 11. There have been numberless conjectural identifications of the Pison, which of course will depend for their likelihood upon the location of Eden, which see. If Eden was in Armenia, near the sources 692
of the Euphrates and Tigris, then the ancient Pison may be the modern Phasis.
The Rev. L. W. Bacon sums up these views by stating that " for the river of Havilah, the Pison, some like (for the sound of the name doubtless) the Pha-sis; others (because it is so great and beautiful), the Halys; and others, the Cyrus, flowing into the Araxes." The above writer would identif}^ the Pison with the Jnrak or Acampis, that rises in the same mountain with the Araxes and the Euphrates, and bounds Colchis on the west.
If, on the other hand, Eden was near the mouth of the Euphrates, some would identify the Pison with the river Jaah, which empties into the Tigris near Kurnah. — Newman's Babylon, p. 68. Among other streams which have been suggested as identical with the Pison are the Indus, the Ganges, the Hyphasis, the Nile, etc. Dr. Tayler Lewis suggests the northern shore of the Arabian Sea. — Lange's Genesis, p. 219. See Havilah.
PIS'PAH {expansion), an Asherite chief. 1 Chr. 7 : 38.
PIT. This term is used to render several Hebrew words. It denotes a cistern or a reservoir, which the Eastern people are in the habit of preparing in those regions where there are few or no springs for the purpose of preserving rain-water for travellers and cattle. These cisterns and trenches are often without water, there being no supply for them except from the rain. It was into such a dry cistern that Joseph was cast. In old decayed cisterns the water leaks out or becomes slimy, and such a pit becomes the image of dreariness and misery. Jer. 2 : 13 ; Ps. 40 : 2 ; Zech. 9 : 11.
Next, the word is used for the grave and as an image of the realm of death, Ps. 28 : 1 ; 30 : 3, 9; 88 : 4, and finally it is employed as the name of the game-trap. Eze. 19 : 8. The pit here spoken of is used at this day in all wild countries. A deep hole in the earth is covered very slightly with boughs or shrubs, upon which is placed a living lamb, which by its cries allures the lion or wolf; and when the beast makes a sudden spring upon his prey, he is caught in the pit below. This aff"ords a sig-
PIT
PLA
nificant figure of the devices of crafty men and devils. Ps. 119 : 85 ; Prov. 26 : 27; Eze. 19 : 4.
PITCH. This word is used in the Bible for asphalt or bitumen, a light, inflammable, and nearly black mineral which in its soft form is called slime. Gen. 14 : 10. In this latter state it was formerly obtained in pits near the Dead Sea (hence called the " Lake of Asphal-tites "). On exposure this pitch becomes dry and hard like mortar, for which it was often used, especially in stone-work. It was also employed for coating the outside of vessels and for making watertight the papyrus boats of Egypt. Gen. 11 : 3 ; 6:14; Ex. 2 : 3. There is reference to its inflammable nature in Isa. 34 : 9. The ancients obtained pitch in various localities of the Old World. At the present time fragments of asphalt occasionally rise from the bottom of the Dead Sea, having been dislodged by earthquakes and other causes, and are washed ashore.
PITCHIER. The custom of drawing water in pitchers still prevails in the East, an earthen vessel with two handles or in modern times a skin-bottle being used for the purpose; and the letting down of the pitcher upon the hand. Gen. 24 : 18, justifies the inference that it Avas carried upon the head or left shoulder and balanced with the right hand, and when presented was rested on the left hand.
PI'THOM {hnise, or temjde, of Turn, who was the Sun-god of Heliopolis), a "treasure city," or depot of provisions, built by the Israelites in Goshen. Ex. 1: 11. It was probably not far from the " Bitter Lakes" of Suez and near the canal. Some critics identify it with the Patumos of Herodotus and the Thoum of the Antonine Itinerary, between Heliopolis and Pelusium, 50 Roman miles from the former and 48 miles from the latter. M. Naville identifies Pithom with Pa-Tum,''setting sun,"and with Tel el-Mask-hUta, where he made excavations in 1883, and found remarkable ruins, brick grain-chambers, and similar evidences of a " store city." The conclusions of M. Naville have been disputed, but Poole, Sayce, and other Egyptologists accept his '"find" as settling the question of Pithom. According to this view, Ra-meses II. was its founder.
PI'THON (probably harmless), a son of Micah, a descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8:35; 9:41.
PLAGUE, an eminently contagious and destructive disease, a virulent tj'phus accompanied by loathsome eruptions, prevalent in the East from the earliest ages, and still ravaging Egypt even in modern times. Ex. 11 : 1. Besides in this its specific sense, the sacred writers also employ the word to express any terrific and desolating disease, Lev. 13 : 3: 1 Kgs. 8 : 37, or any severe calamity or scourge, Mark 5 : 29, 34 ; Luke 7 : 21, or as a general term for the judgment of God. Ex. 9 : 14. The judgments of God on Pharaoh are called plagues. In the A. V. " plague " is the translation of seven words.
PLAGUES OF E'GYPT. When the Lord had ordered Moses to lead the people of Israel out of Goshen and conduct them to Canaan, and Pharaoh, hardening his heart, opposed the command of the Lord and would not let the people go, ten fearful plagues fell upon the land of Egypt.
1. The waters of the Nile changed into blood ; the fishes died, and no man could drink of the river. But the magicians imitated the miracle, and Pharaoh hardened his heart. Ex. 7 : 14-25.
2. Then followed the plague of the frogs; but this too was imitated by the magicians, and Pharaoh hardened his heart still more. Ex. 8 : 1-15.
3. With the third plague, however— that of lice—the magicians gave in, and acknowledged, " This is the finger of God." Ex. 8 : 16-19.
4. The fourth plague sent swarms of flies out over the country, and the people were devoured by their venomous bite. Ps. 78 : 45. Pharaoh now relented and declared himself willing to yield, but on the removal of the plague he again hardened his heart. Ex. 8 : 20-32.
5. A very grievous murrain attacked the horses, asses, camels, oxen, and sheep of Egypt, while those of the children of Israel were free. Ex. 9 :1-7.
6. Boils broke out upon man and beast, even upon the magicians themselves. Ex. 9 : 8-12.
7. Then a frightful thunderstorm, with hail, passed over the land of Egypt, destroying the growing crops, breaking trees, overthrowing buildings every-
PLA
PLO
where, but sparing Goshen. Alarmed, Pharaoh promised to yield, but on the withdrawal of the plague he again hardened his heart. Ex. 9 : 13-35.
8. Locusts followed, and ate up what the hail-storm had left; but Pharaoh sent Moses and Aaron away from his presence, and heeded not the warning. Ex. 10 : 1-20.
9. A thick darkness fell for three days upon the land. For three days no man was able to rise. But in Goshen there was light. Then Pharaoh was seized by despair, and he threatened Moses with death if he ever saw his face again. Ex. 10 : 21-28.
10. Finally, the first-born of the Egyptians were smitten at midnight; "and Pharaoh rose up in the night, he, and all his servants, and all the Egyptians; and there was a great cry in Egypt, for there was not a house where there teas not one dead." Ex. 12 : 29, 30. Pharaoh now yielded, and allowed the children of Israel to leave Egypt.
These ten plagues were doubtless spread over a long time, and probably they followed, as much as possible, the order of the seasons; for some of them were not only distinctively Egyptian, but really only an aggravation of yearly maladies. Canon Cook, in the Bible Commentary, distributes them thus : The first was toward the end of June, when the Nile begins to overflow. The second came three months later, at the time of the greatest inundation,in September,and was an attack on a native worship. The third was early in October, and t\\Q fourth after the subsidence of the inundation. TheJi/th was in December or January; the sixth, shortly after; the seventh, at the time when hailstorms occur now in Egypt, from the middle of February to early March. The eighth was when the leaves are green, toward the middle of March. The ninth was peculiarly Egyptian, and was the immediate precursor of the tenth. During this time the Israelites had frequent opportunities to gather, and thus were prepared for their exodus.
It is interesting to know that the so-called ten persecutions of the Christian Church are thus numbered in remembrance of the ten plagues. The number, in reality, is either greater or less— greater if all be counted, less if only the important persecutions be enumerated. 694
PLAIN, This word is often used alone, leaving the particular plain intended to be inferred from the connection ; as, for instance, in Deut. 1:1; 2:8; or in Gen. 13 : 12; 2 Kgs. 25 : 4, etc., where the plain of Jordan is obviously intended. In other passages the name of the plain is added, such as EsDRAELON, Sharon, etc., which see.
PLAIT'ING, braiding the hair. 1 Pet. 3 : 3. The business of dressing the hair is mentioned by Jewish writers as an art by itself, practised by women. The hair was folded up in curls, tied up in knots, and put into the form of horns and towers, made by their crisping-pins with their cauls and round tires, etc. Isa. 3 : 18-22.
PLAN'ETS. 2 Kgs. 23 : 5. See Stars.
PLAS'TER was used by the ancient Hebrews as a wall-covering. Lev. 14: 42, 48; Dan. 5:5. It is also mentioned as forming a coat over the stones on which the Law was to -be engrossed. Deut. 27 : 2,4.
PLAT'TED, woven together. Matt. 27 : 29.
PLEDGE, that which is given as security for the performance of a contract. The Jewish law contained many wise and benevolent provisions on this subject, Ex. 22 : 25, 26; Deut. 24 : 6, 10, 12, 17, and anything like oppression in respect to pledges was severely reprobated. Job 22 : 6; 24 : 3-7. The hand-mill could not be taken as a pledge, and the garment, if taken, should be rendered back before sunset. The creditor was not allowed to enter the house of the debtor in order to take the pledge, but was compelled to wait before the door until it was brought to him.
PLE'IADES, a cluster of stars, placed by modern astronomers in the neck or near the shoulder of the constellation Taurus. They appear about the middle of April, and hence are associated with the return of spring, the season of sweet influences. Job 9:9; 38 : 31; Am. 5 : 8.
PLOUGH. There can be no doubt that the ancient Hebrew plough was substantially like that still used in Syria, so unchangeable are the customs of the East. It was very light and simple, perhaps merely a crotched stick, having a wooden share shod with one of those
PLU
POE
triangular or heart-shaped points of iron which the inhabitants of the Palestine towns still do a great business in sharpening. 1 Sam. 13 : 20. A single upright held by one hand, Luke 9 : 02, while the goad was carried in the other, guided this primitive instrument, which turned the earth equally on both sides. The coulter is not now used in Oriental ploughing, and probably never was, so that in the above passage of First Samuel some other implement must be intended.
Eastern Plough.
The slight scratching which constitutes Eastern ploughing never requires more than one pair of cattle, and often a single cow or ass or camel was doubtless used, as now. In ignorance or disregard of Deut. 22 : 10 the modern Syrians often use the ox and ass unequally 3'oked. Sometimes several teams work together and move in succession across the field, as did Elisha and his servants. 1 Kgs. 19 : 19. The writer has seen eleven yoke thus ploughing in the same Jordan valley.
Land was probably, as now, often broken up before the rainy season, that it might be rendered absorbent. Steep places were tilled with mattocks. Isa. 7 : 25. Fields were frequently ploughed twice. It seems to be, more than formerly, the practice in Palestine to drop the seed in the furrow just before a plough which covers it.
Ploughing is mentioned as early as the time of Job. It is also spoken of in Gen. 45 : 6, for "earing" (akin to "arable") properly means "ploughing." 1 Sam. 8 : 12. The prophecies of Isa. 2 : 4 and Joel 3:10 are not here to be overlooked.
PLUMB'-LINE, Am. 7 : 7, 8, PLUM'MET, Isa. 28:17, a line by which a plummet or leaden weight hangs, and by the application of which the exact perpendicular may be ascertained.
POCH'ERETH {snarm(j), one of Solomori's servants, whose children returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 57 ; Neh. 7:59.
POETRY, HE'BREW. The Jews were an imaginative people. With them poetry and music, closely connected, accompanied domestic and social life in all its more prominent scenes, such as the wedding, the harvest, and other feasts. Am. 6: 5; Ps. 4:7. Victory in battle was celebrated by song ; see, for instance, the song of Moses, Ex. 15, and the song of Deborah. Jud. 5. The death of a beloved person was deplored in songs ; see, for instance, the maidens' song over Jephthah's daughter, Jud. 11 : 40, and David's song at the death of Saul and Jonathan, 2 Sam, 1 : 18, and afterward at the death of Abner. 2 Sam. 3 : 33. It is therefore quite natural that so large a part of the 0. T.—more than one-third -—consists of poetry, but these Poetical Bookf! —Job, the Psalms, the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon, to which may be further added, besides numerous poetic fragments in the historical books, such as Gen. 4:23; Ex. 32 : 18 ; Num. 21: 17, the Lamentations of Jeremiah and the Prophets (with the exception of Daniel), as most of these writings, though not strictly poetry, oscillate between poetry and prose— were in the Jewish canon included among the Hagioyrupha, or Holy Writings.
In Hebrew poetry two forms, the lyrical and the didactic, predominate. To the didactic the poetic portions of the prophetic writings belong. There is no epic and no dramatic poetry, strictly so called, in the Bible. The book of Job and the Canticles are sometimes called Hebrew dramas, and have undoubtedly a dramatic drapery, but the former is chiefly didactic, the latter lyrical. The Psalms are, without any qualification, the highcf^t specimens of sacred poetry which mankind possesses; and in spite of the very strong marks of nationality they bear, both in style and in imager}', they have become, nearly to the whole world, the most striking and most complete expression of that which moves deepest in the human soul. They owe this pre-eminence to their spiritual character. The Hebrew poetry is now passionate and pathetic, as in the Psalms and the Proph-
POI
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ets; now contemplative and didactic, as ' in the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. But in | both cases the pervading spiritual cha- I racter is religious.
The relation between man and God, his Creator and his Judge—that is, his Father—is, directly or indirectly, the sole theme of all Hebrew lyrics, and in the treatment of this theme, its aw-fulness and its consolation, man has not failed to feel the inspiration from ] above.
The power of Hebrew poetry to strike j the imagination and move the heart— its poetical essence—has always been recognized; but its poetical form was for a long time overlooked, and is hardly yet fully understood. Hebrew lyrics have a division into verses and strophes, and employ occasionally alliterations and rhymes, but they have no regular metrical system, the verses containing an unequal number of syllables and the strophes an unequal number of verses. They were destined to be sung, and consequently adapted simply to some melody. The principal element of their poetical form is therefore their rhythm, and, again, this rhythm depends much more on the ideas than on the words. Its principal feature is the so-called parallelism—a correspondence between two or more sentences of similar or opposite meaning by which the idea receives its full and harmonious expression. The correspondence may be one of harmony or of contrast or of progressive thought, and accordingly it is called synonymous or antithetic or synthetic parallelism. Synonymous parallelism expresses the same idea in different but equivalent words, as in the following examples:
"What is man that thou art mindful of
him ? And the son of man that thou visitest
him ?"—Ps. 8 : 4.
" The heavens declare the glory of God: And the firmament showeth his handiwork."—Ps. 19:1, 2.
Antithetic parallelis'm expresses the idea through a contrast, as in the following examples:
"Evil-doers shall be cut otf: But those that wait upon the Lord, they shall inherit the earth."—Ps. 37 : 9.
" A soft answer turneth away wrath ; But grievous words stir up anger."
Prov. 15:1. 696
Synthetic parallelism expresses the idea through a progress or gradation of thoughts, as in the following example:
"The law of Jehovah is perfect, converting
the soul. The testimony of Jehovah is sure, making
wise the simple. The statutes of Jehovah are right, rejoicing
the heart. The commandment of Jehovah is pure, enlightening the eyes. The fear of Jehovah is clean, enduring for
ever. The judgments of Jehovah are truth, they
are righteous altogether. More to be desired are they than gold, yea,
than much fine gold."—Ps. 19 : 7.
POI'SON. This word is in our translation the rendering of two different Hebrew words, of which the one, derived from a root signifying " heat," is applied to animal poisons, Deut. 32 : 24, 33 ; Ps, 58 : 4; while the other, though its derivation is somewhat doubtful, seems to have been applied to vegetable poisons. The latter is sometimes translated with "gall" or " water of gall." Jer. 8 : 14;
9 : 15.
POLL, POLLED. When used as a noun, "poll" means a head. Num. 3 : 47; and when used as a verb, it means to cut the hair from the head. 2 Sam. 14 : 26.
POL'LUX. See Castor.
POLYG'AMY. See Marriage.
POMEGRANNATE (pronounce 2nnn-<jran'nate). This word designates a large bush {Punica granatum) of the myrtle family, and its fruit. Our English name comes from the Latin, which means " grained apple," referring to the beautiful pink pips or grains which fill the interior. The pomegranate has been cultivated from early times in Syria, Num. 13 : 23 ; Deut. 8 : 8, and the warmer regions of the East. It rarely exceeds
10 feet in height, and has small lance-shaped, glossy leaves, of a reddish-green when young, but becoming pea-green and remaining alive through the winter. The flowers are of a brilliant scarlet or orange, and in August or September the fruit ripens. This is of the size of an orange, flattened at the ends like an apple, is of a beautiful brown-red color, Cant. 4:3; 6:7, has a hard rind, and is filled with pulp of a highly-grateful flavor. The abundant juice was made into wine. Cant. 8 : 2, and used for a cooling drink. Some cultivated trees
POM
PON
bear sweet fruit and some sour, while the wild pomegranates yield only a small and worthless apple.
Jiiitniton, the Hebrew word for this fruit, gave name, in whole or in part, to several places in Palestine, near which the pomegranate was doubtless abundant.
The Pomegranate.
The bush of this kind under which Saul tarried must have been of unusual size. 1 Sam. 14 : 2.
" The graceful shape of the pomegranate was selected as one of the ornaments on the skirt of the high priest's blue robe and ephod, alternating with the ' chieftains, golden bells, Ex. 28 : 33, 34; 39 : 24-26, and hence was adopted as one of the favorite devices in the decoration of Solomon's temple, being carved on the capitals of the pillars. 1 Kgs. 7 : IS, etc. Whether the design was taken from the fruit or the flower, it would form a graceful ornament. We have frequently noticed the pomegranate sculptured on fragments of columns among the ruins of Oriental temples.
" The Syrian deity Rimmon has been supposed by some to have been a personification of the pomegranate, as the emblem of the fructifying principle of nature, the fruit being sacred to Venus, who was worshipped under this title. Hadad-rimmon is mentioned in Zech. 12 : 11, Hadad being the Sun-god of the Syrians; and when combined with the symbol of the pomegranate, he stands for the Sun-god, who ripened the fruits, and then, dying with the departing summer, is mourned ' with the mourning of Hadad-rimmon.' "— Tristram.
POM'MELS, convex projections on the capitals of pillars. 2 Chr. 4 : 12, 13.
In 1 Kgs. 7 : 41 the same ornament is called " bowls."
PONDS. The ponds of Egypt were sheets of water along the Nile, left by its inundations. Ex. 7 : 19; 8:5.
PON'TUS {the sea), the north-eastern province of Asia Minor, bordering on the Euxine Sea. Under the Romans the name comprised the whole district from the river Halys on the west, separating it from Bithynia, to Colchis and Armenia on the east; it was separated on the south from Cappadocia by lofty m oun tain s. It was originally considered a part of Cappadocia, and called " Cappadocia on the Sea." Pontus rose into power under Mithridates, who was defeated by Pompey, b. c. 66, after a long struggle, and was brought under the Roman yoke. The western portion of the empire of Mithridates was united partly with Bithynia and partly with Galatia, but for a long period the region properly called Pontus remained under the government of independent It was really made a province under Nero before Paul's death. Polemo II., who married Bernice, great-granddaughter of Herod the Great and sister of Herod Agrippa, Acts 25 : 13, was its last king. This marriage of a Jewess with the king must have had an influence upon the Jewish population of Pontus, of whom some representatives were in Jerusalem on the daj^ of Pentecost. Acts 2 : 9. Aquila, a Jew born in Pontus, Acts 18 : 2, was a very useful helper of Paul, and Peter addressed his First Epistle " to the strangers scattered throughout Pontus." 1 Pet. 1:1. It formed part of the later Greek empire; became the seat of a new Christian empire founded by Alexius Com-nenus in the thirteenth century; was conquered by the Turks in A. D. 1461, and remained under their dominion. It corresponds nearly with the modern province of Trebizond, which came into some prominence during the Russo-Turkish war in 1877-78. The country contains valuable mineral deposits, extensive forests, and some fertile districts.
POO
POT
POOLS. See Bethesda, Siloam, Solomon's Pools, Jerusalem. POOLS OF SOLOMON. Eccl.
2 : 6. See Solomon.
POOLS OF WATER. Eccl. 2 :
6. See Cisterns, Water.
POOR. By ordaining that land could be sold only for a term of jears, but should return to its original owner at the jubilee, Lev. 25 : 23-28, the Mosaic Law found an eifective check to pauperism. But also in other ways it took great care of the poor. All kinds of offering and sacrifice were accommodated to their condition. Lev. 5 : 7, llj 12 : 8. The gleanings of fields and vineyards and the harvest of the seventh year and part of the third tithe belonged to them. Lev. 19 : 10 ; 25 : 25-41. Judges were charged to do them justice, but not unjustly to favor them for their poverty. Ex. 23 : 6; Lev. 19 : 15; Ps. 82 : 4. God claimed to be the special protector of them. Prov. 14 : 31.
In the N. T. the word " poor" is used figuratively to denote those who are humble of heart. Matt. 5:3; but also literally, as when Jesus said " The poor have the gospel preached to them," Matt. 11: 5, and touchingly declared, " Ye have the poor always with you; but me ye have not always." Matt. 26 : 11.
POP'LAR {wliite). The storax (see Stacte), being ordinarily only a bush, does not meet the conditions of Hos. 4 : 13. Four or more species of poplar are found in the Holy Land, and this fact, with the white appearance of some kinds— e. g., Populus alha —warrants us in preferring the A. V. Gen. 30 : 37.
POR'ATHA {favored hy fate), one of the ten sons of Haman whom the Jews slew in Shushan. Esth. 9 : 8.
PORCH. Jud. 3 : 23. See Dwellings.
PORCH, SOLOMON'S. John 10 : 23. See Temple.
POR'CIUS FES'TUS. Acts 24 : 27. See Festus.
POR'TERS, such as attend the gate of a city or house to open and shut it. 2 Sam. 18 : 26 ; 2 Kgs. 7 : 10. The temple had 4000 of them. 1 Chr. 23 : 5. They were classified, and had leaders or directors. 1 Chr. 26 : 1-19; 2 Chr. 8 : 14. Besides keeping guard at the temple, they had also charge of the freewill 698
oflFerings and of the treasure-chambers of their respective wards. 2 Chr. 31 : 14.
POR'TION. Among the Egyptians, Greeks, and Hebrews of ancient times the portion of food intended for every guest was set before him separately. When it was intended to confer special honor upon any one a portion much greater than common was given to him. Gen. 43 : 34. A " worthy portion," 1 Sam. 1: 5, means, literallv, a "double portion."
POSSESSED WITH A DEVIL. See Devil.
POST (the Hebrew word means a runner), a messenger or bearer of tidings, especially of royal despatches. Esth. 3:13, 15; 8:14; Jer. 51:31. That they were employed in very early times is proved by Job's comparison. 9 : 25. To convey intelligence quickly, the Persian kings placed sentinels at proper distances, who, by crying to one another, gave notices of public occurrences. This method being impracticable for secret intelligence, Cyrus established posts that rode night and day. Persians and Romans impressed men and beasts into this public service, and to this fact our Lord alludes. Matt. 5 : 41. The regularity and swiftness of the Roman posts were admirable.
POT. See Pottery.
POTaPHAR {belou;,ing to the sun), a distinguished officer in Pharaoh's coui't, who elevated Joseph to a place of trust and committed to him the chai'ge of the household. Gen. 37 : 3fi.
POTI-PHE'RAH, a priest or prince of On, and father-in-law of Joseph, Gen. 41 : 45. The marriage of Joseph to Asenath and her conversion to faith in the one God form the subject of an old romance which exists in a Latin, Greek, and Syriac version. It is chiefly made up of Jewish legends, but belongs, nevertheless, to the Christian era. The title is The Life and Confession of Asenath, Daughter of Pen-tephres [Potipherah] of Heliopolis, a narrative [of what happened] xchen the beautiful Joseph took her to loife. The story is thus summarized (Schaff, Through Bible Lands, pp. 57, 58): Asenath was a proud beauty, living in great splendor Avith seven attendants, and disdaining all lovers except Pharaoh's oldest son, who loved her, but was forbidden by his father to marry her. When
POT
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she saw Joseph from her window as he entered Heliopolis to collect corn in the first year of plenty, she was captivated by his beauty, ran down, hailed him as " My lord, blessed of the most high Uod," and at her father's bidding went forward to kiss him. Joseph refused to kiss an idolatrous woman, but, seeing her tears, he laid his hand upon her head and prayed God to convert her to the true faith, and then departed. She threw her idols out of the window, repented seven days, saw an angel of comfort, and was married to Joseph by Pharaoh with great pomp.
POT'TAGE. Gen. 25:29. At this day, in many parts of the East, lentiles are boiled or stewed like beans with oil and garlic, and make a dish of a chocolate color, which is eaten as pottage. Other ingredients were used, as in soups of modern times. 2 Kgs. 4 : 39.
POT TER'S FIELD, THE. Matt. 27 : 7. See Aceldama.
POT'TERY. The potter's art was one of the first kinds of manufacture in
Egyptian Potter and Pottery.
which man became proficient. The Israelites worked at the trade while in Egypt, Ps. 81 : 6; they used earthenware during their passage through the wilderness; and from the earliest time of their settlement in Canaan the trade was established among them. In Jerusalem there was a royal establishment
of potters, 1 Chr. 4 : 23, from which it has been conjectured that the potter's field received its name.
The method em2)loyed by the Israelites and often hinted at by the prophets seems to have been exactly the same as that employed by the Egyptians, such as we find it minutely illustrated by Egyptian wall-paintings. The clay was trodden by the feet into a uniform paste, Isa. 41 : 25 ; Wisd. 16 : 7, and a sufficient mass was then placed by the potter on the wooden disc of the wheel. The wheel was turned by the hand or worked by a treadle, Isa. 45 : 9 ; Jer. 18 : 3, but generally by an attendant, and not by the potter himself. When finished the vessel was coated with glaze and burnt in a furnace. Such vessels were used, however, not only for culinary purposes, but also as a means of preservation ; from Jer. 32 : 14 it appears that deeds were kept in them.
POUND. SeeMEASTTRES. In 1 Kgs. 10 :17 ; Ezra 2 : 69; Neh. 7 : 71, 72 it is the translation of the Hebrew maneh ; in the N. T. of mina, Luke 19 : 13, etc., and also of litra, John 12 : 3; the first and last words refer to quantity,the second to value as money. See Appendix, pp. 938, 939.
PRiETO'RIUM. The headquarters of the Roman governors; in Scripture three such places are mentioned.
1. At Jerusalem. Mark 15 : 16. The same Greek word is rendered ''common hall" and, margin, "governor's house," Matt. 27 : 27 : ''hall of judgment" and "judgment-hall." John 18 : 28, 33 ; 19 : 9. It occupied a vast rectangular space and contained barracks for the soldiers by whom Jerusalem was kept in subjection. This prsetorium communicated with the temple, which was situated on the eastern hill, by a causeway crossing the Tj'ro-poeon valley. It was in this prgetorium that Jesus was tried before Pilate. Some, however, would identify the pra^torium with the fortress Antonia, at the northwest corner of the temple-area. See Lange on Matt. 27 : 27.
2. At Cajsarea, Acts 23 : 35 ; translated " Herod's judgment-hall." This was the gorgeous palace in which Herod the Great resided during his latter dsiys. It probably stood on the commanding eminence near the middle of the city. There Paul was kept a prisoner for two years.
3. At Rome, Phil. 1 : 13: translated
PEA
PRA
" palace," and in the margin " Caesar's court." This has been interpreted—(1) As in the A. V., "the palace"—/. e. the palace of the Cajsars, on the Mount Palatine, which was garrisoned by a body-guard of soldiers called Praetorians. (2) As the general camp of the Praetorian guard, situated just without the city walls, before reaching the fourth milestone. It was established by the emperor Tiberius.
PRAISE. In the ordinary Scripture use of the term, it denotes an act of worship, and is often used synonymously with thanksgiving. It is called forth by the contemplation of the character and attributes of God, however they are displayed; and it implies a grateful sense and acknowledgment of past mercies. Expressions of praise abound in the Psalms of David, in almost every variety of force and beauty. Ps. 33 : 1 ; 138 : 1; 106 : 2.
PRAY, PRAYER, the most essential act of private devotion and public worship in all ages and nations. It is rooted and grounded in man's moral and religious constitution, enjoined by God, and commended by the highest examples. It is speaking to God and offering to him our petitions for mercies needed, and our thanks for mercies obtained. It embraces invocation, supplication, intercession, and thanks. 1 Tim. 2:1. It may be either mental or vocal, private or public, in the closet or in the family or in the house of God. We are commanded to pray for others as well as for ourselves, Jas. 5 : 16; for kings and all that are in authority, 1 Tim. 2:2; for kindred, friends, and even for our enemies, persecutors, and slanderers. Matt. 5 : 44. God is the only object of prayer and worship. Matt. 4:10; Deut. 6 : 13 ; 10 : 20. We may pray for all things needful to our body and soul, for our daily bread as well as for all spiritual mercies. Prayer should be offered to God the Father, in the name of the Son, through the Holy Spirit. But inasmuch as Christ and the Holy Spirit are strictly divine in essence and character, they may also be directly addressed in prayer. Comp. Acts 7 : 59, 60; 1 Cor. 1:2; Phil. 2:9. To pray in the name of Christ means to pray in harmony with his Spirit, trusting in his all-prevailing mediation, with humility and resignation to the holy will 700
of God. Such prayers will always be heard in God's own best way and time (which, however, often differs from our own short-sighted views), and will always have a wholesome effect upon the soul of him who prays. Comp. Matt. 6:6; 7 : 7-12; 21:22; John 16 : 23, 24, 26; Jas. 5 : 15. The Holy Spirit enables us to pray aright. Rom. 8 : 26.
All the great saints of God were fervent and mighty in prayer—Abraham, Gen 20 : 17 : Jacob, Gen. 32 : 26-31; Moses Num. 11 : 2 ; Deut. 9 : 19, 20 ; Joshua Josh. 10: 12; Samuel, 1 Sam. 12 : 18 David (all his Psalms); Elijah, 1 Kgs 17 : 1; 18 : 42, 45 ; Jas. 5 : 17, 18 : Elisha 2 Kgs. 4 : 33, 34 ; Hezekiah, 2 Kgs. 19 15-20 ; 20 : 2-6; Daniel, Dan. 6 : 10 Hannah, 1 Sam. 1 : 12; Anna, Luke 2 37; the apostles. Acts 1 : 14, 24; 2 : 42 4:31; 6:4; 8 : 15 ; 12 : 8, 12; 16:25 26; 20 : 36 ; 21 : 5 ; Rom. 1:9; 12 : 12 1 Thess. 5 : 17. Our Saviour himself often withdrew into a solitary place to pray, Mark 1:35; Luke 5:16; Matt. 14 : 23 ; 26 : 39, and taught his disciples how to pray. Matt. 6 : 9-13; Luke 11: 2-4.
The posture of the body in prayer is immaterial. Prayer may be offered on the knees or standing or prostrate, with eyes closed or lifted up to heaven, with hands folded, clasped, or stretched out. The main thing is the reverential frame of mind, which will naturally express itself in one form or other, according to the state of feeling and the customs of the age and country. The length of prayer is likewise unessential. God looks to the heart. Better few words and much devotion than many words and little devotion. See Matt. 6 : 7. The prayer of the publican in the temple, Luke 18 : 13, and the petition of the jienitent thief, Luke 23 : 42, were very short and very effective.
The objections to prayer proceed from atheistic and fatalistic theories. Praj^er implies the existence of God and the responsibility of man, and has no meaning for those who deny either. It is more natural that God, who is infinitely merciful, should answer the prayer of his children than that earthly parents should grant the requests of their children. See Matt. 7:11. Yet our prayers were foreseen by him, like all other free acts, and included in his eternal plan, *• In spite of all objections, men
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PEA
pray on as by universal instinct. The reply to the objections is that we pray to a living, loving Person, near at hand,
Egyptian. Postures in Prayer.
knowing our thoughts, able to control all things—One who has declared himself a hearer of prayer, and who has made it a condition on which it seems good to him to put forth his power. The essence of belief in prayer is that the divine mind is accessible to supplication, and that the divine will is capable of being moved. Prayer depends on God's will, but does not determine it. Man applies, God complies ; man asks, God grants.
" Prayer has a subjective value. It is necessary to individual piety, produces solemnity, enlightens and quickens the conscience, teaches dependence, gives
true views of God, and produces such a change in us as renders it consistent for him to change his course toward us. In the family, prayer intensifies and exacts devotion, secures domestic order, strengthens parental government, and promotes religion. And objectively the Bible and Christian history abound in examples of answered prayer.
" The main arguments for formn of prayer are that they have been of almost universal use ; that they guide the worshippers without forcing them to depend on the moods of the leader; where they are used, all know what is to be said and done; they secure provision for unlearned ministers ; secure dignity, decency, harmony, and guard against excessive show, arbitrary freedom, improper, absurd, extravagant, confused, and impious utterance, and against weariness and inattention; they vxnite the hearts and tongues of all worshippers, so that they do not worship by proxy; they unite different ages of the Church and preserve true doctrine and discipline.
^'Exfemjiornneous (though not rash and unstudied) prayer is claimed to be more particular than general forms can be. It secures freedom, fervor, spontaneity, and adaptation to the circumstances; it is less formal and monotonous ; suits itself to changes in language and opinions."
PRAY ER, HOURS OF. Prayer is no more confined to a particular hour than to a particular place. Comp. John 4 : 24. We may pray anywhere and at all times, and should pray without ceasing. 1 Thess. 6 : 17. Nevertheless, it is good to observe special hours of prayer. The Jews prayed at 9 A. m., 12 m., and 8 p. M. To these were added the beginning and end of night and the time of meals. Ps. 55 : 17 ; Dan. 6:10; Luke 18 : 1 ; Acts 3 : 1 ; 10 : 8. 9, 80.
PRAYERS OF CHRIST. There are several prayers of Jesus recorded in the N. T. : the model prayer for his disciples. Matt. 6 : 9, 18 ; Luke 11 : 2-4 ; brief thanksgivings. Matt. 11 : 25, 26; John 6:11; 11 : 41, 42; the petition in Gethsemane, Matt. 26 : 39; comp. the similar petition, John 17 : 1. 2 ; and the exclamations on the cross, " Father, forgive them," "Eli, Eli," " Father, into thy hands." The Lord's Prayer, so called, is intended for his disciples, who need
PEE
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often to pray for the forgiveness of their sins. See Lord's Prayer.
The most important prayer of our Lord is the one recorded by John. Ch. 17. It is called the sacerdotal or high-priestly prayer because in it he intercedes for his people and enters upon his function as the Hi^h Priest in offering his own spotless life as a perfect sacrifice for the sins of the whole world. It is divided into three parts: first, he prays for himself, for his glorification, vs. 1-5 ; then for the preservation of his disciples, vs. 6-19; finally, for all believers of future times, for their unity and perfection in the kingdom of glory. The connecting idea of the three parts is the redeeming work of God as accomplished by Christ, carried on by the apostles, and to be completed in the kingdom of glory. '' This sacerdotal prayer, spoken in the stillness of the night under the starry heavens, before the wondering disciples, in view of the approaching consummation of his work, for himself, his apostles, and his Church to the end of time, is peculiarly his own, the inspiration of his grand mission, and could be uttered only by Christ, and even by Christ only once in the world's history, as the atonement could occur but once; but its effect vibrates through all ages. It is not so much the petition of an inferior or dependent suppliant as the communion of an equal and a solemn declaration of his will concerning those whom he came to save. While praying to the Father, he teaches the apostles. He prays as the mighty Intercessor and Mediator, standing between earth and heaven, looking backward and forward, and comprehending all his present and future disciples in one holy and perfect fellowship with himself and the eternal Father. The words are as clear and calm as a mirror, but the sentiments are as deep and glowing as God's fathomless love to men, and all efforts to exhaust them are in vain." —Schnff.
PREACH'ING. The word is not used in the Bible in its present technical sense, but means proclamation by public authority, as a herald or crier. But ere the Bible closed the institution of preaching sprang up. and hence in the Epistles the Greek word approximates to our meaning. In the ancient Hebrew 702
state there was no preaching, but after the Exile some instruction in the Law was given to the people, Neh. 8, and our Lord improved the opportunities afforded him by the synagogue discourses to set forth the kingdom. See Synagogue. Since the full establishment of the Christian Church preaching has been regarded as a sacred profession, and has, for the most part, been confined to an appointed and specially trained order of men.
PREPARA TION, or PREP-ARA'TION-DAY, is the term for Friday, because on that day preparation was made and meals cooked for the Sabbath. It might be rendered " fore-Sabbath " (comp. the Greek in Mark 15 : 42) or " Sabbath - eve" (comp. the German Sonnabend for ''Saturday"). Matt. 27: 62; Mark 15: 42; Luke 23: 54; John 19 : 14, 31, 42.
The " preparation of the Passover," in John 19 : 14, means the Paschal Friday, or the Friday occurring during the week of the Passover (as in vers. 31 and 42). On that Friday (the 15th of Nisan) Christ was crucified.
PRES'ENTS played in old time and in Eastern countries a much larger part in social life than now, though in many Eastern countries at this day even the common people, in their familiar visits, take a flower or an orange, or some other token of respect, to the person visited. Gen. 32 : 13. See Gift. PRESS'ES,Isa.l6:10,ORPRESS'-FATS, Hag. 2 : 16, were vessels or cisterns placed in the side of a hill, into which the juice of grapes flowed when i it was pressed out by treading them with the feet or by pressing them with a machine. Prov. 3 : 10; Matt. 21: 33. Such are now used in Persia. The upper vessel, being 8 feet square and 4 deep, is used to press out the juice, which runs into another cistern below. For an illustration of the process, see Wine.
PREVE\TS in the A. V., uever means, as at present, '' to hinder," but "to go before," " to anticipate." 1 Thess. 4 : 15.
PRICKS, OR GOADS, long, sharp-pointed sticks, which were used to drive cattle, etc., by pricking them. The expression in Acts 9:5 is a proverb, and originated in this—that restive oxen often push themselves or kick back against the goads, and thus wound themselves
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PET
the more deeply. Hence the proverb is used to denote the folly and madness of resisting lawful authority. A great number of heathen writers use the proverb familiarly, and always to signify the absurdity of such rebellion.
PRIEST (contracted ivom jiveshyter, "elder") is the general name for ministers of religion in all ages and countries. In the sacred Scriptures it denotes one who offers sacrifice. Previous to the Mosaic dispensation the of!ering of sacrifices pertained to private individuals. Fathers were the priests of their own families, though perhaps a more general priestly office existed, such as that exercised by Melchizedek. The patriarchs, Noah, Abraham, etc, themselves officiated as priests of their households. Gen. 8 : 20; 12 : 8, and it seems that the priestl}' dignity descended in the family by birthright to the first-born. As, at the first institution of the Passover, the head of each family was ordered to kill the paschal-lamb it is probable that the household priesthood still prevailed at that time. But when the dispensation by Moses was given, a particular order of men was appointed to that special service, Ex. 28, with very solemn and imposing ceremonies ; and from that time the offering of sacrifices was chiefly restricted to those who were Au\y invested with the priestly office. 2 Chr. 26 : 18.
All the male descendants of Aaron were priests by birthright, and the firstborn, in regular succession, inducted into the office of high priest. Certain blemishes, however, specified in Lev. 21 : 16-24, disqualified a man, not for the order, but for performing the functions of the office ; and after having been consecrated and entering on the duties of his office, his life lay under a stricter rule than that of the Levite or the layman. As the priesthood was confined to the family of Aaron, the number of priests was at first very small, Josh. 3:6; 6:4, but in the time of David it had greatly increased ; 8700 priests joined him at Hebron. 1 Chr. 12 : 27. He divided them into twenty-four courses—sixteen of the family of Eleazar, and eight of the family of Ithamar ; and, as these courses officiated in regular succession, changing every Sabbath, 2 Chr. 23 : 8, each course would be in attendance at the
sanctuar}^ at least twice a year. During the ])eriod of the Captivity this division into courses seems to have fallen into some confusion. Among the 4289 priests who accompanied Zerubbabel, only four courses were represented, Ezr. 2 : 36-39 ; Neh. 7 : 39-42, and courses are afterward mentioned which cannot be identified with any of the original ones.
A Priest.
The chief duty of the priests was to prepare and offer the daily, weekly, and monthly sacrifices, and such as were brought by individuals at the great annual festivals or at especial occasions. But generally they conducted the public service, officiated at purifications, took care of the holy vessels, of the sacred fire and the golden lamp, of all the furniture of the sanctuary. In war they sounded the holy trumpets and carried the ark of the covenant. In peace they
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Courses of Priests. (From Ayre's Treasury of Bible Knowledge.)
Post-Exilian Courses, which cannot be identified with original ones.
ministered as judges at the trial of jealousy, at the estimation of the redemption-money for a vow, etc. They kept a kind of superintendence over the lepers, and, finally, they expounded the Law to the people. It appears, however, from 2 Chr. 17 : 7-10; 19 : 8-10; Eze. 44 : 24, etc. that the priests often 704
neglected the judicial and teaching functions of their office.
The consecration of a priest took place with great solemnity. The ceremonies, which were minutely prescribed by Moses, Ex. 29 : 1-37 ; Lev. 8. 9, lasted for seven days, and consisted in sacrifices, washings, the putting on of the
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holy garments, the sprinkling of blood and anointing with oil. The garments of the priest consisted of a white linen tunic, reaching from the neck to the ankles, with tight sleeves, and held together around the waist with a linen girdle embroidered with blue, purple, and scarlet. On the head he wore a kind of tiara, formed by the foldings of a linen cloth, and of a round, turbanlike shape. His feet were probably naked. After entering on the duties of his otRce he was not allowed to mourn or defile himself at the death of any, with the exception of his nearest relatives, or to practice those cuttings and shavings which were couimon among the people, or to marry a divorced woman, etc.; as his office was to approach the Lord on behalf of the people, his duty was to remain pure within and clean without. For the maintenance of the priests thirteen cities with pasture-grounds, situated in the tribes of Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin, were set aside when the people settled in Canaan. Josh. 21 : 13-19. To these were added one-tenth of the tithes paid to the Levites, Num. 18 : 26-28 ; a special tithe every third year. Deut. 14 : 28: 26 : 12; the redemption-money paid for the first-born of man and beast, Num. 18 : 14-19, and for men or things specially dedicated to the Lord, Lev. 27; the first-fruits of corn, wine, and oil, Ex. 23 : 19 ; Lev. 2:14; Deut. 26 : 1-10 ; a part of the spoil taken in war. Num. 31: 25-47; and finally, when they were officiating, the shew-bread and the flesh of the burnt-offerings, peace-offerings, and trespass-offerings. Num. 18: 8-14; Lev. 6 : 26-29 ; 7 : 6-10. These provisions, large though they seem to be, were nevertheless by no mean? suflficient to maintain the priestly order with that independence and dignity which was not only becoming, but necessary. On the contrary, under the kings many priests fell into abject poverty. 1 Sam. 2 : 86.
PRINCE. Besides in its ordinary sense, the word is used in the A. V. of (1) Local governors or magistrates, 1 Kgs. 20 : 14: (2) Satraps, Dan. 6:1; (3) (Iruardian angels. Dan. 6 : 1. _ PRINCIPAL'ITY, in the expression "principalities and powers," Eph, 1 :2l; 3:6; Col. 1 : 16; 2 : 10, etc., denotes an order of angels. 45
PRINT'ED, in Job 19 : 23, should be rendered " inscribed."
PRIS'CA {ancient), 2 Tim. 4: 19, OR PRISCIL'LA, Acts 18:2, 18, 26; Rom. 16 : 3: 1 Cor. 16 : 19, was the wife of Aquila, and partook with him not only in the exercise of hospitality in their house, but also in his labors for the Christian Church.
PRIS'ON. As, according to the Mosaic Law, trial followed immediately after apprehension, and imprisonment was not used as a punishment, we hear very little of prisons among the Hebrews until the times of the kings. During
An Ancient Inner Prison.
the passage through the wilderness two persons were put "in ward," Lev. 24 : 12 ; Num. 15 : 34, and from Gen. 37 : 24 and Jer. 38 : 6-11 it appears that the dry well or pit was used as a place of confinement or detention. Under the kings the prison formed a part of the palace, 1 Kgs. 22 : 26: 2 Chr. 16 : 10; Jer. 32 : 2, and the same was the case under the Herods. Luke 3 : 20 ; Acts 12 : 4. The Romans used the tower of An-tonia, in Jerusalem, and the pra^torium, in Caesarea, as prisons. Acts 23 : 10, 35. Also the sacerdotal authorities had a prison in Jerusalem. Acts 5 : 18-23 : 8 : 3; 26 : 10.
PROCH'ORUS {leniJer of the chorus), one of the seven deacons. Acts 6 : 5.
PROCON'SUL, AND PROCURATOR. See Deputy and Governor.
PROM'ISE, in opposition to " threatening," signifies generally ar
vno
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assurance of the bestowal of some good or the removal of some evil, but refers more especially to the spiritual gifts of God—the Messiah, the Holy Spirit, and the Christian Church. Thus those who have received these gifts are called "children of the promise." Rom. 9:8.
PROP'ER, in Heb. 11 : 28, '* a proper child,"' means "handsome."
PROPH'ET (from a Greek word signifying speake?-, utterer). The term is used in a wider sense, signifying simply "interpreter," in close correspondence with its etymology, and thus it is applied to every one who has received a communication from God which he utters or interprets. Abraham is called a prophet, Gen. 20 : 7, in this sense of the word, and in the same manner Aaron is called the prophet of Moses. Ex. 7 : 1. As a communication from God is most likely, however, to refer to the future it becomes naturally a prediction in the mouth of the interpreter, and this element of prediction, added to that of interpretation, gives a more special sense to the term, "prophet" signifying a man who is authorized by God to reveal something with respect to the future.
The prophets of the 0. T., at once interpreters and predictors, formed a special institution in the Hebrew theocracy, an independent link of the great providential scheme which made the children of Israel, the chosen people among whom the Messiah was to be born, a transition between the old and the new dispensations. Resting on Moses, they pointed toward Christ; preaching the Law, they promised the Gospel. Scattered prophecies occur even before Moses, but it was not until the time of Samuel that the prophets became a regular order in the Hebrew theocracy, like the priests, and afterward the kings. During the period of the- Judges the priesthood seems to have become somewhat degenerate, and its influence on the people was lowered. Under these circumstances, Samuel undertook to create or develop a new moral power in the nation by the organization of the prophetical institution, and so successful was he in this undertaking that in Holy Scripture he is ranked beside Moses as one of the pillars of the people. Jer. 15 : 1; Ps. 97 : 6j Acts 3 : 24. Schools or 706
colleges—in fact, the first theological seminaries—were established first at Ramah, 1 Sam. 19 : 19; afterward at Bethel, 2 Kgs. 2 : 3, Jericho, 2 Kgs. 2 : 5, Gilgal, 2 Kgs. 4 : 38, and in other places. 2 Kgs. 6 : 1. Under the leadership of some elderly prophet, who was called their "father" or "master," 1 Sam. 10 : 12; 2 Kgs. 2 : 3, promising young men were gathered into these schools and instructed in the interpretation of the Law, in music, and in poetry. The connection between prophecy and poetry and music was old, Ex. 15 : 20 : Jud. 4:4; 5:1, and continued to the last. 1 Sam. 10 : 5 ; 2 Kgs. 3:15;
1 Chr. 25 : 6. Having gone through the school and completed his instruction, the prophet entered on his ofiiee as an instructor of the people, leading all the while a stern and austere life.
2 Kgs. 4 : 9, 38; 1 Kgs. 19 : 8; Matt.
3 :4.
Although the prophets formed a regular order like that of the kings or the priests, there was, nevertheless, no uninterrupted succession of prophets. They arose only when specially called by God. What they learnt in these schools was only a preparation to make them fitter instruments in the hands of God; the principal constituent of their office was the divine authorization, given them in the form of inspiration. But this the prophetic gift was quite independent of the prophetic education; Amos was not educated as a prophet when the divine word came to him. Am. 7 : 14. The question of the psychological connection between the divine inspiration and the mind of the prophet in its natural state has been much debated, but is in reality inapproachable, because one part of the combination—the divine inspiration—cannot be made the subject of research. From the prophetic writings, however, the manner in which the divine inspiration took hold of the human mind and used it as its instrument is very apparent. Sometimes it is through dreams, Dan. 2; sometimes through visions, Isa. 6; Eze. 1; sometimes through direct communication. 1 Kgs. 13 : 20-22; 1 Sam. 3. Of these various methods, that of the vision is the most common, and, indeed, the writings of the prophets have the general character of visions, as if a curtain had
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been removed from before the eyes of the prophet, and he had been allowed to see and scan the plans of (xod in all his dealings with his creatures. Thus endowed, the prophet was in truth within the pale of revealed religion what the oracle attempted to be within the pale of natural religion. But while the oracle, resulting from the natural exaltation of the human mind, never reached beyond an obscure and uncertain conjecture, the prophet, inspired by God, told the certain truths. The prophets saw the future rather in space than in time, and as a picture of events very close together, though they may have been very far apart. They described the future as a common observer would describe the stars, grouping them as they appear to his eye. Thus Isaiah, chs. 10 and 11, connects the deliverance of the Jews from the yoke of the Assyrians with the deliverance by the Messiah ; Zechariah (ch. 9) connects the triumphs of Alexander with the coming of the Messiah, although the events were three hundred years apart; Joel, ch. 2:28, connects the effusion of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost and the last day; and
so does Peter. Acts 2. Our Lord's great eschatological discourse. Matt. 24 and 26,
is a familiar instance of the same fact.
Sent by Jehovah to reveal and enforce his will, to reform or revise the theocratic constitution, and to prepare the way for Christ, 2 Kgs. 17 : 13 ; Jcr. 25 : 4. the prophet stood as a mighty power among the peojjle, guiding and rebuking them and their rulers. He was the true leader of the people, not only in religious, but also in political and social, movements. He kept the theocracy alive, saved it from stagnation and degeneracy, and led it toward its final completion in Christ.
Besides the prophetical utterances scattered through the historical and poetical books, sixteen of the Hebrew prophets have left us writings which now form parts of the canon. Two of the greatest prophets, Elijah and Elisha, have left no special books, but their acts are recorded in the Kings. In all, the Jews reckoned fort.y-eight prophets and five prophetesses. The canonical prophets cover a period of over four hundred years, from about B. c. 850 to 420, and fall, according to their chronological order, into three groups, as follows:
II. PROPHETS DURING THE BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY.
Ill, PROPHETS AFTER THE RETURN FROM THE CAPTIVITY.
♦ Other writers make Obadiah the earliest among the prophets, b. c. 890-880.
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PROPH'ETESS signifies not only the wife of a prophet, Isa. 8 : 3, but also a woman that has the gift of prophecy. Ex. 15 : 20. Among these were Miriam, the sister of Aaron and Moses, Ex. 15 : 20; Deborah, who sang with Barak, Jud. 5:1; Hannah, the mother of Samuel, 1 Sam. 2:1; Anna, who was in the temple, Luke 2:36; the four daughters of Philip the Evangelist. Acts 21 : 9.
PROPITIATION denotes the action of a person who in some appointed way averts the wrath aroused by some offence, and brings about a reconciliation. Thus, Christ is the "propitiation for our sins." Rom. 3 : 25 ; 1 John 2:2; 4:10. The same Greek word is used by the Septuagint to denote " sin-ofi"ering," Eze. 44 : 27 and 45 : 19; " atonement," Num. 5:8; the "mercy-seat," Heb. 9 : 5; and the covering of the ark of the covenant. Lev. 16 : 14.
PROS'ELYTE, Matt. 23 ; 15, a name given by the Jews to such as were converted from heathenism to the Jewish faith. According to the Mosaic Law, foreigners who resided in Palestine were entitled to kind treatment, Deut. 10 : 18, 19, and the protection of the cities of refuge, Num. 35 : 15, on the condition that they kept the Sabbath, Ex. 20 : 10, and abstained from blasphemy and idolatry. Lev. 20 : 2 ; 24 : 16. They might even partake in the celebration of the day of atonement, Lev. 26 : 29, the feast of weeks, Deut. 16 : 11, and that of tabernacles ; but the Passover they could not eat without having been circumcised, Ex. 12 : 48 ; Num. 9 : 14—that is, without having adopted the Jewish ritual together with the Jewish faith, and become Jews. Later on, especially after the Captivity, when Jews were living in all countries, it could not fail that the heathens, especially the women, should feel attracted by this higher type of religion, and the Jews themselves were very eager to make converts. In Damascus almost all the women were converted to the Jewish faith.
There were two classes of proselytes. 1. Full proselj'tes, called "proselytes of righteousness," who were circumcised and in full communion with the synagogue. They were usually more fanatical than the native Jews. Comp. Matt. 23 : 15. 2. Half proselytes, called " proselytes of the gate*' (from Ex. 20:10, 708
" Thy stranger that is within thy gate"), who embraced the monotheism and Messianic hopes of the Jews without submitting to circumcision and conforming to the Jewish ritual. The latter class are called in the N. T. religious, devout. God-fearing persons. Acts 13 : 43, 50; 16:14: 17:4,17; 18:7. They were among the first converts, and formed generally the nucleus of Paul's congregations. To these half proselytes belonged Cornelius, Lydia, Timothy, Titus.
PROVERBS are sayings embodying some rule of conduct or some observation from life in a striking and catching form. In modern times collections of such proverbs have been mado in almost every country, and thesi3 collections have attracted much attention, because they generally give very striking pictures of the character of a nation, its wisdom and its follies, its passions and its humors.
PROVERBS OF SOL'OMOX, the name of one of the poetical books of the 0. T.; so called from the contents and the chief author.
1. Coyitents.—The Proverbs are a collection of wise maxims woven into a didactic poem, and making up a popular system of ethics. They are a guide of practical wisdom, the moral philosophy of the Hebrews. We have a similar collection in the book of Jesus Sirach in the Apocrypha. The following are the principal parts :
(o) The praise of Wisdom, chs. 1-9, a connected series of proverbs. Brief introduction. 1 : 1-6. The fundamental thought that all true wisdom comes from above and has its beginning in the fear of God. v. 7. Then short discourses on various topics of religion and morality, rewards of those who seek wisdom, admonitions to seek it, warning against the allurements of the strange woman, eh. 7; Wisdom's appeal to men, her claims, her relation to Jehovah, ch. 8, and her invitation to her feasts. Ch. 9.
(b) The proverbs of Solomon, chs. 10-22 :16, a collection of various maxims of an ethical and practical nature.
(c) A connected series with precepts on justice and prudence. Ch. 22 : 17-24: 22.
{d) Unconnected proverbs of various wise men. Ch. 24:23-34.
(f) Another collection of Proverbs of
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Solomon, which the men of Ilezekiah, king of Judah, copied out. Chs. 25-29.
(/) "The words of Agur, the son of Jakeh." Ch. 30 : 1-33. Ancient interpreters take "Agur" to be a symbolic name of Solomon, like " Kohelcth ;" but then he would not be called the son of Jakeh. Probably the real name of some Hebrew sage.
ig) " The words of Lemuel the king, the prophecy that his mother taught him." Ch. 31 : 1-9. " Lemuel" is perhaps a symbolical name for Solomon— i. e., he who is turned to God.
(h) An alphabetical poem in praise of a virtuous woman. Ch. 31 : 10-31. A real gem.
2. Poetic Form. —The poetic structure of the Proverbs is that of Hebrew parallelism in its various forms. They consist of single, double, triple, or more couplets, the members corresponding to each other in sense and diction, either synonymously or antithetically. De-litzsch calls them two-liners, four-liners, six-liners, eight-liners. The first section, chs. 10-22 : 16, contains exclusively two-liners. Besides these, there are a few three-liners, five-liners, and seven-liners, where the odd line is either a repetition of or a reason for the idea expressed in the first lines. A few specimens will make this clear.
(o) Single synonymous couplets:
*'My son, forget not my law:
And let thv heart "keep my commandments.— "—Ch. 3:1.
"Whom Jehovah loveth he correcteth :
Even as a father the son in whom he delighteth."— Ch. 3:12.
"Blessed the man who finds wisdom:
And the man who obtains understand-ing."-CH. 3:13.
(b) Single antithetic couplets:
"A wise son maketh a grlad father:
But a foolish son is the grief of his mother."— Ch. 10 :1.
"Hatred stirreth up strifes: But love covereth all sins."
Ch. 10 : 12.
"The wages of the righteous is life: The gain of the wicked is sin."
Ch. 10 : 16.
3. Author. —No doubt Solomon is the chief, but not the sole, author. He bears
the same relation to the Proverbs as David does to the Psalms. He struck the keynote of proverbial poetry and philosophy, as David did of Hebrew psalmody. He was very famous as a composer of proverbs. 1 Kgs. 4 : 29-34. Yet many of his ''three thousand proverbs " were lost, and, on the other hand, the Proverbs of our canon contain various collections of a later date. The compilation was probably made at the time of Hezekiah. Ch. 25 : 1.
4. Value. — The Proverbs contain a vast amount of wholesome lessons for all times. They have furnished the richest contributions to the proverbial dictionaries of all Christian nations.
The proverbs of the Bible are far superior to those of any other collection of the kind, such as the Sayings of the Seven Wise Men of Greece, the Aurea Carminu, attributed to Pythagoras, the Remains of the Poetpe Gnomici, the collection of Arabic proverbs. They bear the stamp of divine wisdom and inspiration. They abound in polished and sparkling gems. They contain the practical wisdom (chokma) of Israel. They trace wisdom to its true source, the fear of Jehovah. Ch. 1 : 7. Nothing can be finer than the description of Wisdom in the eighth chapter, where she is personified as the eternal companion and delight of God, and commended beyond all earthly treasures, ch. 8 : 11-21, 34, 35:
"Wisdom is better than rubies,
And no precious things compare witn her.
" I, Wisdom, dwell with prudence,
And find out knowledge of wise counsels.
"The fear of Jehovah is to hate evil; Pride, haughtiness, and an evil way, And a perverse mouth, do I hate.
" Counsel is mine, and reflection ;
I am understanding; I have strength.
"By me kings reign.
And princes decree justice; By me princes rule,
And nobles, even all the judges of the earth.
"I love them that love me; '
And they that seek me early shall find me.
"Riches and honor are with me.
Yea, enduring riches and righteousness.
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"My fruit is better than gold, yea than refined gold; And my increase than choice silver.
"I walk in the way of righteousness,
In the midst of the path of rectitude ;
To ensure abundance to those that love me, And to fill their storehouse. . . .
"Blessed is the man that heareth me, AVatching daily at my gates, Waiting at the posts of my doors!
For whosoever findeth me findeth life; And shall obtain favor from Jehovah."
The description of the model Hebrew woman in her domestic and social relations, ch. 31 : 10-31 (in the acrostic form), has no parallel for truthfulness and beauty in all ancient literature, and j forms the appropriate close of this book { of practical wisdom ; for from the family, j of which woman is the presiding genius, spring private and public virtue and national prosperity.
PROVINCE is used in the sense of "tribe" in 1 Kgs. 20 : 14, 15, 17.
PROVOKE', literally, to ''call forth;" hence, "to challenge," "incite." In this sense used in the A. V. of 1 Chr. 21 : 1; Rom. 10 : 19; 11 : 11, 14; 2 Cor. 9:2: Heb. 10 : 24.
PSALMS, THE BOOK OF. A psalm, from a Greek word signifying " to strike the lyre," " to play," " to sing," is a lyric poem of religious character and aim—a song in praise of God. The collection, or rather series of collections, of Hebrew Psalms is called in the Hebrew Bible " Praises," or '*' Book of Praises," praise of God being the predominant character even of the Psalms of repentance and sorrow ; in the Septu-agint, " Psalms " or " Psalter," a stringed instrument on which the accompaniment was played ; and in the N. T., " Psalms " or " The Book of Psalms." In our canon it occupies the principal place among the poetical books, preceded by Job and followed by the Solomonic writings. This collection of one hundred and fifty Psalms forms the first hymn-book for public worship, and is even to this day in more general use among all churches as a manual of private devotion and public worship than any Christian hymn-book. This fact is the best vindication of the Psalms against faultfinding writers.
Divi'fiion of the Psalms. —In the Hebrew Bible the Psalms are divided into
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five distinct collections or books. The close of each is indicated by a doxology and a double '■ Amen," which were added, not by the authors, but by the collectors for liturgical purposes. Book I. contains forty-one Psalms, of which thirty-seven are of David and four anonymous — viz., 1, 2, 10, and 33. Book II. contains thirty-one Psalms— from 42 to 72—by different authors: seven by the sons of Korah, one by Asaph, nineteen by David, three anonymous, and one by Solomon or for Solomon, after which the note is appended, " The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are ended." Ps, 72 : 20. Book III. contains seventeen Psalms—from 73 to 89 : eleven by Asaph, four by the sons of Korah, one by David (86), and one by Ethan the Ezrahite (89). Book lY. contains seventeen Psalms—from 90 to 106 : one by Moses (90), two by David (101 and 103), the rest anonymous. Book V. contains forty-four Psalms—from 107 to 150 : fifteen of David, one of Solomon, and the rest anonymous, including the fifteen Songs of Degrees, or pilgrim songs (120-134), and closing with the Hallelujah Psalms (146-150).
This division is traced back to the time of Nehemiah, as in 1 Chr. 16 : 35, 36 there is a free quotation from the concluding doxology of the fourth book. Ps. 106 : 47, 48. It is marked in the Septuagint, and mentioned but rejected by some of the Fathers, as opposed to the authority of the apostle, who speaks of the " Book of Psalms." Acts 1: 20. The principle has been variously stated as an analogy to the five Books of Moses, as a chronological order, as an arrangement by authors, by contents, for liturgical purposes, etc. It seems, however, that the grouping of the Psalms was not controlled by any one principle exclusively, though, on the other hand, the division shows too much method to be considered arbitrary or accidental. The collectors probably so arranged the Psalms as to combine historical, dogmatic, and liturgical order with convenience for public tise—much in the same manner as many Christian hymn-books combine the order of subjects with that of the festivals of the church-year, sacrificing merely logical consistency to practical convenience. Minor collections were made at diflferent times—such as the
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Korahite selection, the " Pilgrim Songs," Songs of Degrees, the Hallelujah Psalms —and were afterward incorporated in the larger divisions. A few Psalms are repeated with some variations in different books—viz.. 14 and 53; the latter part of 40 and 70; 57, 60, and 108—which proves that the hve books were originally separate collections. The time of the final completion of the collection cannot be positively fixed; the last two collections must have been made after the Captivity, as is shown by the style and subject of liome of the Psalms included in them. The whole collection was probably completed at the time of Ezra. At all events, the present Psalter is a gradual work, and reflects the piety of several generations—from the golden age of the theocracy to the return from exile.
The Inscriptions. — All the Psalms, with the exception of thirty-four, which in the Talmud are called " Orphan Psalms," have titles or superscriptions which in the Hebrew text are numbered as verse 1, while in the English Version they are more properly separated from the text and printed in small type as headings. Some also regard the phrase "Hallelujah, Praise ye the Lord!" at the beginning of several Psalms as a title, and thus reduce the nuftiber of Psalms without titles to twenty-four. The origin of these titles is unknown. They were probably added by the collectors of the several books, and resemble in this respect the headings of the Gospels and the subscriptions at the close of the Epistles in the N. T. They are, however, of great antiquity, and often of much value for the interpretation. They are found in all the Hebrew manuscripts, and embody the popular traditions concerning the authorship, historical occasion, musical character, etc., prior to the Greek translation. In some instances their meaning has been lost, and the Septuagint does not even attempt a translation ; but, so far as we are able to interpret them, they give us valuable information about the authors —David, Asaph, the sons of Korah, etc.; the particular kind of poem ; the musical and liturgical character j the particular instrument used for accompaniment; the historical and personal occasion, etc. Notices of the last kind, however, occur
only in the Psalms of David, and refer mostly to events in his life. Many of them arc copied, word for word, from the historical books. Comp. Ps. 52 with 1 Sam. 22 : y : Ps. 54 with 1 Sam. 23 : 19 ; Ps. 56 with I Sam. 21 : 11-15. Much dispute has been occasioned by the term " Selah," which is not found in the inscriptions, but in the body of the Psalms ; but most probably it gives simply a musical direction.
Character of the Pxahits. —It is a remarkable fact that the Psalms, written by pious Jews centuries before Christ, have been used in the Christian Church down to this day for the highest purposes of devotion, and that they answer this object now as well as ever, among Greeks, Latins, and Protestants of all names. Some denominations in Scotland and the United States to this day use them almost exclusively in public worship. AVe can ask for no stronger proof of the inspiration of the Psalms. They spring from the deep fountains of the human heart in its intercourse with God. They express the general religious feelings of thanks and praise, of repentance, grief, despondency, hope, and joy; and they do this in such a manner as to find an echo in every pious soul in every age and in every clime. It is true we cannot always feel the full force of every Psalm, and often we would like to know more of the particular situation out of which it has grown, in order that we may understand all its details. The Psalms are poems, and, like other poems, they require a corresponding state of feeling in order to open u]) their whole inner meaning. Some Psalms can only be appreciated in seasons of peculiar trial and distress; others only in times of persecution from without: still others only on occasions of festive joy and exaltation. But the more varied our religious experience is, the more we wonder at the fertility and applicability of the Psalms to all conditions of life. Hence no books of the Bible, except the Gospels, have taken such a hold upon the heart of Christendom as have the Psalms. For centuries they were the only hymn-book and prayer-book of the Jewish and Christian Churches. They have suggested many of the noblest Christian hymns. They are to this day indispensable feeders of public and