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tial families, he became the head of a formidable party, and maintained a correspondence with the nobles of Judah adverse to the interests of Nehemiah and his party, and even descended to threats, expecting by these to deter him from the prosecution of his purpose. During the absence of Nehemiah from Jerusalem, Tobiah obtained apartments in the temple for his private residence; but Nehemiah, as soon as he returned to Jerusalem, expelled him and his furniture from the holy place, and ordered the chamber which had been thus desecrated to be thoroughly cleansed. Neh. 2 : 10. etc.
TOBI'JAH (i/oodiiess of Jehovah). 1. A Levite sent out through Judah by Jehoshaphat to teach the Law. I Chr. 17:8.
2. One to whom a memorial crown was given by the prophet. Zech. 6:10, 14.
TO'BIT (viy (jooduess; contracted from goodness of Jehovah), the hero of the book named below.
TO'BIT, BOOK OF, one of the most interesting of the Apocrypha of the 0. T., but devoid of historical value and plainly a romance. The story of Tobit may be thus given. He was a Naphta-lite who remained faithful to the temple-service amidst the defection of his countrymen, but, notwithstanding, he shared with them in their misfortunes and was carried to Nineveh by Shalmanezer. His wealth and his position at court gave him opportunity to help his people and thus win their regard, and for a time his life was enviable. But a change of rulers changed his fortune. When Sennacherib came to the throne, he was compelled to flee from the king's wrath at his conduct in burying the Jews whom the king had killed. All his property was confiscated. But on the entreaty of a nephew, the new king, Esarhaddon, who succeeded Sennacherib, allowed him to return to Nineveh. Shortly thereafter he lost his eyesight through the injury his opened ejes received from the warm swallows' dung which fell upon them, causing albugo—/. e., white, hard flakes on the eyes, which are of greater or less extent, and not transparent. A quarrel with his wife about a kid led to her reproaches, under which he wept grievously and in sorrow prayed. At this point the episode of Sarra, of 872
Ecbatana in Media, is introduced. She was the wife of seven who were successively killed on the wedding-night by Asraodaeus. Her prayer for death was made at the same time with Tobit's pra\'er for the same. " And Raphael was sent to heal them both "—that is, to scale away the white spots from Tobit's eyes—"and to give Sarra for a wife to Tobias the son of Tobit, and to bind Asmodfeus the wicked demon." This was thus brought about: Tobit sent his son to Media to recover some money lent in the days of his prosperity to one Gabael. He improved the occasion to give his son much good advice. The angel Raphael, in the guise of " Azarias, son of Ananias the great," saluted Tobias and made the journey in his company. The capture of a fish put in Tobias' hands the means of curing his father and ridding Sarra of the demon. His journey was eminently successful. He recovered the money loaned, married Sarra, to whom Raphael introduced him, and returned home with these treasures, greatly to the delight of Tobit, who had begun to be a little fearful for his safety. The book ends with the restoration of Tobit's eyesight and prosperity, his consequent psalm of gratitude, which is a worthy echo of the canonical Psalms and the best piece of writing in the book, and mention of the death of Tobit and Tobias.
The above narrative is plainly far beneath the dignity of Scripture, and study of the book leads to the discovery of many serious errors, not only historical, but moral, such as the meritoriousness of good works, a reliance upon angels, and a belief in demons. The book is indeed a romance, a good specimen of its class, but devoid of probability and in part based upon Job.
The author of the book was undoubtedly a Jew. and probably one who lived in the far East. Critics are much divided in regard to the time of composition. Various dates, from B. c. 333 to A. D. 250, have been assigned to it, but it may perhaps with most reason be set down to the period near the close of the Macca-ba?an wars.
TO'CHEN" (a measure), a place in Simeon, 1 Chr. 4 : 32 ; not identified.
TOGAR'MAH, a descendant of Japheth. Gen. 10 : 3.
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TOGAR'MAH, the name of a people descended from the race of Gomer, the Cimmerians, and remotely from Ja-pheth. Gen. 10 : .}; 1 Chr. 1 : (5. The " house " or race of Togarmah are mentioned in Eze. 38 : 0, with their swarms of mercenary troops, as belonging to the extreme north. In Eze. 27 : 14. Togarmah is described as furnishing horses and mules to the Tyrian markets. Hence, Togarmah seems to be Armenia, derived from Thorgom, a descendant of Gomer, according to tradition, and rich in horses. See Armknia.
TO'HU. 1 Sam. 1 : 1. See Toah.
TO'I {wauden'iifj), king of Hamath, 2 Sam. 8:9, 10; called Tou in 1 Chr. 18 : 9, 10.
TO'LA {worm). 1. Eldest child of Issachar, progenitor of the Tolaites. Gen. 46 : 13; Num. 28 : 23; 1 Chr. 7 : 1, 2.
Israel, Abimelech's twenty-three years.
2. A judge of successor; judged Jud. 10 : 1. 2.
TO'LAD (birth of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:
, a city in the South 29. See El-tolad.
TO'LAITES, descendants of Tola. Num. 26 : 23.
TOLL. In Ezr. 4 : 13; 7 : 24 there is mention of " toll, tribute, and custom " as the three branches of the Persian king's revenue from the Jews. The " tribute " was the money-tax imposed on each province, and apportioned out to the inhabitants by the local authorities. The "custom," or provision, was the payment in kind, which was an integral part of the Persian system. The " toll" was probably a payment required of those who used the bridges, fords, and Persian highways. See Taxks, Tribute.
TOMB. Matt. 27 : 60. See Burial.
TONGUES, CONFU'SION OF. Originally "the whole earth was of one language and of one speech." Gen. 11: 1. This biblical statement is confirmed by the researches of philologists, which show a great resemblance between the different families of languages spoken by the descendants of the Babel-builders. The Bible states that the present differences are due to the divine intervention. God confused the speech of the builders, so that they were obliged to abandon their work, thus forestalling "the wide dialectical differences which ordinarily
require time and difference of place and habits to mature."— Fatisset. See Lan-gua(;k.
TONGUES, GIFT OF, one of
the mysterious phenomena connected with the work of the apostles. It belongs to the miraculous gifts which adorned the primitive age of the Church. Our Lord, immediately before his ascension, promised his disciples that they should speak with new tuiu/iies. Mark 16 : 17. This promise had the beginning of its fulfilment on the day of Pentecost. Acts 2. We must, however, distinguish between the proper eHsence of this speaking with tongues, as a gift of the apostolic Church in general, and the particular form under which it made its first appearance on that day. Only in this way can we understand 1 Cor. 14. Luke does not describe as a common event the phenomenon of Pentecost, nor was that wondrous scene repeated in the house of Cornelius. Acts 10 : 46. Pentecost stands alone, and the subsequent gift of tongues must be looked upon as a different manifestation of one and the same Spirit. This can be made evident.
1. The tongues of Pentecost were tongues like flames of fire. Their coming upon the disciples was preceded by violent noises. It seemed a literal possession. They spoke involuntarily, and with strange power. But in the Corinthian church there was no such thing. The speaking took place in the meetings of the church. It was done quietly. It came in as part of the service. It could be omitted or suppressed. 1 Cor. 14 : 28.
2. On Pentecost the disciples spoke strange languages, understood by those to whom they were native. Acts 2 : 6. The words employed plainly indicate that the miracle was with the disciples. But in the Corinthian church the words spoken under this influence were tiot understood until the speaker had himself interpreted his words or been interpreted. 1 Cor. 14 : 13, 27.
We may, however, find resemblances between the Pentecostal phenomenon and those in the Corinthian church. In each case the speaking with tongues was primarily an address to God, and )i(it to men. It was an act of worship, performed, not to impress unbelievers, but out of the joy of their hearts. Acts 2:4; cf. V. 6 ; 1 Cor. 14 : 26. Again, it ap-
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peared to unfriendly or listless hearers as madness or intoxication. Acts 2:13; 1 Cor. 14 : 23. To those who understood, however, the speaking was edifying.
It should be remarked that the Corinthians were by no means the only Christians who enjoyed this spiritual gift of utterance. It formed, indeed, part of the work of the Spirit upon these primitive believers. See Acts 10 : 46. Nor did it die out in the first century. Irenaeus, a father of the latter half of the second century, writes : '* We hear many brethren in the church, having prophetical gifts, and by the Spirit speaking in all kinds of languages." We define this phenomenon, in the case of these Christians, as an involuntary praying or singing in an ecstatic state in which the Holy Ghost rules the human mind and plays, as it were, upon it as an instrument. " Vehemently boi-ne along by the Spirit, forgetting the world and himself, enraptured in the immediate enjoyment of the Deity, the speaker with tongues broke forth in a communication of divine mj'steries or a song of praise for the wonderful works of eternal love." The interpretation of this strange speech could be made only b,y those in a similar ecstasy. St. Paul advises that where there is no interpreter there be no such speaking.
It will be seen that we hold the ability of speaking in a foreign language without any study therein was not part of this gift of tongues; that was done only on Pentecost. Paul was a master in speaking with tongues, but he was ignorant of the language of Lycaonia. Acts 14:11-14, There is a primitive and reliable tradition that Peter used Mark as his interpreter in Piome. The fact of the Greek language being so widespread precluded the necessity of such miraculous power. The instances of the " speaking " cited in the X. T. are all of one description—not evangelistic, but declarative: Christian to Christian, not to foreigner. Indeed, the expression "' to speak with 7iew tongues' seems of itself not to point to foreign dialects—for they were not new—but to a language different from all dialects in use, a language of the new Spirit poured out upon the disciples."
In modern times, in the congregation of the Rev. Edward Irving, in London, 874
1830, there was a marvellous phenomenon similar in some respects to that described in 1 Cor. 14. It continued for some time in connection with prophetic utterances. Out of the excitement it caused grew the so-called Catholic Apostolic Church, of which Mr. Irving was first leader, although it was not fully organized till after his death.
TOOTH. The law of retaliation allowed the Jewish magistrate to give to one who had been deprived of a tooth or an eye the tooth or eye of the aggressor in revenge. Ex. 21 : 24. The Jews construed this law to justify private revenge, and this construction and the whole principle of the law were condemned by our Saviour, and the law of forJoearance and forgiveness commended. Matt. 5 : 39. Cleanness of teeth is a figurative expression for famine. Am. 4 : 6. Gnashing the teeth indicates terror, rage, and despair. Matt. 8 : 12. The phrase in Eze. 18 : 2 denotes that the children suffer for the sins of their fathers.
TO'PAZ. Eze. 28 : 13 ; Rev. 21 : 20. It seems quite agreed that this was the modern chrysolite, a rather soft and transparent or translucent gem, usually of a pale green. It is also caWed 2)eridot and olivine.
The true topaz is ordinarily- pellucid and of a yellowish tint, but sometimes of a brown, blue, or green hue, or even colorless. A single gem of this kind has been sold (it is said) for upwards of $1,000,000. The finest specimens are found in the East Indies,
The " topaz of Ethiopia," Job 28 : 19, or Southern Arabia (see Ethiopia), was probably distinguished for its beauty and value. That the most precious stones were once found there profane history asserts.
TO'PHEL (lime), a place east of the Arabah. Deut. 1:1. It is identical with the TdfUeh of Robinson, a large village with about six hundred houses, a little south-east of the Dead Sea. Numerous springs and rivulets and plantations of fruit trees—apples, apricots, figs, pomegranates, and olives— make the place very attractive, and it might naturally be selected as a land-
TO'PHET, and once TO'-PHETH. 2 Kgs. 23 : 10. Various interpretations are given: ''drum," *'gar-
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den," " place of burning " or " burying," "abomination." " pleasant," and " tabret-grove." Toj)het was in " the valley of the son of ilinnom," which is " by the entry of the east gate." 2 Kgs. 23 : 10. Hence it \iiy in the valley, east or south of Jerusalem, and the supposition is that it was originally a beautiful place, watered from the pool of Siloam, a part of the king's garden, and perhaps a music- or tabret-garden. But afterward it became polluted by abominable idolatrous rites, sacrifices to Baal and Moloch, Jer. 7 : 31, 32 ; 19 : 13 : was made a receptacle for all the filth of the city ; fires were kept burning to destroy the refuse; and hence "Tophet" became the synonym for the place of punishment and for fearful judgments. Jer. 19 : 0, 11-14. In the terrific wars waged around Jerusalem, Tophet became the receptacle for innumerable dead bodies. Isa. 30 : 33. See IIiNXOM.
TORCH'ES. John 18 : 3. Resinous wood, or the twisted fibres of wool or flax saturated with inflammable matter, served for torches, and in some parts of the Old World at this day the like substances are borne aloft in iron frames.
TORMENT'ORS. This probably means the keepers of the prison, who were often employed to torture criminals in various wavs. Matt. 18 : 34.
TOR'TOISE. This translation, Lev. 11: 29, is doubtful. Bochart's view has most adherents—that the creature intended was the dhabb of the Arabs, a slow-moving lizard, sometimes attaining the length of 2 feet, and found in the Syrian and Arabian wilderness. The Septuagint has, in place of ''tortoise," "land-crocodile," but this reptile seems to be meant by the **chameleon" of the next verse. A large land-tortoise is found in all these regions, and, like the dhabh. is eaten by the natives. There is also in Palestine a water-tortoise.
TO'U. 1 Chr. 18 : it. See Toi.
TOVV% the coarse part of flax. Jud. 16 : 9. See Flax.
TOWER. xMatt. 21 : 33. Towers were common in vineyards, Isa. 5 : 2, and are often seen at the present day. They are sometimes 30 feet square and 60 feet high, and are a kind of pleasure-house, serving as a shelter for the watchmen and as a summer retreat for the
owner, aff'ording an extensive prospect and fresh air.
TOWER OF BABEL. See
Bahki., Towkr 01', Lan(;ua(;k, Tonguks, com'usion of.
TOWER OF EDAR,(;en.35:21, OR TOWER OF THE FLOCK,
as it is called in Mic. 4: S. This is supposed to have been a particular tower about a mile from Bethlehem, and to have been erected, like other towers, for the use of shepherds and herdsmen to superintend their flocks and descry the approach of danger. 2 Chr. 26 : 10. Some have supposed that the jilirase '' tower of the flock " had prophetic reference to Betlilehem as the birthplace of the Saviour.
TOWER OF SHE'CHEM. This seems to have been a very strong and spacious citadel overlooking the town of Shechem, to which the inhabitants fled for refuge when the town was besieged by Abimelech. Fearing that this would not protect them, they escaped to the temple of one of tlieir idol-gods, which was also fortified, and the supposed sanctity of which they hoped would deter Abimelech from attacking it; but he surrounded it with fire made of green boughs, and burned or suff'oca-ted the whole multitude. Jud. 9 : 46. See MiLLO, House of.
TOWER OF SILOAM, supposed to have been a high structure erected near the fountain or pool of Si-loam. Luke 13 : 4. Christ's reference to its destructive fall shows how far he rose above the current superstition which considered individual misfortunes as individual ])unishments.
TOWN-CLERK, an ofiice of rank and dignity in Ejdiesus, as is evident from the conduct of this functionary as recorded in Acts 19 : 35, 41. lie appears to have been the keeper of the archives of the city, presided over municipal gatherings, put matters to vote, and performed the duties of the chief magistrate when the latter was away. The speech which the town-clerk delivered on the occasion referred to was ver3' ingenious, revealing great tact and ability to subdue popular excitement.
TOWNS. See Citiks.
TRACHONI'TIS {a rwjijed rc-f/ioii), one of the five Roman provinces into which the district north-cast of the
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Jordan was divided in N. T, times. It lay to the east of Iturfea and Gaulonitis and to the south of Damascus, and included the remarkable region of the modern Lejah (see Argob) and part of the western slopes of Jehel Hauran. The emperor Augustus entrusted it to Herod the Great on the condition that he should clear it of robbers. Herod Philip succeeded to the tetrarchy. Luke 3 : 1. He died A. D. 33, and the emperor Caligula bestowed the province of Trachonitis upon Herod Agrippa I. Later it was part of the dominions of Herod Agrippa II., A. D. 53.
TRADI'TIOIV, a precept or custom not contained in the written law, but handed down from generation to generation. Matt. 15 : 2. The Jews maintain that God gave Moses, besides the law which we have in the 0. T., a variety of precepts, which he made known to Joshua, by whom they were communicated to the elders, and by them to the judges, prophets, etc.; that they were finally collected from various sources and recorded in what is called the Talmud, which see. Many of their traditions were in direct opposition to the law of God, a striking example of which is given by our Saviour in connection with the passage above cited. There were, however, a variety of traditions or doctrines and precepts which persons divinely inspired taught by word of mouth. 2 Thess. 2:15 and 3 : 6. The only way in which we can know satisfactorily that any tradition is of divine authority is by its having a place in those writings which are generally acknowledged to be the genuine productions of inspired men. All traditions which have not such authority are without value, and tend greatly to distract and mislead the rninds of men.
TRANCE. This word occurs only twice in the 0. T., Num. 24 : 4, 16, and in both instances is supplied by the translators, and not found in the original. In the A. V. of the N. T. it occurs three times. Acts 10 : 10; 11 : 5; 22 : 17. The word is translated elsewhere by " astonishniient," " amazement." Mark 5:42; Luke 5 : 26. The word fetymologically denotes a state of mind in which external objects are entirely unnoticed and forgotten, and the soul seems for the time to have pass-876
ed out of the body, and to be occupied in purely spiritual contemplations. This state may sometimes be the effect of natural causes; but in the case of Peter there was an interposition of supernatural power.
TRANSFIGURATION, THE. This event marks the culminating-point in Christ's life. It is recorded almost in the same words by the three svnoptists. Matt. 17 : 1-13 : Mark 9 : 2-13 ; Luke 9 : 28-36, but John characteristically omits all mention of it. The term denotes a change of aspect or appearance, not of substance or body. The change was seen in the face of the Redeemer and in his apparel. It was exceedingly majestic and glorious, and is particularly described bv the evangelists and alluded to by Peter.' 2 Pet. 1 : 16-18. The design of this miraculous event was manifold, but chiefly to attest in the most solemn and mysterious manner the divinity of the Messiah's person and mission; to support the faith of the disciples by evidence of the existence of a separate state, which was furnished by the appearance and conversation of Moses and Elias : and as showing, by the audible declaration of the Father, a broad distinction between this Prophet and all others: '" This is my beloved Son, hear ye him." The j)lace of the Transfiguration was probably the southern slope of Hermon, as it occurred a few days after the confession of Peter at Caesarea-Philippi, which lay at the foot of Mount Hermon. and on the eve of Christ's last journej' to Jerusalem. Mount Tabor, the traditional site, does not answer the conditions. Its summit was then a fortified and occupied camp.
The time of the event was most likely the night, as then it could be better seen ; besides, the disciples were awakened by the light. Again, it was the next day before they descended. Luke 9 : 37. Peter, James, and John were the sole spectators; our Lord, Moses, and Elijah, the actors. It was partly an objective appearance, partlv a spiritual vision.
TRANSGRES'SION. Heb. 2 : 2. The two words ''transgression" and " disobedience " used in this passage are by common usage nearly synonymous. The former may be considered as passing over the bounds prescribed by a law, or doing the things we ought not to do, and
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" disobedience " as a refusal to do what it enjoins, or not doinj; the things wc ought to do. The two words are here united, so that every violation of the command may be included.
TREASURE-CITIES. Ex. 1 : 11, TREASURE-HOUSES. Ezr. 5 : 17. The kings of Judah had keepers of their treasure both in city and countr}', 1 Chr. 27 : 25, and the towns where these treasures were deposited were called "treasure-cities," and the magazines or houses for their safekeeping were called " treasure-houses." See
PlTHOif.
TREAS'URY, John 8 : 20, TREAS'URIES, 1 Chr. 9 : 26, the place in the temple where gifts were received. See Temple.
TREE OF KNOWLEDGE. Gen. 2 : 9. See Adam.
TRES'PASS usually denotes an offence committed against or an injury done to another. Lev. 6:2. It implies a departure from duty in respect to God or man. Matt. 6:15.
TRE S'P AS S-O F'F E RING. Lev. 5 : 6. See Offering.
TRI'AIj. Judicial procedure was usually very swift and simple; no such formalities as are common with us could have existed in the patriarchal or the Mosaic days. The patriarchs were the natural guardians of the public peace. When the Israelites had multiplied into a great nation and were living in the wilderness, Moses found his attempted imitation of the patriarchal judgeship was too laborious, and therefore gladly adopted the suggestion of Jethro and appointed inferior judges for minor cases. Ex. 18 : 13-26: Deut. 1 : 9-17. There is an appearance of appellate courts in Judah in the days of Jehosh-aphat. Originally, it is probable, each man or woman pleaded for himself or herself; but when the Jews passed under the Roman domain, they were required to hire pleaders. Acts 24 : 1-9. Judges are repeatedly exhorted to act justly. Deut. 16 : 18, 19; Isa. 1 : 2.3, 24; Luke
18 : 1-6. In criminal cases at least two witnesses were necessary. Deut. 17 : 6 ;
19 : 15. If the witnesses swore falsely, then they were to be punished as the accused would have been had he been guilty. Deut. 19 : 16-21. The cases of Christ and Stephen illustrated how short
an interval elapsed between sentence and execution.
TRIBE. The ])ostcrity of each of the twelve sons of Jacob is called a tribe. Ephraim and Manasseh, the sons of Joseph, founded, Gen. 48 : 5, two tribes, and are therefore mentioned in the list of the families in Num. 26 : 28. In the distribution of the Promised Land, however, only twelve shares were made, for the tribe of Levi were to minister in the tcmj)le and to be supi)orted by the contributions of the rest. See Levites, Tithes, etc. The twelve tribes continued to be one people until after the death of Solomon, when ten of them revolted and became a separate monarchy under Jeroboam, and were called the kingdom of Israel, leaving the tribes of Benjamin and Judah under the government of Rehoboara, with the name of the kingdom of Judah. See Hebrews, Israel, Kingdom of, Judah, Kingdom of.
Each was headed by a prince—an arrangement which lasted, it would seem, during the monarchy. Num. 1 : 16; cf. 1 Chr. 27 : 22. The tribes possessed considerable independence ; they were a confederacy rather than a union. Thus thev waged wars separately. Jud. 1:3; 1 Chr. 4 : 41, 43: 5 : 10, "18-22. The judges were, in some instances at least, of only local jurisdiction. The period preceding the monarchy contained more than one outbreak of hereditary jealousy between the tribes, especially between the powerful tribes of Judah and Ephraim, 2 Sam. 2 : 4-9 ; 19 : 41-43, in so much that it was deemed best to anoint Rehoboam in Shechem. 1 Kgs. 12 : 1. We see further confirmation of this state of feeling in the fact that when the disruption took place the rallying-cry of the ten tribes was " 0 Israel!" as if this shout was territorially understood.
The tribal idea is kept up in the N. T. Our Lord appointed twelve apostles, and in the Revelation the seer of Patmos carries the division into heaven itself in the number of the seals, the gates, and the foundation. Rev. 7 : 4-8: 21 : 10-21.
The names of the twelve tribes were, arranged al{)habetically and not according to seniority : Asher, Benjamin, Dan, Ephraim, Gail, Issachar, .Tudah, Manasseh, Naphtali, Reuben, Simeon, Zebu-
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lun. The tribe of Levi, as already remarked, was scattered among the other tribes.
TRIBES. Characteristics and Prnmi)tent Members of each of the Twelve Tribes. —In this article will be contained in a condensed form information about each tribe additional to and of a different kind from that given under the respective titles, which see.
Asher. — The tribe of Asher was descended from the eighth son of Jacob, the second son of Zilpah, Leah's maid. The name means " happy," in reference to Leah's feeling at his birth. Gen. 30 :
12, 13. Our definite knowledge of Asher is of the slightest. Four sons and one daughter, besides two grandchildren, accompanied him into Egypt. Gen. 46 : 17, 18. He stood in the remarkable group around Jacob's deathbed, and received the promise of a fruitful land: " Out of Asher his bread shall be fat, and he shall ^ield royal dainties." Gen. 49 : 20. The tribe went out of Egypt under Moses, and sent its spy from Kadesh-barnea. Num. 13 :
13. Its position on the march was between Dan and Naphtali, on the north side of the tabernacle. Num. 2 : 27. The territory of Asher has already' been described. See Asher. It is noticeable that the blessing of Moses. Dent. 33 : 24, 25, like that of Jacob, related merely to fruitfulness and general prosperity, so the tribe was never distinguished for mental qualities, although it was possessed of a rich territory and increased very rapidly. Comp. Num. 1 : 40 with 26 :"47. With the exception of Simeon, it is the only tribe west of the Jordan which furnished no hero or judge to the nation; the prophetess Anna, however, was an Asherite. Luke
2 : 36.
Benjamin. —As in the case of Asher, so with Benjamin, the prophetic blessing of Jacob was fulfilled. Gen. 49 : 27. Fierceness, courage, cunning, and ambition were tribal traits. On the other hand, it was not distinguished for zeal for Jehovah, like the tribe of Levi. The fact that the tribe produced Ehud, Jud.
3 : 15; Saul, 1 Sam. 9:1: Shimei. 2 Sam. 19 : 16, and the nameless hut infamous libertines of Gibeah, Jud. 19. shows that Benjamin was all thiongli its history inclined to lawless conduct.
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But there is a light upon the dark cloud. Out of Benjamin came Mordecai, the deliverer of the Jews, Esth. 2 : 5, and no Christian can utterly condemn a people which produced, though late in its history, so grand a man and so great a leader as the apostle Paul. Rom. 11 :1 ; Phil. 3:5. As he was proud of his own Benjamite birth, we must give the tribe credit for some excellence, inasmuch as it produced one of Israel's first judges, her first king, and the great apostle to the uncircumcision. The political fortunes of Benjamin were linked with those of Judah, and cannot well be separated. But, although these two tribes were so closely united, they differed greatly. One minor but distinguishing characteristic was the prevalence of left-handed slingers. Jud. 20 : 16. The citj' of Jerusalem was partly on Benjamite territory. The tribe did not at first acknowledge the kingship of David, 2 Sam. 2 : 8, 9, although afterward the situation of the capital was a strong reason for fidelity to the Davidic kings.
Dan. —These descendants of Jacob's concubine Bilhah were admitted to full tribal standing. Gen. 49 : 16. Their great man is Samson. Jud. 13 : 2, 24. In numbers in the wilderness they ranked next to Judah, the largest of the tribes. Num. 1 : 38. It was the last tribe to receive its inheritance. Josh. 19 : 48 ; and, although among the largest tribes, it was assigned the smallest territory, and even all of that did riot come to them. The divine intention in this may have been to incite them to further conquests: at all events, this was the effect, for we soon find them sending out five men upon an expedition to the northward with a view tjo new settlements on their report. The city Laish was afterward taken by the tribe. Jud. 18. The chapter explains " the warlike and independent character of the tribe, betokened in the fact, specially insisted on and reiterated, 18 : 11, 16, 17, of the complete equipment of their six hundred warriors, and in the lawless and freebooting style of their behavior to Micah."
Ephraim. —This tribe was the great rival to Judah, the chief fomenter of trouble, and the staunch supporter of revolt from the voke of Rehoboam. It
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was energetic, restless, conscious of its strength, and full of conceit, wishing to have the lead in every matter. Ephraim and Manasseh were usually interested in the same enterprises, but the former, though really the smaller tribe, was the more important. Deut. 33 : 17. Ephraim acted badly toward every leader who did not take special pains to please them— e. </., toward Gideon, Jephthah, and David, Jud. 8 : 1 ; 12 : 1,: 2 Sam. 19 : 41-43. In one instance, however, they nobly interposed to clothe, feed, and restore to freedom their captive brethren of Ju-dah. 2 Chr. 28 : 9-15. The seventy-eighth Psalm was designed to soothe their tribal soreness at the transference of the religious capital from Shiloh to Jerusalem. David had numerous Ephraimites among his state-officers—e. g., 1 Chr. 27 : 10, 14, The political history of Ephraim after the disruption is treated under Israel, Kingdom of.
Gad. —One of the tribes on the east side of the Jordan, because predominantly shepherds, but who joined, according to agreement, in the Conquest. Josh. 1 : 16. They were very warlike, men of might and of war, fit for the battle, that could handle shield and buckler, whose faces were the faces of lions, and as swift as the roes upon the mountains. 1 Chr. 12 : 8. The tribe produced three men famous in different ways—Jephthah, the conqueror and judge, Jud. 11 : 1; Barzillai, the noble-hearted friend of David, 2 Sam. 17 : 27-29 ; 19 : 31-40 ; and that meteor, the prophet of evil, who appeared and de-jiarted so abruptly, Elijah, the man of (Jod. 1 Kgs. 17 : 1. The territory of Gad was for a long time the battlefield between Syria and Israel. 2 Kgs. 10 : 33. Tiglath-pileser finally carried Gad away ea])tive, and the Ammonites occupied their cities. 2 Kgs. 15 : 29 ,• 1 Chr. 5 : 26 ; Jer. 49 : 1.
hsachar. —The "blessing" of Jacob upon Issachar was rather equivocal : Issachar is a strong he-ass crouching down between the cattle-jtens, and he saw that rest was good, and the land that it was pleasant; and bowed his shoulder to bear, and became a slave unto tribute. The prophecy indicated an easy-going people who preferred
farming and agricnltunil hihors to political distinction, and wlm would purchase ease at the sacrifice of liberty. And the rich territory of the tribe favored just this life. However, it was not without national feeling, for it responded to the call of Deborah; indeed, some have supposed the battle took place in its tribal limits. Jud. 5 : 15, 19. In David's time it was able to furnish 145,000 soldiers. 1 Chr. 7 : 1-5. " The descendants of Issachar," says Dr. Kalisch, " were men of prudence and wise calculation. Having, therefore, gained abundant wealth and resolved to enjoy it, they pursued a domestic and foreign policy calculated to realize this end. Their shrewdness not only enabled them safely to keep aloof from all external dangers and ))eacefiilly to yield themselves to secure tranquillity, but to win the esteem and deference of the fraternal tribes by useful and valuable councils." Cf. 1 Chr. 12 : 2?,, 32. Issachar seems to have put itself under the protection of Zebulun. But the tribe produced some men of mark. Tola, one of the Judges, was of Issachar. Jud. 10 : 1, 2. The Omri who was prince of Issachar during David's reign may have been the forefather of the Omri who usurped the throne of Israel. 1 Chr. 27 : 18; 1 Kgs. 16 : 16. Baasha, another usurper, and a ferocious man, was also of Issachar. Some men of this tribe responded to the invitation of llezekiah, and, although not properly cleansed, partook of the Passover. 2 Chr. 30 : 18. Shortly after this came for them the Assyrian captivity.
Jndah. —See JiDAH, Tribe of, Kingdom OF.
Levi. —See Levite.
Maufisneh. —One of the largest of the northern tribes, and distinguished by its possession of territory on both sides of the Jordan. It did not, however, play a very prominent part, leaving the Icadershij) to Ephraim, with whom it shared. The ])r()minent men in Jewish history who were Manassites are the judges Gideon, Jud. 6: 11; Jair, 10 : 3; Jephthah. 11 : 1. Alanas-seh joined the side of Ish-boshefh, but finally submitted to David. 1 Chr. 12 : 31. After the disruption the people
TBI
TRO
followed the example of Ephraim, fell into idolatry, and so prepared the wa}"^ for their downfall. There were some, however, in the tribe of better mind, who came to Jerusalem to take part with their brethren in the religious revivals under Asa, 2 Chr. 15 : 9; Hezekiah, 30:1, 10, 11, 18; 31:1.; and Josiah. 34 : 6-9.
jVuphtali. —"A hind let loose, he giveth goodly words;" so does Jacob describe the tribe, indicating grace and eloquence. Barak is the most noted member of the tribe. The " hind " symbolized a swift warrior. 2 Sam. 2:18; 1 Chr. 12 : 8. In Barak these qualities come out. The song of Deborah is also his composition, and, as has been said, "Even if the tribe gave no other proof of its poetical genius, of the careful culture of the mind, and of the artistic conceptions of which it was capable, it amply deserved the encomium bestowed upon it that it uttered'goodly words' (words of beauty)." The territory of Naphtali belonged to the northern kingdom, and therefore was exposed to all its foes. Ben-hadad, king of Syria, plundered it, 1 Kgs. 15:20; Tiglath-pileser took the inhabitants captive. 2 Kgs. 16 : 29. But upon God's book of remembrance there stood his prophecy of a better day for Naphtali, Isa. 9:1, 2, and God, who " watches the turning of the ages," at last carried it out, and upon the hills of Naphtali walked the Light of the world. Matt. 4 : 3-16.
Reuben. —One of the trans-Jordanic tribes, but without a striking point in their history. They fell into idolatry, like their neighbors, were carried into captivity, 1 Chr. 5 : 26, and their territory was occupied bv Moab. Comp. Josh. 13 : 16-21 with Isa. 15.
Simeon. —Although one of the most numerous tribes at Sinai, Num. 1 : 23, they had become the smallest at Shittim. 26 : 14. They are altogether omitted from Moses' blessing. Both facts are to be traced to the same cause—the shameless conduct of the tribe in the matter of Baal-peor, in which they had the example of their chief. 25 : 14. Jacob foretold that Simeon would " be scattered in Israel," Gen. 49 : 7, and, as a matter of fact, it was so small that its lot was assigned "within the inheritance of the children of Judah," Josh. 880
19 : 1-9, although the ostensible reason was that " the part of . . . Judah was too much for them." "No eminent person is recorded as of this tribe, though the Jews have a tradition that it furnished schoolmasters to the rest of the nation." —Ayre.
Zehulun. —As already remarked, the fortunes of Issachar and Zebulun were closely united, as in Moses' blessing: "Rejoice, Zebulun, in thy going out; and, Issachar, in thy tents." Deut. 33 : 18. The tribe of Zebulun possessed the fisheries of Galilee's lake. Their bravery received the praise of Deborah. Jud. 5 : 18. Their most noted men were Elon, the judge, Jud. 12 : 11, 12, and Ibzan, his predecessor, but the great man was Jonah. 2 Kgs. 14 : 25.
TRIB'UTE, that which is paid to rulers in token of subjection and for the support of government. Gen. 49 : 15. By the Jewish law, Ex. 30 : 13, a tribute or capitation-tax was half a shekel, or twenty-five cents, which was expended in the temple-service. The conversation of our Saviour with Peter on the subject of paying this tribute-money was designed to show him that, being himself the Son of God, the King for whose service the tribute was paid, he might justly be exempted from paying it; but, to prevent any needless irritation on the part of the officers or nation, he by miraculous power provided the means of paying the required tribute, which amounted to fifty cents for both. Matt. 17 : 24.
TRO'AS, a city of Lesser Mysia, in the north-eastern part of Asia Minor, on the sea-coast, 6 miles south of the entrance to the Hellespont, and 4 miles south of the Homeric Troy. It stood on a gentle eminence, having Mount Ida behind it and the island of Tenedos in front. Alexandria Troas, as its name implies, owed its origin to Alexander the Great. He chose the site with his usual happy discernment, but did not live to cover it with buildings. These were built by Antigonus, whose name the city consequently^ bore for a short time. The city was improved by Lysimachus, the famous king of Thrace, and received a Roman colony during the reign of Augustus. It was to the Romans, in fact, that most of the buildings whose ruins still remain were due. Even the walls
TRO
TRU
were repaired and strengthened by them, and it was under their rule that the cotn-mereial prosperity of the city reached its height. Its port was excellent, and made Troas for many centuries the key of the commerce between Asia and Europe. Paul visited Troas twice, and perhaps three times. The first visit was on his second missionary journey. It was from Troas that, after the visit of the " man of Macedonia," he sailed to carry the gospel into Europe. Acts 16:8-11. On his return journey he stopped at Troas for eight days and restored Eutychus to life. Acts 20 : 5-10. Upon one visit he left his cloak and some books there. 2 Tim. 4: 13. Present Condition. —Troas is now an uf^er ruin. The walls can still be traced for a circuit of several miles. The exploration of the ruins is souiewhat fatiguing, as the ground is thickly strewn with stones and other fragments of ancient buildings, and planted with a forest of valonia oaks, whose branches make riding difficult and finding one's way still more so. Without a guide well acquainted with the place, it would be impossible to discover any road at all among the mazes of the wood. There are the remains of a gymnasium, 413 feet long and 224 feet wide. This structure Prof. A. II. Sayce describes (1880) as ''a vast ruin whose desolation was only equalled by the solitude of the forest in the midst of which it stood. It had the shape of a hall, with pilasters along the sides, in front of which must have risen the columns that supported the vaulted roof. The line of the hall was broken in the centre by four square apartments formerly adorned with marble pillars and cornices. The break had the appearance of a transept in a Gothic cathedral, the two cross-aisles being ejitereil through lofty arches, one of which still remains perfect. Within, all is a confused chaos of stone and brick, of fallen columns and disfigured ornaments. Only enough is left to tell us that the building was a gj'mnasium with baths attached. The Turks, who call it the Ihd Serai, or 'honey palace,' have long used it as an inexhaustible quarry for the neighboring villages, and repeated earthquakes have aided their endeavors to undermine the solid masonry of St. 56
Paul's contemporaries. At the northeastern angle of the building are a few ruined arches, which once supported an aqueduct, and at a little distance, among the trees, are the scanty reli(rs of a Doric temple.
" There are ruins of another lar^c building of brick, which belongs to the Roman period. All that now remains of it is a vaulted chamber of consiiler-able size, which opens into smaller chambers on each of its four sides. Above are other chambers, similarly vaulted, while the whole structure is surrounded by an enormous platform of brick. What its original use can have been is a matter of dispute. According to one conjecture, it wa:; a temple ; according to another, a bathhouse ; but neither conjecture is supported by the form and structure of the building. All we can say with certainty is that the present ruins re]»resent but a small part of the original edifice, the foundations of which can still be traced among the grass and brambles."
The harbor is blocked by a sand-bar. The place is now called E>!ki Staniboul, or ''Old Constantinople," and it is said that Constantine hesitated between Troas and Constantinople as the site of his capital.
TROGYL'LIUM, a town and cape on the western coast of Asia Minor, between Ephesus and the mouth of the Meander, opposite Samos, at the foot of Mount Mycale. Paul there spent a night on his third missionary journey. Acts 20 : 15. An anchorage a little east of the point is still called St. PauCn Port.
TROOP, BAND, often means a small body of marauders, as in (ien 49 : lit; 2 Sam. 22 : 30; Jer. 18 : 22j Mic. 5:1.
TROPH'IMUS {foHtcr-ohild), a native of Ephesus, Acts 21 : 29, and a convert to the faith of the gospel, probably under Paul's ministry. Acts 20: 4. He be<^ame one of the apostle's companions and helpers in missionary travels and lal)ors. 2 Tim. 4:20.
TROW, in Luke 17:0, means to " think," " believe."
TRl'M'PET. The trumpet dilTer-ed little from the horn, antl in particulars which are no longer discoverable. Ex. 19: ICi. The silver trumpets were
TRU
TYR
Trumpets.
used by the priests alone in publishing the approach of festivals and giving signals of war.
TRUMPETS, FEAST OF. This feast—enjoined Num. 29 : 1-6: Lev. 23 : 24—was the New Year's day of the civil year, coming on the first of Tisri (October), and was further called by the Rabbins "the birthday of the world," because in Tisri the late fruits were gathered and seed was sown. It was characterized by the use of both the straight trumpet and the cornet in the temple, by the blowing of trumpets everywhere, unless the festival fell on a Sabbath (in this case no trumpets were blown outside of the temple), and by the offering of a young bullock, a ram, and seven first-year lambs, with meat-offerings and a kid for a sin-offering in addition to the daily sacrifices and the eleven victims of the new moon, the ordinary feast of the first day of the month. It was one of the seven days of holy convocation. The feast differed from the other feasts of new moon, which also had their trumpet-blowings over the burnt-offerings, by its being a day of rest and service.
TRYFHE'NA, and TRYPHO'-SA, two women of Rome whom Paul commended for their zeal. Rom. 16 : 12.
TSEB'AOTH, LORDOF. This is a transliteration from the Hebrew which is more accurate than the common form " Sabaoth," which occurs in Rom. 9 : 29 ; Jas. 5 : 4. See Sabaoth.
TU'BALij fifth son of Japheth, whose descendants probably peopled a country lying south of the Caucasus, between the Black Sea and the Aranes, whose inhabitants were the Tibareni of the Greeks. Gen. 10 : 2. The Circassians, 882
who inhabit this region, are slave-dealers, and they of Tubal traded in the "persons of men." Eze. 27 : 13 ; 38 : 2; comp. Rev. 18 : 13.
TU'BAL-CAIN (hmnmer-blotcs of the smith ?), a son of Lamech by his wife Zillah. Gen. 4 : 22. He is said to have been an instructor of every artificer in brass (copper) and iron. Thus he was the original maker of tools.
TUR'BAN. See Clothes.
TURTLE-DOVE. The word "turtle," and words of similar sound in Latin and Hebrew, are imitative of the plaintive notes of several species of doves. Ps. 74 : 19. By the Jewish Law, the poor who could not afford a more costly sacrifice were permitted to bring two turtle-doves or two j'oung pigeons. Lev. 12 : 6-8. As the former are not domesticated and breed everywhere in prodigious numbers, this provision was a great boon to the needy. The outward circumstances of Christ's parents are thus indicated in Luke 2 : 24.
The turtle-dove is a bird of passage. Jer. 8:7; Cant. 2 : 12. Early in April, Palestine everywhere suddenly swarms with these creatures, while a few days before not one was to be found. The most common species ( Turtnr aitrt'tiis) also breeds in England and in many parts of Europe. The palm-turtle nests in the tree from which it is named, and therefore could have been obtained by Israel I in the valleys of the Sinaitic desert, I where this tree is found. The collared ; turtle is the only other species found in I Palestine. By reason of its pairing for j life and its unusual fidelity to its mate, this bird is the symbol of purity. See Dove.
TU'TORS means "guardians." Gal. 4:2.
TYCH'ICUS, a companion of Paul, Acts 20 : 4, and evidently a devoted and faithful disciple. Eph. 6': 21, 22; Col. 4 : 7 8 ' TYRAN'NUS (tyrant), the name of the Greek rhetorician of Ephesus in whose lecture-room Paul delivered discourses daily for two years. Acts 19 : 9. Paul and he must have occupied the same room at different hours. He may have been a convert.
TYRE, AND TY'RUS (Heb. Tsor, "rock;" Arabic Sitr), a celebrated city of Phoenicia, on the eastern coast of the
TYK
TYR
Mediterranean Sea, 21 miles south of Si-don, in lat. 33° 17' N.
Situation and Extent. —Tyre was situated upon what was originally an island, or perhaps two islands, about 1 mile long, and lying parallel to the shore at the distance of half a mile. There was also a city called " Palajtyrus " ("Old Tyre") upon the mainland. Pliny gives the circumference of the island Tyre at 2^ miles, and of the whole city, including Palietyrus, at 17 miles.
Histori/. —Phoenician and Greek traditions make Tyre a very ancient city. According to Herodotus, the priests at I'yre told him the city was founded B. c. 2750. The first Scripture mention is in the time of Joshua, b. c. 1-144, and it was then " a strong city." Josh. 19 : 29. It was coupled with the Zidonians. Jer. 47 : 4 ; Isa. 23 : 2, 4, 12 : Josh. 13 : 6 ; Eze. 32 : 30. The two cities Tyre and Sidon, being only 21 miles apart, were intimately associated. Indeed, Tyre must have included not only the city proper, but some of the adjacent country. See Phcexicia. Tyre, under King Hiram, held friendly relations with Israel, under David and Solomon. David's census extended thither to embrace the Jews. 2 Sam. 24 : 7. Tlie Tyrians furnished the timber for the temple and great buildings of Jerusalem. The cedars of Lebanon were floated from Tyre to Joppa. some 85 miles, and thence taken to Jerusalem. Tyrian artists also were skilful in the fine work required. As a reward for his services, Hiram was presented with twenty cities in Northern Galilee, but he was not well pleased with them and called them " Cabul" ("displeasing" or "despicable"). 2 Sam. 5: 11; 1 Kgs. 5:1; 7 : 13 ; 9:11, 12; 1 Chr. 14 : 1; 2 Chr. 2:2, 3, 11. Hiram and Solomon were also associated in commercial enterprises. 1 Kgs. 9 : 27 ; 10:11-22: 2 Chr. 8:17, 18; 9:21. From Tyre came the many fatal influences toward idolatry which corrupted the chosen people. See Zidon and Phoenicia. At a later period the friendly relations were changed to hostility. Tyre rejoiced in the distress of Israel, and God's prophet predicted the terrible overthrow of the proud heathen citv. Isa. 23 : 1, 5, 8, 15-17 ; Jer. 25 : 22 ; 27 : 3: 47:4; Eze. 26:2-15; 27:2-8, 32; 29 : 18 ; Hos. 9 : 13 ; Joel 3:4; Am. 1 : 884
9. 10 ; Zech. 9 : 2, 3 ; comp. Ps. 45 : 12 ; 83 : 7 ; 87 : 4. The prophecies Avere notably fulfilled. Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, besieged Tyre in B. c. 721. The siege lasted for five years, but the city was not taken. Nebuchadnezzar besieged it for thirteen years, ending with b. c. 592 ; whether he captured and destroyed this city is, strange to say, a matter which history does not enable us to determine. Josephus does not make it clear, and the passage in Eze. 29 : 18, "Yet had he no wages, nor his army, for Tj^rus," is differently interpreted, some understanding that he did not take the city at all, and others that he took it, but found no adequate booty to compensate for the long siege. At any rate. Tyre came under the Persian dominion and furnished that power with a large fleet. This excited the hostility of Alexander the Great, who determined to destroy the power of the city. Not being able to reach the walls with his engines, he collected together all the remains of the ancient city Palaetyrus—stones, timber, rubbish—and threw them into the narrow channel. Thus was fulfilled in a most remarkable manner the prophecy of Ezekiel. 28 : 3, 4, 12, 21. After a siege of seven months the city was taken. Some 8000 men were slain in the massacre which followed; 2000 were crucified, and 30,000 men, Avomen, and children were sold into slavery. The city was also set on fire by the victors. Zech. 9:4; Joel 3 : 7. After Alexander's death Tyre fell under the dominion of the Seleucidse, having been besieged for fourteen months by Antigonus ; at a later period the Romans possessed it.
In N. T. times Tyre was a populous and thriving city. Christ referred to it and visited its "borders." Matt. 11:21, 22 ; 15 : 21 : Mark 7 : 24. Whether he went into the city itself cannot be determined. The borders of the territory of Tyre (" its coasts ") reached southward to Carmel and eastward to Itursea, according to Josephus. Paul spent seven days at Tyre. Acts 21 : 3, 4, which early became the seat of a Christian bishopric. In the fourth century Jerome speaks of it as the most noble and beautiful city of Phoenicia, and as still trading with all the Avorld. During the Middle Ages it was a place of some consequence, and was regarded as well-
TYR
TYR
nigh impregnable. On the side next the sea it had a double, and on the land side a triple, wall. After being subject to the Romans for four hundred years, Tyre came under the dominion of the Saracens in the seventh century. In A. D. 1124 the Crusaders captured it. In 1291 the Muslims gained possession of the city, which was destroyed by them, and has never since regained its prosperity.
There is an interesting description of the siege of Acra (Ptolomais) and the possession of Tjn-e by the army of the sultan of Egypt and Damascus. It is given by Marinus Sanutus, a Venetian, in the century following the capture: *' On the same day on which Ptolemais was taken, the Tyrians, at vespers, leaving the city empty, without the stroke of a sword, without the tumult of war, embarked on board their vessels, and abandoned the city to be occupied freely by their conquerors. On the morrow the Saracens entered, no one attempting to prevent them, and they did what they pleased." About A. D. 1610-11 it was visited by Sandys, who said of it: ''But this once famous Tyre is now no other than a heap of ruins; yet have they a reverent aspect, and do instruct the pensive beholder with their exemplary frailty. It hath two harbors, that on the north side the fairest and best throughout all the Levant (which the cursours enter at their pleasure), the other choked with the decayes of the city." Maundrell (1697) says of Tyre : " On*the north side it has an old Turkish castle, besides which there is nothing here but a mere Babel of broken walls, pillars, vaults, etc., there being not so much as an entire house left. Its present inhabitants are only a few poor wretches that harbor in vaults and subsist on fishing."— Smith's Bible Dictionary, vol. iv., p. 3337.
Prexent Condition. —The present town lies at the north-west end of the former
island, which has an area of about 125 acres. The large embankment or causeway thrown up by Alexander the Great was 60 yards wide and one-fourth of a mile long. But this has been widened, by the gradual deposit of sand, to a mile on the main land and 600 yards where it reaches the old ramj)arts. The west and soutb sides of the island are now used for gardens and burial-grounds. Traces of tlie ancient wall are found. One stone* is 17 feet long and 6J feet thick. There are huge stones and fragments of marble columns along the shore and beneath the water. They are bare as the top of a rock, and there the fishermen spread their nets—a wonderful fulfilment of a prophecy uttered nearly twenty-four hundred years ago : " I will make thee like the top of a rock; thou shalt be a place to spread nets upon." Eze. 26 : 11. The most interesting of the old buildings yet remaining is the church of the Crusaders, which probably' occupies the site of a church consecrated A. ]). 323, when Eusebius preached the sermon.
The modern city has miserable streets and dilapidated houses. Its shipping consists of a few fishing-boats. Cotton, tobacco, and millstones from the Hau-ran are exported. The population numbers about 5000, nearly half of whom are Muslims, while the other half consists of Christians and a few Jews. A Franciscan monaster^' and a convent of the French order of the Sisters of St. Joseph are established here, and schools have been founded by an English mission. A short distance from the city, on the main land, is the traditional tomb of Hiram ; the remains of the ancient aqueduct by which the city was supplied with water from Rda el 'Ain can be traced.
TYROPCE'ON. See Jerusalem.
TY'RUS. See Tyue.
UCA
UNI
U.
XJ'CAIi (/ am strong) occurs only once, Prov. 30 : 1, as the name of one of the persons to whom Agur's words are spoken.
U'EL {will of God) had, during the Captivity, married a foreign wife, Ezr. 10 : U; called Juel in 1 Esdr. 9 : 34.
UK'NAZ, in the margin to 1 Chr. 4:15, is the proper name 1'Kenaz" with the copulative conjunction prefixed, but the preceding proper name has been omitted.
U'LAI [strong water ?), a river of Su-siana, on whose banks Daniel saw his vision of the ram and he-goat. Dan. 8 : 2-16. It is doubtless the Eulteus of the Greeks and Romans, a large stream in the vicinity of Susa (Shushan). Recent explorations have shown that the river Choaspes [Kerkhan) divides about 20 miles above Susa. The eastern branch, which received the Sha^inr and fell into the Karan, was probably the Ulai. This bifurcation of the stream explains the otherwise difficult passage, " I heard a man's voice between the banks of Ulai," Dan. 8 : 16—that is, between the banks of the two streams of that divided river.
U'LAM {porch, vestibule). 1. A descendant of Manasseh. 1 Chr. 7:17.
2. A descendant of the house of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 39, 40.
Ufj'LA {yoke), an Asherite chieftain. 1 Chr. 7 : 39.
UM'MAH {community/), a city of Asher. Josh. 19 : 30. Dr. Thomson associates it with the modern Alma, north of Achzib, some 5 miles from the seashore; Conder with Ummieh.
UXCIRCUx^CIS'ION. Rom. 2 : 25. See Cihcumcised.
UNCLEAN'. Lev. 5 : 2. See Clean AND Unclean.
UNCLEAN' MEATS. Hos. 9 : 3. See Clean and Unclean.
UNCOVERING the head was a token of mourning and captivity. Lev. 10 : 6 ; Isa. 47 : 2.
UNCTION is used figuratively with reference to the ceremony of anointing, , 886
and signifying the communication of a divine grace. 1 John 2 : 20, 27.
UNDERGIRD'ING a vessel means to pass a strong cable around the hull to prevent it from opening. The ship which carried St. Paul to Italy was undergirded. Acts 27 : 17. Lord Anson mentions a Spanish man-of-war that was saved by throwing overboard one tier of guns and taking six turns of a cable around the ship.
UNDERSET'TERS, projections by which the brazen laver was ornamented and supported. 1 Kgs. 7 : 30.
U'NICORN {reem, or high), a very unfortunate translation of a word which occurs seven times in the 0. T. That fabulous creature the unicorn certainly is not meant by the reem. Critics are agreed that the passages mentioning it, correctly understood, require an animal with two horns. This animal was distinguished for his ferocity, Isa. 34 : 7, strength, Xum. 23:22; 24:8, agility, Ps. 29 : 6, wildness. Job 39 : 9, as well as for being horned and destroying with his horns. Deut. 33 : 17 ; Ps. 22 : 21.
For various reasons, this animal could not have been the rhinoceros. Probably it was the now extinct aurochs {Bos jjrimigenins), a long-horned and powerful ox, which existed in the forests of Europe nearly, or quite, until the Middle Ages. C^sar found it in the Her-cynian forest, and gives this description : " These uri are scarcely less than elephants in size, but in their nature, color, and form are bulls. Great is their strength, and great their speed : they spare neither man nor beast when once they have caught sight of them." An allied species of bovine animals of great size and strength is known to have existed in Palestine, as the bison (Bison bonasus), and some of these, now called aurochs, are still found in the forests of Lithuania.
The Scripture references will be found peculiarly appropriate to an animal of the ox kind. Assyrian monuments represent the king and his warriors hunting a wild bison, which " appears to have been considered scarcely less formidable
UNI
Bison. (Bison bonofius. After T)-istram.) and noble game than the lion." In a bone- 1 tries of Galatia and
cave in Lebanon the teeth of the aurochs or a similar ox have been discovered. Altogether, the above interpretation may be regarded as quite established.
UNITY OF THE SPIRIT is unity of judgment, affection, and feeling among those who constitute the one body of Christ, Eph. 4 : 3, and it is the gift of God. Jer. 32 : 39. It was remarkably enjoyed in the early ages of the Church, John 17 : 21; Acts 4 : 32. and is to be sought after as among the chief of Christian graces. 2 Cor. 13 : 11.
UN'NI {depressed). 1. A Levite appointed to play the psaltery. 1 Chr. 15 : 18,20.
2. Another Levite, living after the return from Babylon. Neh. 12 : 9.
UNRIGHTEOUS MAMMON. Luke 16 : 11. See Mammo;^.
UPHAR'SIN. Dan. 5 : 25. See Mkxe.
U'PHAZ, probably the same as Ophir, which see. Jer. 10 : 9; Dan. 10: 5.
UP'PER COASTS are the coun-
Phrygia through which Paul passed at the beginning of his third missionnrv-tour. Acts 19 : 1.
UPPER ROOM. Mark 14 : 15. See Dwellings.
UPPERMOST ROOMS. Luke 12 : 39. See Sv.vAGOGrE.s.
UR {light), the father of one of David's men, 1 Chr. 11:35; called Ahas-bai in 2 Sam. 23 : 34.
UR OF THE CHAL'DEES {l!(jht?, or, from the rendering in the Septuagint, region), the place at which Abraham resided with Terah, his father, before he Avas called to go into the land of Canaan. Gen. 11 : 28, 31 ; 15 : 7. It is mentioned in the 0. T. as "of the Chaldees," and Josephus calls it "a city of the Chaldteans." Stephen speaks of it as in Mesopotamia. Acts 7 : 2. These are the only biblical clews to its site, and hence the identification has been a disputed question. Among the places
Ur are—
1. The
Northern
modern Or/ah, or Urfa, in Mesopotamia, some 20 miles
UEB
UKI
north of Haran and a short distance east of the Upper Euphrates, It is about 450 miles north-north-east of Jerusalem in a straight line. This is the classic Edessa. It is now a city of about 50,000 to 60,000 inhabitants, nearly equally divided into Muslims and Christians (Jacobites and Armenians). Among the arguments for making this Ur are: (1) The resemblance in name. (2) The long-standing tradition among both Jews and Mohammedans that Abraham dwelt there. At the base of the mountain, to the south-east of the town, is the cave which tradition says was his birthplace, and over it is a mosque so holy that only Muslims are allowed to enter it. There is a pool called Birket-el-Ibrahim, el Khaleel, the " pool of Abraham the beloved." (3) The saying of Josh. 24:2 that it was "on the other side of the flood"— i. e., east of the Euphrates. But in opposition to this identification it is urged, among other things, that Chaldoea did not extend into Upper Mesopotamia, that the history points to a longer migration between Ur and Haran than the 20 miles between Orfnh and Ilaran. Uz is also connected with Or/ah by tradition. See Uz.
2. Warka, in south-eastern Mesopotamia, 120 miles south-east of Babylon, 4 miles east of the Euphrates. The tract of land is slightly' raised above the ordinary water-level. Upon a sandy platform are situated the remains of numerous ancient buildings, A rampart of earth, nearly 6 miles in circumference and 40 feet high, surrounds the area. This is now commonly supposed to represent the city of Erech of Scripture and the Orchoe of the Greeks. A tradition of the Talmud and in early Arabic works makes this Ur. W<irka is a city of tombs, and is now utterly desolate.
3. Mugheir, "mother of bitumen," a ruined site about 6 miles west of the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris, and about 125 miles north-west of the Persian Gulf. The ruins now cover an oval space 1000 yards long and 800 broad. The Koran and the Talmud contain legendary accounts of the escape of Abraham from the fire into which idolaters threw him at Ur. The most remarkable ruin at Muyheir is a
888
temple built of bricks laid in bitumen, and many of them inscribed with the name of Urukh, a Chalda^an monarch whose date is supposed to have been B. c. 2230. This is perhaps the most ancient Chaldaean site discovered. Raw-linson. Porter, Eadie, and others accept this as the most probable site of Ur of the Chaldees.
UR'BANE (from the Latin urbanna, "refined," " polite "), one of the Christians in Rome to whom St. Paul sent a salutation. Rom. 16 : 9.
U'RI ifien/). 1. Of the tribe of Ju-dah, the father of Bezaleel, one of the architects of the tabernacle. Ex. 31 : 2; 35:30; 38:22; 1 Chr. 2 : 20 ; 2 Chr. 1: 5.
2. The father of Geber, the commissariat-officer of Solomon in Gilead. I Kgs. 4:19.
3. A gatekeeper of the temple who in the time of Ezra had married a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 24.
URI'AH, 2 Sam. 11: 3, or URI' AS, Matt. 1:6, a Hittite by descent, but probably converted to Judaism, commander of one of the bands of David's army, and the husband of Bathsheba. His death was purposely brought about by an understanding between Joab and David, in order that David's guilt in the case of Bathsheba might be concealed, and that he might obtain her for his wife.
U'RIEL i_fire of God). 1. A Le-vite of the family of Kohath. 1 Chr. 6: 24.
2. The chief of the Kohathites in the time of David. 1 Chr. 15 : 5, 11.
3. The father of Maachah or Michai-ah, Rehoboam's wife and mother of Abijah. 2 Chr. 13 : 2. In 2 Chr. 11: 20 Maachah is called " the daughter of Absalom," which may be explained by her mother, Tamar, being a daughter of Absalom.
URI'JAH (Jlame of Jehovah). 1. High priest in the reign of Ahaz, 2 Kgs. 16:10-16; called Uriah in Isa. 8:2; complied subserviently with the demand of the king to make an altar after the idolatrous pattern of that of Damascus, and to offer sacrifices on it.
2. The son of Shemaiah of Kirjath-jearim : prophesied in the days of Je-hoiakim, and fled from the king's wrath to Egypt, but was seized there, brought back, and slain. Jer. 26 : 20-23,
URI
UZA
3. A priest of the family of Koz, the ancestor of Meremoth, Neh. 3:4, 21 ; perhaps the same as mentioned in Neh. 8:4.
U'RIM AND THlJM'MIiH {light and jicrfection) denote some ])art of the high priest's apparel. In Ex. 28 : 15-30 it is prescribed that the lirim and Thummim shall be phiced beneath the breastplate, in order to be on the high priest's heart when he goes in before the Lord; and when Aaron was arraA'ed, Moses himself put the Urim and Thummim into the breastplate. Lev. 8:8. In the blessings of Moses he speaks of the Urim and Thummim as the crowning glory of the Levite tribe; and when Joshua is solemnly appointed to succeed him. Num. 27 : 21, the high priest, Elea-zar, is said to ask counsel for him after the judgment of Urim. But nowhere in Scripture are the Urim and Thummim described, and, as Jewish tradition can give no information, we do not know what they really were.
XJ'SURY, by modern usage, means exorbitant or unlawful interest, but in the Scriptures it means simply interest. The Law of Moses prohibited the Jews from taking any interest of each other for the loan of money or of anything else, though they were allowed to take it of foreigners. The exchangers of money were in the habit of receiving it at low interest and loaning it at high interest, taking the difference for their gain. Eze. 22 : 12. The practice of usury is severely denounced in the Scriptures. Neh.'5:7, 10; Ps. 15:5; Prov. 28:8. It has sometimes been asked why the Jews were permitted to take usury of strangers, while they were forbidden to take it of each other. It is quite clear that the civil economy of the Jewish state excluded the general use of usury as a means of gain in a medium of exchange. They had no commerce with foreign nations, as we have in modern times, or as the Gentile nations had in that age. They had their inheritance apportioned to them in the division of the land, and were rather branches of the same family settled together than independent communities, and their united business transactions were to be of the most friendly nature. In dealing with foreigners whose object was gain, they were allow-
ed to avail themselves of the ordinary principles of trade.
U'THAI {.hhovah snccors). 1. A descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 9:4; called Athaiah in Neh. 11 : 4; was one of those dwelling in Jeru!<alem after the Captivity.
2. A son of Bigvai; returned home in the second caravan with Ezra, Ezr. 8 : 14 : called Uthi in 1 Esd. 8 : 40.
UZ {fruitful in treen). 1. A son of Aram, and grandson of Shem. Gen. 10 : 23: 1 Chr. 1:17.
2. A son of Dishan, and grandson of Seir. Gen. 36 : 28.
UZ, THE LAND OF {fertile land). Uz, or, more correctly, " lluz," was the country of Job. Job 1:1. It is mentioned in the ethnographical tables. Gen. 10 : 23, and it was settled by a son of Aram. Comp. 1 Chr. 1 : 17. Job was " the greatest of all the men of the East" —in Hebrew, Bene-Kedem, the people who dwelt in Arabia. Job 1 : 3, 15-17. Uz is grouped with Egypt, Philistia, and Moab, Jer. 25 : 20, and with Edom. Lam, 4 : 21.
Situation. —The position of the land of Uz has been a subject of much dispute. According to Josephus, Uz was the father of the inhabitants of Damascus and Trachonitis. Many traditions put it at Oifah, on the Euphrates. See Ur. Near the Haran-gate in that city is '' Job's well," which is a sacred shrine to the people because the patriarch drank of its waters. Porter found many traditions of Job in the Ilauran, and numerous places named after the patriarch. The land of Uz seems most likely to have been in general that portion of Arabia Deserta east of Edom aTui south of Trachonitis, extending indefinitely toward the Euphrates.
U'ZAI {stronc/), the father of Palal, who assisted Nehemiah in repairing the walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 25.
U'ZAIj, the sixth son of Joktan. Gen. 10:27; lChr.l:21. His descendants settled in Yemen and built the city of Uzal, which from the earliest times was one of the princi])al towns of the country. Its name was afterward changed to " Sana," and it is now the capital of Yemen. Niebuhr describes it as a beautiful town, situated on a plateau, and resembling Damascus on account of its rippling waters and fine trees.
uzz
uZZ
UZ'ZA {strength). 1. An inhabitant of Jerusalem in whose garden Manasseh, king of Judah, and his son Amon were buried. 2 Kgs.'21: 18, 26. The location of the garden is not known.
2. A Benjamite descending from Ehud, 1 Chr. 8 : 7, and, according to the Tar-gum on Esther, the ancestor of Mordecai.
3. The ancestor of the family of Nethinim which returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 49 ; Neh. 7 : 51.
4. A Levite of the family of Merari. 1 Chr. 6 : 29.
UZ'ZA, GARDEN OF. 2 Kgs. 21 : 26. See UzzA, 1.
UZ^ZAH (strength), a son of Abin-adab, in whose house at Kirjath-jearim the ark had rested, was instantly killed by the immediate action of God for laying his hands upon the ark, while guiding the carriage on which it was brought to Jerusalem, in violation of the express provisions of the divine law. Num. 4 : 15; 2 Sam. 6 : 3-8. In 1 Chr. 13 : 7-11 he is called Uzza.
UZ'ZEN-SHE'RAH {ear of She-rah), a city of Sherah, the daughter or descendant of Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7 : 24. Probably it was near Beth-boron, and its site may be marked by Beit Sira, 3 miles south-west of the lower Beth-horon.
\]7/'L\ {might of Jehovah). 1. A son of Bukki, and the father of Zerahiah, in the line of the high priests, 1 Chr. 6 : 5, 6, 51 ; Ezr. 7 : 4, but not a high priest himself.
2. The grandson of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7 : 2, 3.
3. A Benjamite, son of Bela. 1 Chr. 7:7.
4. Another Benjamite, ancestor of several families settled in Jerusalem after the Captivity. 1 Chr. 9 : 8.
6. A son of Bani, a Levite, and overseer of the Levites in Jerusalem in the time of Nehemiah. Neh. 11: 22.
6. A priest in the time of Jozakim, the high priest. Neh. 12 : 19.
7. A priest assisting Ezra in dedicating the walls of Jerusalem ; perhaps the same as the preceding. Neh. 12 : 42.
UZZI'A {strength of Jehovah), one 890
of David's guard; surnamed the "Ash-terathite." 1 Chr. 11 : 44.
UZZI'AH {might of Jehovah). 1. The son and successor of Amaziah, king of Judah; called Azariah in 2 Kgs. 14:21 and elsewhere; began to reign at sixteen, and reigned fifty-two years, b. c. 808-756. His career was most prosperous. He walked in the ways of his father David, and as a consequence was blessed with victory over his enemies and great fame and love. But he was puffed up by success so long continued, and presumed to burn incense on the altar like the priests. Azariah, the high priest, and eighty others opposed him; but God most effectually checked him by making him a leper, dwelling in a separate house until death. 2 Kgs. 15 : 1-7; 2 Chr. 26. A great earthquake occurred in his reign. Am. 1:1; Zech. 14 : 5.
2. A Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 24.
3. The father of one of David's officers. 1 Chr. 27 : 25.
4. A priest. Ezr. 10 : 21.
5. A Judite. Neh. 11 : 4. UZZI'EL {might of Jehovah). 1.
The fourth son of Kohath, Ex. 6 : 18, 22 j Lev. 10:4; the ancestor of the Uzzielites, and, through Elizaphan, also of the Ko-hathites, Num. 3 : 19, 27, 30, his house numbering one hundred and twelve adults in the time of David. 1 Chr. 15 : 10.
2. A Simeonite captain who in the time of Hezekiah destroyed the remnants of the Amalekites in the valley of Gedor. 1 Chr. 4 : 42.
3. A son of Bela the Benjamite. 1 Chr. 7:7.
4. A Levite musician in the time of David, the son of Heman. 1 Chr. 25 : 4; called Azareel in 1 Chr. 25 : 18.
5. A Levite of the family of Jeduthun who was very active in cleansing and sanctifving the temple after the pollutions of Ahaz. 2 Chr. 29 : 14-19.
6. The son of Harhaiah, active in repairing the walls of Jerusalem in the days of Nehemiah. Neh. 3 : S.
UZZFELITES, descendants of UzziEL, 1. Num. 3 : 27; 1 Chr. 26 : 23.
VAG
YEN
V.
VAG'ABOND (from the Latin vaffabuuduH) means a fugitive, a wanderer, and is so used in the A. V., but not opprobriously, as we now use the word. Gen. 4 : 12; Ps. 109 : 10; Acts 19: 13.
VAJEZ'ATHA (Persian, strong as the loiiid), one of the ten sons of Haman slain by the Jews in Shushan. Esth. 9:9.
VALE, VAL'LEY. Five Hebrew words are translated " vale " or " valley."
1. Emek, signifying a '"deep" valley, and iniph'ing a long, broad sweep between parallel ranges of hills, as the valley of Achor, Aijalon, Elah, Jezreel, Succoth, etc.
2. Gai or rje, signifying a "bursting" or a " flowing together." and used to designate narrow ravines or glens, as of Hinnom or Salt. This name is given to the secluded spot where Moses was buried. Deut. 34 : 6.
3. Nnchal, meaning a "wady-bed," filled with water in winter, but dry in summer; and hence it is sometimes rendered " brook," " stream," " river," etc. Such beds or valleys were Chereth, Esh-col, Sorek, Zered, etc.
4. Bik'ah, pro})erly a ''cleft," but applied to a broader space than a cleft or valley, and meaning sometimes a "plain," as that between Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon and Megiddo. Josh. 11 : 17; 13:17; Zech. 12:11.
5. Hn-shephelah, wrongly rendered "valley," meant a broad tract of low hills between the mountains of Judah and the coast-plain. Deut. 1:7; Josh. 10 : 40.
VAL'LEY-GATE. 2 Chr. 26 : 9. See Jerusalem.
VAL'LEY OF BACA. See Baca.
VAL'LEY OF DECIS'IOX. Joel 3 : 14. See .Tehosiiaphat.
VAL'LEY OF SALT. See Sait.
VAL'LEY OF SOREK. Jud. 16 : 4. See Sorek, Valley of.
VANI'AH (irenk), a son of Bani; had married a foreign wife, but sent her away on the command of Ezra. Ezr. 10 : 36.
VASH'NI occurs in 1 Chr. 6 : 28 as the name of the first-born of Samuel, while in 1 Sam. 8 : 2 the name is Joel. As Vashni, with a very slight modification, would mean "and the second," it is probable that in 1 Chr. 6 : 28 the name of Joel has dropped out.
VASH'TI (Persian, a henntiful womait), queen of Persia, and the repudiated wife of Ahasuerus. Esth. 1: 9. See Esther,
VAT. Isa. 33 : 2. See Wixk-Fat.
VEIL is, in our translation, the rendering of several Hebrew words which properly mean shawls or mantles. Gen. 24 : 65 : 38 : 14; Ruth 3:15; Cant. 5 : 7; Isa. 3 : 23. These shawls or mantles may occasionally have been drawn over the face, but they were not designed for that purpose. Veils proper were used by the Hebrew women only on special occasions—as ornaments. Cant. 4: 1, 3; 6:7; as a bridal-symbol, Gen. 24 : 65 ; 29 : 25 ; and for the purpose of concealment. Gen. 38 : 14. Generally the Hebrew women appeared in public without veils. Gen. 12:14; 24:16; 29:10; 1 Sam. 1: 12, and so did the Egyptian and Assyrian women, as seen by the Egyptian and Assyrian sculptures and paintings. The custom now almost universal among Oriental women to be veiled whenever they appear in public dates from the Koran, 33 : 55, 59, which forbids the Mohammedan women to show themselves unveiled outside of the circle of their nearest relatives.
VEIL OF THE TAB'ER-NACLE, or temple. See Tabernacle an(i Temple.
VEN'GEANCE. Rom. 12:19. This word often denotes merely punishment, without any reference to the state of mind in which it is inflicted. In the passage cited and elsewhere, Deut. 32 : 35, the exclusive right of God to punish wrong-doers and to vindicate the truth is plainly asserted. Hence every act of revenge is an interference with the divine prerogative. The word is applied to God in the same manner in which " anger," " hatred," etc., are applied—not as de-
VER
VIN
noting a state or temper of mind, but as implying an act or course of proceeding such as usually indicates a particular state of mind, when done or pursued by man.
VERMIL'ION, a chemical substance used for coloring red, and much valued for ornamenting dwellings, Jer. 22 : 14, and painting images. Eze. 23 : 14. The custom of painting, and sometimes gilding, the ceilings of houses is still prevalent in the East.
VI'AL. 1 Sara. 10 : 1. See Censer.
VIL'LAGES. Lev. 25 : 31. See City.
VINE, VINEYARD. We first read of a vineyard in the history of Noah. Gen. 9 : 20. The cultivation of the vine had attained to some perfection in vei-y early times. In the accounts of Melchizedek, who set bread and wine before Abraham, of Lot, who was drunken, of aged Isaac, when regaled by his sons, in the prophecy of dying Jacob, and in the book of Job, we have the earliest accounts of wine as a common drink. Gen. 14: 18; 19 : 32; 27 : 25; 49 : 12 ; Job 1 : 18 ; Prov. 23 : 30, 31 ; Isa. 5 : 11.
The original home of the Eastern grape-vine ( Vitis vini/era) was Armenia and neighboring countries. But Palestine seems scarcely second to any country in the world in adaptation of soil and climate for its culture. Especially is this true of its southern districts. " Here, more than elsewhere in Palestine, are to be seen on the sides of the hills the vineyards, marked by their watch-towers and walls, seated on their ancient terraces, the earliest and latest symbol of Judah. The elevation of the hills and table-lands of Judah is the true climate of the vine. 'He bound his foal to the vine, and his ass's colt to the choice vine; he washed his garments in wine, and his clothes in the blood of grapes.* It was from the Judaean valley of Eshcol, * the torrent of the cluster,' that the spies cut down the gigantic cluster of grapes. 'A vineyard on a hill of olives,' with the ' fence.' and ' the stones gathered out,' and ' the tower in the midst of it,' is the natural figure which, both in the yjrophetical and evangelical records, represents the kingdom of Judah."— Stnnleij.
Grapevines were usually propagated by layers. They were sometimes planted beside ridges of stones, upon which they 892
crept, and which afforded a dry and warm exposure for ripening the fruit. Miles of such stone-heaps remain in regions now utterly desert about Beer-sheba and east of the Jordan. At other times vines were annually trimmed down to a permanent stock, which was fastened to a stake, or a post was erected with a crosspiece, or upon four or more pillars a trellis or arbor was supported, upon which the boughs spread. Very often, however, the Syrian vines are trained upon a perpendicular trellis or framework in straight rows ; sometimes upon trees, and particularly the fig tree, whence the proverbial expression, '' To repose under one's own vine and fig tree," as an emblem of peace and security. Mic. 4:4; Zech. 3 : 10. Vines are found at Hebron trained in this manner, and bearing clusters of ten pounds' weight, or even more. Sometimes thev were trained upon the side of the house. Ps. 128 : 3.
Vineyards were enclosed with a hedge or a wall, to defend them from the ravages of beasts, to which they were often exposed. A tower was also built as the station of a watchman. Num.22: 24; Ps. 80 : 8-13: Prov. 24 : 31; Cant. 2:15; Matt. 21 : 33. See Tower.
The Hebrews devoted as much care to their vineyards as to their agriculture. When Isaiah predicts the invasion of the Assyrians, he declares that the vineyard where there were a thousand vines for a thousand pieces of silver shall be even for briers and thorns. Isa. 7 : 23. When he would represent sorrow, he says, " The new wine mourneth, the vine languisheth, and all the merry-hearted do sigh." Isa. 24 : 7. So Zech-ariah, 8 : 12, foretells future prosperity thus: ''The seed shall be prosperous, the vine shall give her fruit." See also Hab. 3 : 17: Mai. 3 : 11.
The pruning of the vine is a familiar operation, which we all know to be necessary in order to its fruitfulness. The law which forbade the Israelites to gather the grapes of the first three years, Lev. 19 : 23, gave occasion to the more careful and unsparing use of the pruning-knife; hence the 3'oung stock came to much greater strength. A traveller mentions a custom of the vine-dressers to prune their vines thrice in the year; the first time, in
VIN
VIS
March. When chisters begin to form, they again lop off those twigs which have no fruit; the stock puts out new twigs in April, some of which form clusters, and those which liave none are again cut off in May. The vine shoots a third time, and the new branches have a third set of clusters. See John 15 : 2, in which passage the word " purgeth" may be rendered **pruneth."
What remains of the culture of the vine is very simple. Once or twice in the season the plough was run through the vineyard to loosen the earth and free it from weeds: the stones were gathered out, and a proper direction was given to the growing branches. Isa. 5 : 2. The vine-dressers, or keepers of the vineyard, formed a distinct branch of laborers. 2 Kgs. 25 : 12.
The regular vintage begins in Syria about the middle of September, and lasts about two months. Lev. 26 : 5 ; Am. 9 : 13. Ripe clusters, however, are found in Palestine as early as June and July, although the regular vintage begins in September. This difference may arise from the threefold growth of the vine, already mentioned. The first gathered in Canaan is probably meant in Num. 13 : 20.
The vintage was celebrated by the Hebrews with still more festivity than the harvest, Isa. 16 : 9, and was sometimes a season of wicked mirth. Jud. 9 : 27. See Grapes.
VIN'EGAR. The Hebrew word denotes a beverage either consisting simply of wine turned sour, and for that reason proscribed to the Nazarite, Num. 6 : 3, or produced artificially. Its excessive acidity, Prov. 10 : 2fi, made it an unpalatable drink, Ps. 69 : 21 ; but. like the Roman poscn, it was much used for sopping bread. Ruth 2:14. It was this beverage which was offered to our Saviour in his dving moments. Matt. 27:48: Mark 15:36; John 19:29. The effervescence which it produced when poured upon nitre was well known to the Hebrews, and is used to represent in an impressive manner the incongruity of mirth and sorrow. Prov. 25 : 20.
VINE OF SODOM. There is reference to this plant only in Deut. 32 : 32. Josephus describes fruits grow-
ing near the Dead Sea, " which indeed resemble edible fruit in color, but on being plucked by the hand are dissolved into smoke and ashes." These are the apples of Sodom of which the ])oets sing, and which are supposed to be mentioned in the above })assage.
A surprising number of plants has been proposed as the vine of Sodom, while some have supposed that there was here reference merely to a po])ular fiction, as perhaps in the case of the dragon, satyr, and unicorn. If we are to interpret Deuteronomy and Josephus literally, the colocynth seems best to answer the conditions, because it is the only vine suggested, and abounds in these regions, while its fruit, though beautiful to the eye, is exceedingly nauseous to the taste, and when ripe there is nothing within it but seeds and a drv powder. See (iouRD.
VINEYARDS, PLAIN OF THE, Abcl-ceramim. Jud. 11 : 33. Possibly marked by the ruin Kto-enahi, (5 miles south-east of Amman and upon the upper Jabbok, as suggested by Dr. Merrill.
VI'OL. This was an instrument of music, and supposed to be the same with the psaltery. Am. 6: 5. See Music. Chanting to the sound of it was to make like sounds with the voice, so modulating the tones as to correspond with the sounds of the instrument.
VI'PER. This word in the 0. T. possibly designates some pnrficular species of hissing and venomous serpent, but its exact application cannot be determined. In the N. T. the Greek woixi thus rendered was used for «»y poisonous snake. The viper which fastened on Paul's hand, Acts 28 : 1-6, was doubtless the snake of that name { Vipern rts;>/.s), still common in the Mediterranean islands. It has now disa]ipeared from Malta with the woods to which it is partial. The viper is an emblem of whatever is deceitful and destructive. Matt. 3 : 7 : 12 : 34 ; 23 : 33 ; Luke 3 : 7. See CorKATUicK and Asr.
VIS'ION. Num. 24:4. Informer times God was pleased to reveal himself, and communicate his will in visions, which were caused either in the night in ordinary sleep, Dan. 7 : 1, or by day in a temporary trance. Acts 10:11; 26: 13. See Dreajt, Trance.
YUt
V01*H'S1 {my increase), father of Nahbi, the spy selected from the tribe of Naphtali. Num. 13 : 14.
VOW, in the scriptural use, means a solemn religious promise or covenant by which one binds himself to do or suffer certain things, depending on God for power to accomplish them. The first instance of such a vow recorded in Scripture is that made bv Jacob when on the flight to Padan-araim. Gen. 28:20-22; 31 : 13. As vows were voluntary' engagements, not prescribed by the Mosaic Law, they were made with prayer and paid with thanksgiving. Num. 6 : 2-
21; Jud. 11: 30, 31; Ps. 61: 5 ; Acts 18 : 18. See NAZA.RITES.
VUL'TURE. In Lev. 11 : 14, Deut. 14 : 13, and Isa. 34 : 15, in place of this word, we should probably read " black kite" {Milvus mif/rans). This is a bird which, except in the winter months, collects in Palestine in great numbers and is very sociable in its habits, according to the reference in Isaiah. Another Hebrew word rendered " vulture" in Job 28 : 7 is elsewhere correctly rendered Kite, which see.
It is a striking instance of the accuracy of the Scripture writers that, while
Egyptian Vulture, or "Pliaraob's Hen."
the peculiar faculty for discovering their food which carrion-devourers possess is popularly attributed to the sense of smell, the Bible attributes it to sight. In the book of Job the characteristic of the eagle is that "her eyes behold afar off." Job 28: 7 refers to the same peculiarity, " There is a path which the vulture's eye 894
hath not seen," implying that its vision is most acute and penetrating. It is well proved that birds of prey discern their booty at vast distances, that the eager flight of one is observed and followed by another, and so on, till many are gathered together wheresoever the carcase is.
WAF
WAH
W.
WATER, a thin cake of fine flour used in various ofi'erings anointod with oil. Ex. 16 : ;n : 29 : 2, 23 : Lev. 2:4; 7:12; 8:26; Num. 6:15, 19.
WA'GES. When wages are first mentioned in the 0. T., they were paid, not in money, but in kind. (jien. 29 : 15, 20; 30: 28;'31: 7, 8, 41. But the Law was very strict in requiring daily payment of wages, Lev. 19; 13; Deut. 24: 14, 15, and employers who withhold the laborer's wages or refuse to give him sufficient victuals are strongly censured. Jer. 22:13; Mai. 3:5; Job 24:11. Wages paid in money are mentioned in the N. T. Matt. 20:2; Luke 3:14; 1 Cor. 9 :7.
WAG'ON. The Egyptian wagon, ■which is well known to us from pictorial representations, consisted of two solid wooden discs connected with an axle, on which a body very similar to that of our wheelbarrows was placed. This primitive vehicle was drawn by oxen, and it was sometimes covered. The wagons mentioned in Num. 7 : 3, 8, for carrying the tabernacle, were no doubt built on this pattern.
WAIL, to mourn with loud and violent expressions of distress and despair. Eze. 32: 18.
WALL OF PARTITION. Eph. 2:14. See Temple.
WALLS. The walls with which, in ancient times, all cities were surrounded, in contradistinction from open or un-walled villages, were generally built of earth or clay or sun-dried brick. Hence it was necessary to build them of great thickness, in order to ensure their permanency. Houses were often erected on top of them, or they were provided with fortifications (fenced walls). When any breach took place in such a mass of earth, either by heavy rains or some defect in the foundation, the consequences were very serious. Ps. 62 : 3 ; Isa. 30 : 13. See City.
WANDERING IN THE WILDERNESS. See WILDEKNES.S, THE, OF THE WaNDEKKNO.
WAR. From the nature of the arms
and the customs of the ancients, their battles were truly murderous. Scarcely ever was any quarter given, except where the vanquished was retained as a slave, and conscfjucntly the number of killed was often iiiiniense. 2 t"hr. 13 : 17. Although the military art was comparatively simple, yet ingenious stratagems of various kinds were practised. Enemies were then, as now, surprised and overcome by unexpected divisions of the forces, by ambushes, and by false retreats. Gen. 14 : 15 ; Josh. 8:12; Judg. 20:36-39; 2 Kgs. 7:12. In lack of artillery, unwieldy machines for casting heavy stones and other destructive missiles were invented. We find, however, little allusion to these in the Bilile. About the end of the ninth or the beginning of the eighth century before Christ, Uzziah " made in Jerusalem engines invented bj' cunning men. to be on the towers and u])on the bulwarks, to shoot arrows and great stones withal." 2 Chr. 26:15.
A siege was thus conducted : All the trees in the neighborhood were cut down and used in the construction of field-fortifications. Dcut. 20:20. "Mounts" or *'banks " in the direction of the city were thrown uj). and gradually increased in height until they were half as high as the city's wall. 2 Sam. 20 : 15 ; 2 Kgs. 19 : 32. The next step was to erect towers on the top of these banks. 2 Kgs. 25 : 1. These steps taken, the siege was commenced in earnest. The water-supplies of tlie besieged were, as far as possible, cut ofl": intercourse with neighboring towns or villages was ended. Thus starvation must eventually set in in the doomed city. But use was made of other measures than these passive ones. The towers s)»oken of bristled with armed men. Archers and slingers incessantly fired at the soldiers ujion the wall. Battering-rams, which see, hammered against the gates or walls; scaling-ladders were placed against the walls; the gates were even at times fired. Jud. 9 : 52. But the besieged had weapons also. Huge stones were hurled with
WAR
WAB
terrible effect from the walls. Boiling oil. rings heated red hot,—these were emploj'ed to cripple the foe. Sallies were made to burn the besiegers' works or to drive them away. Jud. 9 : 53; 2 Sam.
11 : 21.
But there was no part of the ancient military preparations more terrible than chariots. Ex. 14 : 7 ,• Deut. 20 : 1 ; Josh. 17:16: Jud. 4:3. They were in common use wherever there was any cavalry. 2 Sam. 10: 18; IChr. 18:4; 2 Chr.
12 : 3 ; 14 : 9. See Chariot. Walls and towers were used in fortifications, and the latter were guarded by soldiers, and are called "garrisons." 2 Sam. 8:6: Eze. 26 : 11. See Ward.
As to the order of battle we have no certain knowledge. The prophet alludes to it. Jer. 12 : 5. Among all ancient nations it was customary to take previous refreshment of food, in order to give strength to the army. The soldiers, and especially the commanders, arrayed themselves in their costliest garments and fairest armor, except in cases where disguise was attempted. 1 Kgs. 22 : 30.
A^arious passages lead to the opinion that divisions of the army were common, as in modern times. Gen. 14 : 15 ; Jud. 7:16; 1 Sam. 11:11. The most frequent division of the host was into tens, hundreds, and thousands, and each of these had its commander or captain. Jud. 20 : 10; 1 Sam. 8:12; 2 Kgs. 11 : 4. Among the Hebrews these divisions had some reference to the several families, and were under the heads of families as their officers. 2 Clir. 25 : 5 ; 26 : 12. The captains of hundreds and of thousands were of high rank, or (so to speak) staff-officers, who were admitted to share in the councils of war. 1 Chr. 13 : 1. The whole army had its commander-in-chief or captain, who was over the host, and its scribe, or keeper of the muster-roll. 1 Kgs. 4:4:1 Chr. 18 : 15, 16 : 27 : 32-34 ; 2 Chr. 17 : 14; 26 : 11. In Isa. 33 : 18 the words translated •' he that counted the towers " probably indicate what we should call a chief-engineer.
Under David the army of 288,000 men was divided into twelve corps, each of
Egyptian Troops in Ranks. {From Monuments at Thebes.)
which was consequently 24,000 strong and had its own general. 1 Chr. 27. Under Jehoshaphat this was altered, and there were five unequal corps, under as many commanders. 2 Chr. 17 : 14-19. The cohort had five hundred or six hundred men, and the legion embraced ten cohorts.
896
The light troops were provided with arms which they used at some distance from the enemy, such as bows and arrows. They are designated in 2 Chr. 14: 8 : while the heavy-armed were those who bore shield and spear. 1 Chr. 12 : 24. The light trooj)S of the army of Asa were taken principally from the tribe of Benjamin
WAR
WAT
because of their extraordinary accuracy of aim. Jud. 20 : 10. See Ahmok, Arms.
Kings and generals had armor-bearers, selected from the bravest of their favorites, who not only carried their armor, which was in tliose days a necessary service, but stood by them in the hour of danger, carried their orders, and were not unlike modern adjutants. 1 Sam. 31: 4.
The troops were excited to ardor and bravery by addresses front their priests, who were commanded to apj)eal to them. Deut. 20 : 2. In later times kings themselves were accustomed to harangue their armies. 2 Chr. 13 : 4. Finally (perhaps after the sacrifices had been ottered), the summons was given by the holy trumpets. Num. 10 : y, 10 ; 2 Chr. 13': 12-U.
It was the ])ractice of the Greeks, when they were within half a mile of the enemy, to sing their war-song. A similar custom probably prevailed among the Jews. 2 Chr. 20:21. Next followed the shout, or war-cry. which the Romans accompanied with the noise of shields and spears struck violently together. This war-cry was common in the East, as it is to this day among the Turks. It was the " alarm " or " shout " so often mentioned in Scripture. 1 Sam. 17 : 62 ; 2 Chr. 13 : 15 ; Job 39 : 25 : Jer. 4 : 19.
War, like slavery ahd all forms of violence, is a consequence of sin; it is organized cruelty and wholesale murder ; as Gen. Moltke (" th^ thinker of battles") says, even a victorious war is a great national calamity; but it is overruled for good by that all-wise Providence which maketh the wrath of man to ])raise him. Christianity was introduced into the world by the angelic announcement of "on earth peace, good-will toward men." It has done much to prevent the passions of war, to mitigate its horrors, to counteract its evils by individual and organized care of the sick, the wounded, and the prisoners, to encourage the settlement of international disputes by peaceful arbitration (as in the Alabama difficulty, which threatened war between England and the United States, but was peacefully adjusted by the Geneva tribunal Dec, 1871). and it looks forward to the time when men "shall beat their swords into ploughshares and their spears into pruning-hooks, when nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither 57
shall they learn war anv more." Isa. 2: 4: Mic. 4 : .•?: Joel 3 : 10 ; Kev. 21 : :'.. 4.
WAIID, a prison, or an apartment thereof. Gen. 40 : .S ; Acts 12 : 10. Also a garrison or military post, \ch. 12 : 2.'), or a class or detachment of jtersons for any particular service. 1 Chr. 9 : 2li; 25:8: Neh. 13 : :'.(». See Prison.
WARD'ROBE, the place where the royal robes or priests' vestments were deposited. 2 Kgs. 22: 14.
WARES. See Commkkcr.
WASH ING OF THE HANDS AND FEET, THE, was rendered necessary and refreshing by Oriental customs and climate. The hands should be scrupulously clean, inasmuch as all persons at table put their fingers into the same dish. The feet should be washed because the sandals afforded no protection against soil; and besides, the feet
Waf^liing the Hands.
would be hot. The protest of Christ against the handwashings of the Pharisees was directed against their characteristic elevation of it into a matter of religious observance. Mark 7 : 3. lie and his disciples were exposed to unjust insinuations because tliey neglected the Pharisaic rules. Matt. 15 : 2 ; Luke 11 : 38.
The washing, by the host, of the feet of the guest was a significant attention, 1 Sam. 25 : 41 : Luke 7 : 38, 44 ; John 13 : 5-14: but usually water was provided and the guests washed their own feet, or had them washed bv servants. Gen. 18: I: Jud. 19:21.
WAT( H'ES OFTHENIGIFr. The original division of the night was into three watches—" the beginning of the watches," from sunset to 10 o'clock, Lam. 2: 19; "the middle watch," from 10 to 2 o'clock, Jud. 7:19: and "the
WAT
WAT
7; Isa.
morning watch," from 2 o'clock to sunrise, Ex. 14 : 24; 1 Sam. 11 : 11—but after the Captivity the Jews adopted the custom of Rome and Greece, which divided the twelve hours of the night into four watches, beginning with 6 in the afternoon—''even,'" from 6 to 9 o'clock; "midnight," from 9 "cock-crowing," from 12 to morning, from 3 to 6; Matt. Mark 13 : 35; Luke 12 : 38.
WATCH'MAIV. Cant. 5 : 21 : 11. In Persia the watchmen were required to indemnify those who were robbed in the streets, and hence they were extremely vigilant to give the alarm and protect the city and its inhabitants from violence. Eze. 33 : 2-6. The watchman was also required to call the hours of the night in a loud voice as he patrolled the streets. This is customary at the present day in some large cities. In time of danger the watchmen were posted in towers over the gates of the city. Isa. 21 : 8 ; 62 : 6.
WALTER. The scarcity of water is one of the calamities of the Eastern world, and the distress which is often experienced by man and beast for want of it, is indescribable. Thus the gathering of water in cisterns and reservoirs and its distribution through canals, form a conspicuous feature of Eastern life.
In Prov. 21: 1 the original term, rendered "rivers," signifies "divisions," " partitions," " sections," and refers to the ancient Oriental methods of conveying water to orchards and gardens. This was by means of canals or rivulets flowing in artificial channels, called in Hebrew "divisions" — /. e., "cuts" or "trenches" — which distributed the water in every direction, to irrigate abundantly the otherwise parched and barren soil. With a similar allusion, the Psalmist (Ps. 1: 3) says of the godly man, the lover of the divine law, that "he shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water" (divisions or sections of water), " that bringeth forth his fruit in his season, his leaf also shall not wither." The reference is doubtless to trees nourished by artificial irrigation, and the manner of this irrigation has been elaborately described by several modern travellers. Generall}', gardens contain a large quadrangular plat of ground, divided into lesser squares, with 898
walks between them. The walks are shaded with orange trees of a large-spreading size. Every one of these lesser squares is bordered with stone, and in the stone-work are troughs, very artificially contrived, for conveying the water all over the garden, there being little outlets cut at every tree for the stream, as it passes by, to flow out and water it. In Deut. 11 : 10 it is said of the Land of Promise, " The land whither thou goest in to possess it, is not as the land of Egypt, from whence ye came out, where thou sowedst thy seed, and wateredst it with thy foot, as a garden of herbs." The phrase " watering with the foot" may refer to the construction or opening of the channels and watercourses like those above mentioned, which was accomplished by the action of the foot. So also in 2 Kgs. 19 : 24, " I have digged and drunk strange waters and with the sole of my feet have I dried up all the rivers of besieged places"— i. e., "I have digged new channels by the labors of the spade, have turned the rivers out of their ancient courses "—which consequently were dried up—" and thus have made my army to drink of strange waters, flowing in channels to which they had never before been accustomed." Another, and some think much more natural, opinion is that allusion is made to the machinery for drawing up water by means of a rope or string of buckets attached to a wheel, which was turned like a modern tread-wheel. Besides its ordinary use, water was employed sj'mbolically, as in the Tabernacles, Feast of, which see, and once at least on a fast-day. 1 Sam. 7 : 6. Water indicates cleansing, and therefore is used in baptism and also of spiritual blessings. John 3:5; 7 : 37-39; Rev. 22: 17.
WATER OF JEAL'OUSY. Num. 5 : 11-31. See Adultery.
WATER OF SEPARA'TIO?*', OR WALTER OF UNCLEAN'-NESS, was sprinkled upon a person defiled by contact with the dead. See Num. 19.
WA'TER-POT. The custom of washing the feet necessitated the use of a large amount of water on festive occasions. Hence, in John 2 : 6 there is mention made of six stone water-pots which held about 25 gallons apiece.
WAV
WEE
The water-pot of the woman of Samaria, John 4 : 28. was much smaller.
WAVE-OF'FERING, a peculiar feature of the rite of peace-offering, the right shoulder of the victim, considered the choicest piece, being *' heaved," and eaten only by the priests, while the breast was " waved," and eaten by the worshippers. On the second day of the Passover a sheaf of corn was waved together with an unblemished lamb of the first year. From this ceremony the days were to be counted till Pentecost, on which feast the first-fruits of the ripe corn and two lambs of the first year were waved. Ex. 29 : 24, 27 ; Lev. 7 : 30, 34: 8 : 27: 9 : 21 : 10 : 14, 15: 23: 10, 15, 20; Num. 6:20: 18 : 11, 18, 26-29.
WAX, a well-known substance made from the combs of bees, easily softened and dissolved by heat, is often used in Scripture as a means of illustration. Ps. 68 : 2 : 97 : 5; Mic. 1 : 4.
WEAN. As a daily portion was not allotted to Levite children until they reached the age of three years, 2 Chr. 31 : 16, it has been inferred that among the Jews children continued to suckle up to that time. The weaning was celebrated by a feast. Gen. 21 : 8.
WEAP'ONS. Neh. 4 : 17. See Arms.
WEA'SEL, generally agreed to mean the mole. See Mole. Lev. 11 : 29.
WEAVE. Various woven fabrics are spoken of as having been produced by the Israelites during their wander-
ings—such as curtains of goats' hair, Ex. 26 : 7 ; woollen garments, Lev. 13 : 47; twined linen, Ex. 26 : 1 ; and the embroidered raiment of the priests. Ex. 28 : 4, 39. Afterward the art of weaving is often mentioned, 1 Chr. 4 : 21; 2 Kgs. 23 : 7: Prov. 31 : 13, 24: also the various tools—such as the shuttle, the beam, the thrum, etc. Job
Ancient Roman Loom.
7 : 6; 1 Sam. 17 : 7 : Isa. 38 : 12. The loom itself is not mentioned, however. WED'DING-GAR']>IENT. The
wedding-garments were furnished by the host, and were required to be worn by those who were admitted as guests at marriage-suppers. Matt. 22 : 11.
WEEK. The division of time into portions of seven days found among many different nations which cannot have ado])ted it from one another— such as the Chinese. Peruvians, etc.— is by some referred back to the order of the creation, and by others to the " seven planets," the principal fact in ancient astronomy.
The Jews gave no special names to the days of the week, but simply distinguished them by their number, as the first, second, or third day. The names of the days now in use in the English language are derived from the Saxon, in which they had a mythological signification.
Besides weeks of seven days, which were rendered from one Sabbath to another, the Jews had a week of years, or seven years, and a week of seven times seven years, which brought in the fiftieth or iuhilee vear.
WEEKS, FEAST OF. See Pentecost.
WEI
WHI
WEIGHTS. See Measures.
WELLS were very essential in a dry and hot country like Palestine, and were generally provided at each place of pasturage with a great outlay of labor. They were deep, John 4 : 11, and difficult both to dig and preserve, and hence were a valuable part of the husbandman's property. Num. 20 : 17-19. They were sometimes owned in common. Gen.'29:2, 3. To protect them from the sand and from being used by others, they were covered, usually with a stone, and surrounded with a low wall. Gen. 29 : 2, 8. To stop them up was, and still is, regarded as an act of hostility. Gen. 26 : 15, and to invade the right of property in them was often the cause of sharp contention. Gen. 21 : 25. The water was sometimes drawn by a well-sweep and bucket, sometimes by a windlass, but generally by pitchers and a rope. In a country where water was so valuable and so difficult to be procured, the well naturally became the centre of many scenes of actual life —the halting-place of the traveller. Gen. 24: 11; the camping-place of armies, Jud. 7 : 1, etc.—and it furnished an appropriate emblem of rich blessings. Jer. 2 : 13 ; 17 : 13. See Jacob's Well and Brrr-sheba.
WHALE. In the Mosaic account of the creation, when we are told that on the fifth day God created great whales, sea-monsters in general are doubtless meant. Gen. 1 : 21. The original of " whale " is often translated " dragon " or "leviathan," and, according to the derivation of the Hebrew, the word denotes a creature of great leiu/th, without being restricted to marine animals.
Neither the 0. T. nor the N. T., when correctly rendered, affirms that it was a whale which swallowed Jonah, but *' a great fish." Jon. 1:17; Matt. 12 : 40. The creature referred to is very likely to have been the white shark, which is abundantly capable of such a feat. The whale is, however, occasionally found in the Mediterranean Sea. The skeleton of one was to be seen in Bey-rout in 1^77. See Jonah, Leviathan.
WHEAT. In Palestine this most important of all grains was sown after barley, late in the fall. It was not only scattered broadcast and then ploughed, harrowed, or trodden in, Isa. 32 : 20, but 900
it seems, according to the Hebrew of Isa. 28 : 25, to have been planted in rows or drills, as it certainly often is at present in Syria. Wheat-harvest is about a month later than barley-harvest, usually in May.
Sixty, or even one hundred, grains may sometimes be counted in an ear of this cereal, according to Tristram, and, as several stalks may spring from a single seed with thorough cultivation, the increase of Matt. 13 : 8 is not at all incredible.
Wheat is still produced for export east of the Jordan, where probably Minnith, Eze. 27 : 17, was located. The whole land once produced vast quantities of this cereal, and will again when agriculture is protected and encouraged. Deut. 8:8. In the days of Jacob this grain was already so much cultivated in Mesopotamia that " wheat-harvest " denoted a well-known season. Gen. 30 : 14.
The many-eared variety, or mummy-wheat, still sometimes cultivated in Egypt and represented on its monuments, is referred to in Pharaoh's dream.
Egyptian Wheat.
Gen. 41 : 22. In our translation this grain is often mentioned under the general name of '' corn." See Corn, Thrksh.
WHIT'ED SEPULCHRES. Matt. 23 : 27. It was customary to
WID
WIL
whitewash the Jewish sepulchres annually, that they might be distinctly seen and avoided, inasmuch as coming in contact with them was the occasion of ceremonial defilement. Num. 19 : 16. This practice gave them a clean and beautiful appearance, and presented a striking contrast to the dark and offensive mass of putrefaction within.
WID'OW. By the Jewish law, Deut. 25 : 5, if a married man died leaving no children, his brother was required to marry the widow, in order, first, that the estate might be kept in the family, and, second, that he might, in their descendants, perpetuate the name. This ])re-scription refers only to the family and the estate, and paj's no regard to the individual; but there are other prescriptions in the Mosaic Law which show great kindness and circumspection in behalf of the widowed woman. Ex. 22 : 22; Deut. 14:29; 16:11,14; 24:17, 19-21; 26:12; 27:19.
WIFE. See Marriage.
WILD BEASTS. See Beast.
WIL'DERNESS, Ex. 14 : 8, and DESERT. These words do not necessarily imply a mere waste, but rather extensive tracts not under cultivation and affording rich and abundant pasturage. Josh. 15 : 61 ; Isa. 42 : 11. The principal tracts of this description were the wilderness of Jericho, those of Judah, En-gedi, Ziph-maon, Beer-sheba, Tekoa, Gibeon, and Bethaven. See these under their respective heads.
WILDERNESS OF SIN. Ex. 16 : 1. See AVii.derness. the, of the Wandering, and Zin. Wilderness of.
WILDERNESS, THE, OF THE WANDERING, usually spoken of as THE WIL'DERNESS, the region in which the Israelites spent forty 5'ears, between Egypt and Canaan. It is called sometimes the "great and terrible wilderness" by wav of eminence. Deut. 1:1; 8:2; Josh. 5 : 6 ; Neh. 9 : 19, 21 ; Ps. 78 : 40, 52 : 107 : 4 ; Jer. 2 : 2. In general, it may be identified with the great peninsula of Sinai, the triangular region between the Gulf of Akabah, Seir, and Edom on the east, and the Gulf of Suez and Egypt on the west. See Sinai. In this region there are several smaller wildernesses, as Etham, Paran, Shir, Zin, which see. What is known distinctively as the ''wilderness
of the Wandering," Badiet et- Tih, is the great central limestone plateau between the granite region of Sinai on the south, the sandy desert on the north, and the valley of the Arabah on the east. The explorations of travellers and the British Ordnance Survey have made this region quite well known.
The route of the Israelites from Egypt to Kadesh can be traced with reasonable accuracy. Instead of entering the Promised Land immediately from Kadesh, they were driven back into the wilderness for their disobedience, and there wandered for forty years. It need not be supposed that they were continually on the move or that they were unable to find their way. They probably lived a nomad life, as do the Bedouin Arabs of the present day, moving from place to place and pitching their tents wherever they could find pasture for their flocks. Some of the stations named cannot be identified, though the line of march may be traced until they left the wilderness and advanced toward the Promised Land by Mount Seir and Edom. See Map at end of book.
It is said of those composing the British Survej'^ : " Not a single member of the expedition returned home without feeling more firmly convinced than ever of the truth of that sacred history which he found illustrated and confirmed by the natural features of the desert. The mountains and valleys, the very rocks, barren and sun-scorched as they now are. only seem to furnish evidence which none who behold them can gainsay that this was that ' great and terrible wilderness' through which Moses, under God's direction, led his jieople."— Recovery of Jerumleiii, p. 429. (See also Palmer's Desert of the E.rndiiM.) See SiNAI, Ex-onrs. Jrn.EA. Wilderness of.
WILL, in the sense of a testamentary writing, does not occur in Scripture, and, with respect to landed property, such a disposition must have been very limited, on account of the right of redemption and general re-entry in the I jubilee year. With respect to houses in walled towns such difficulties did not exist, and it is ap])arent, from 2 Sam. 17 : 23 ; 2 Kgs. 20 : 1 ; Isa. 38 : 1. that property of this kind was bequeathed by will.
WIL'LOW, a familiar tree, often
WIL
WIN
referred to in the Bible, which flourishes best in marshy ground and on the borders of watercourses. Several species grow in Palestine. The beautiful weeping willow is also called the Babylonian willow, in allusion to Ps. 137 : 2 ; and, as this tree flourishes on the banks of the Euphrates, the name is otherwise appropriate. Before the Captivit}' the willow was an emblem of joy, Lev. 23 : 40, but afterward, through the influence of the Psalm mentioned above, it ceased to be associated with the palm, and, like the cypress, became significant of sorrow. The oleander of our conservatories is indigenous in the Holy Land and fringes many of its waters with living green, the lower Jordan, however, being too warm for it. Sometimes it grows to such size that travellers encamp under its shade. On the western shore of the Sea of Galilee it is especially abundant, as the poet Keble beautifully sings:
"Where Gennesaret's wave Delights the flowers to lave, That o'er her western slope breathe airs of balm. All through the summer's night Those blossoms, red and bright, Spread their soft breasts, unheeding, to the » breeze,
Like hermits watching still Around the sacred hill. Where erst our Saviour watch'd upon his knees."
As the oleander resembles the willow in leaf, general appearance, and love of water, it may be sometimes referred to under that name. Dean Stanley has suggested that it may be the tree ''planted by the rivers of water," mentioned in Ps. 1 : 3. But the oleander was a wild shrub, and was not planted. The palm meets the conditions better.
WIL LOWS, BROOK OF THE, on the southern boundary of Moab. Isa. 15 : 7. It is now the Wddy el-AJcKn.
WIM'PLES, supposed by some to mean a broad, full mantle or shawl, like the veil which Ruth had, Ruth 3:15, and by others a veil, coif, or hood. Isa. 3:22.
WIND. The east wind was, in Palestine, injurious to vegetation. Its general character may be inferred from Gen. 41:6; Job 1 : 19 ; Ps. 11 : 6; Isa. 27 : 8 : Jer. 4 : 11-13 : Eze. 17 : 10 : 19 : 12 ; 27 : 26 ; Hos. 13 : 15. The south 902
wind brought heat, Luke 12 : 55, coming from Arabia; the simoom, however, did not reach Palestine. The south-west and the north gave fair weather. Job 37 : 9, 22 ; Prov. 25 : 23. The west wind, coming from the Mediterranean, gave rain.
WIN'DOW, In Eastern houses the windows are single apertures in the wall, opening upon the court within, not upon the street without, which gives a melancholy aspect to the streets. There is, however, sometimes a projecting balcony or porch in front of the house, carefully closed by lattice-work, and opened only at the occasion of some festival. From such a place Jezebel is supposed to have been looking out when she was seized and put to death by Jehu. 2 Kgs. 9 : 30. And this was probably called the "casement." Prov. 7:6; see also Cant. 2 : 9. Glazed windows were entirely unknown among the Hebrews, and are scarcely ever seen in the East at the present day. Before the Christian era, and, indeed, for several centuries after, glass was too costly to come into general use.
WINE. There has been some controversy as to the nature and qualities of the liquor which is called wine in our Scriptures. Various words are used in the Hebrew text, and no doubt various products are thus denoted, but the characteristic common to them all seems to be that of an intoxicating drink. Lev. 10 : 9: Num. 28 : 7 : Prov. 3 : 10 ; Dan. 5 : 1.
Like all other countries, Canaan had wines of various strength and character. The vine grew luxuriantly in Palestine, bearing immense clusters of grapes, and various kinds of wine produced in Palestine were remarkable both for their power and their flavor, such as the wine of Lebanon and that of Helbon, near Damascus. Eze. 27:18; Hos. 14:7. Often mentioned in connection with corn and oil as one of the great gifts of Nature to man, it was kept in every household and produced on occasions of hospitality or festivals. Gen. 14: 18; John 2 : 3. But by the Jews, as by other people, it was often misused, and its misuse is most severely condemned not only in the N. T., but also in the 0. T., Prov. 20 : 1 ; 23 : 29-35; Isa. 5 : 22 ; 28 : 1-7 ; 56 : 12 ; Hos. 4:11, and in some cases it is expressly forbidden. Lev. 10 : 9; Num. 6 : 3. In the Mosaic ritual it
WIN
WIN
formed the usual drink-offering at the I daily sacrifices, Ex. 29 : 40, at the presentation of the first-fruits. Lev. 23 : \'^, and at other offerings, Num. 15 : 5, and a tithe was paid of it. Deut. 18 : 4. The Nazarite was forbidden to drink wine during the continuance of his vow, Nuui. 6 : 3, and the priest before performing the services of the temple. Lev. 10 : 9.
The "mixed wine" often mentioned by the sacred writers, Ps. 75 : S ; Prov. 23 : 30, was not diluted withMvater, but, on the contrary, was increased in strength or improved in flavor and color by a mixture of drugs, herbs, and spices. Cant. 8 : 2. Some suppose, however, that the phrase "mixed wine" denotes wine rendered stronger by being shaken up and mingled with the lees.
WINE-FAT, WINE-PRESS. An excavation (probably rectangular) was made in the rock, or was formed in the ground and lined with mason-work, in which to crush the grapes. This was the press (Heb. f/^tfh), and another cavity, arranged to catch the juice, was the fat or vat. Ancient excavations of this kind remain in Palestine, and one of them is thus described by Robinson with his usual accuracy : " Advantage had been taken of a ledge of rock; on the upper side a shallow vat had been dug out, 8 feet square and 15 inches deep. Two feet lower down another smaller vat was excavated, 4 feet square by 3 feet deep. The grapes were trodden in the shallow upper vat, and the juice drawn off by a hole at the bottom (still remaining) into the lower vat." Both these vats are re-
ferred to in Joel 3:13. By the larger or upper receptacle Gideon threshed wheat for the sake of concealment. .Tud. 6 : 11. Such rook presses as these are still used in some parts of Syria.
Travellers tell us that the first vintage usually begins in the latter part of August; that they often see the black grapes spread on the ground in beds, exposed to the sun to dry for raisins, while
\\\ \\\\\\\\\ \\ m\ili//IW//illlll lllllll'/,
Til
Treading the Wine-Press.
at a little distance one or two, and sometimes as many as five, men are seen, with feet and legs bare, treading the fruit in a kind of cistern, or vat, usually about 8 feet square and 4 feet high, with a grated aperture near the bottom, through which
Ej^yptians expressing the Juice of the Grape.
the expressed juice runs into a vessel beneath. Isa.63:3; Hag. 2:16. Thetread-ers sung and shouted, Isa. 16 : 10, while the red blood of the grapes flowed around
them and thoroughly stained their flesh and garments. Isa. 63 : 1-3 : Jcr. 25 : 30 ; 48 : 33; Lam. 1:15; Rev. 19 : 13-
15.
WIN
WIT
The ancient Egyptian mode of expressing the juice of grapes may be learned from the preceding cut. The fruit is placed in a cloth, which is twisted and strained until the liquor is wrung out into a vessel below.
" Gath," a wine-press, is of common occurrence in the names of Hebrew localities. "Gethsemane" means'• an oil-press."
WmE-VES'SELS. The Hebrews, as well as the Greeks, preserved their wine in large earthen vessels or jars, which were buried up to their necks in the ground. These jars were quite large, containing often as much as one of our barrels. The must, or new wine, after being poured into such vessels,was stirred thrice a day for about twenty days with wooden rods. When wine was to be transported, the Persians sometimes decanted it into flasks or bottles, but skins are now in common use, as they were among the ancients. The Hebrews poured even the must, or new wine, into skins, but for this purpose they used such as were fresh and flexible, and therefore not liable to be broken by the fermentation of the liquor. Matt. 9:17.
By "new wine," Joel 1 : 5, is intended sweet wine, which was purer and stronger and more capable of preservation, and of course more inebriating. Isa. 49 : 26; Acts 2 : 13.
Drinking wine in bowls. Am. 6 : 6, is supposed to refer to the richness and magnificence of the vessels, and not to the quantity of wine drank.
WIN'NOVV. The process of winnowing among the Hebrews was much like that sometimes in use at the present day. The grain was taken upon a shovel and thrown up in the wind, and the lighter chaff and straw separated, sometimes by the help of a fan. Isa. 30: 24; 41 : 15, 16 ; Matt. 3 : 12. It was common to winnow grain at evening, when, in Palestine, the sea-breeze usually blows. Ruth 3 : 2. See Fax, Thresh.
WIN'TER lasts, in Palestine, from the beginning of December to the beginning of February, and is characterized by severe winds, frost, and snow-falls in the mountains, and by vehement winds, rain, and hail-storms in the lowland. Cant. 2:11. See Seasons.
WISDOM OF SOLOMON, THE BOOK OF, one of the most 904
interesting and valuable or the Apocrypha, gives a glowing exposition and commendation of true wisdom as described in Job 28:12 et seq.; Prov. 8 and 9. ^yisdom is represented as emanating from God as the highest good, and as the fountain of all true virtue and happiness. It was with God when he created the world, 8 : 24-o0 ; is initiated in his secret counsels, 8:22; emanates from him and accompanies all his actions,' rules and governs the world, and renews all things. 8:15. This idea prepared the way for the Logos doctrine of Philo and St. John. The literary form of its exposition resembles that of the Ecclesiasticus and the Proverbs. The Solomonic authorship is assumed, 8:10: 9:7, but only in the sense of personation. The author was probably a Jewish philosopher or theologian of Alexandria. He was a full believer in the 0. T. revelations, but also acquainted with Hellenic culture. From his school proceeded Philo, to whom the book has sometimes been ascribed; but the author was no doubt older, and stands between Jesus, son of Sirach, and Philo, about B. c. 100. The book, which was composed in Greek and is somewhat artificial in style, is not quoted before Irena?us.
WISE MEN. Matt. 2 :1. See MacxI. WIST, identical with ''knew." Ex. 16 : 15; Acts 12 : 9; 23 : 5.
WIT, from the A. V. wifan, to know. Gen. 24 : 21 ; Ex. 2 : 4. Hence " to do to wit" is "to cause you to know." 2 Cor. 8 : 1.
WITCH'CRAFT, 1 Sam. 15 : 2.3, WITCH, Deut. 18 : 10, WIZARD. Lev. 20 : 27. A man who pretends to supernatural power, so that he can foretell future events, cure diseases, call up or drive away spirits, or disclose information beyond the reach of the natural powers, is called a wizard. A woman of like practices is called a witch, and the evil art itself is called witchcraft. Not only those who made such foolish and wicked pretensions, but also those who sufi'ered themselves to be duped thereby, are most severely denounced both in the 0. T. and in the N. T. Ex. 22 : 18 ; Deut. 18 : 11, 12 ; Lev. 20 : 6; Nah. 3:4: Gal. 5 : 20.
WITHERED HAND. Matt. 12 : 10 ; Mark 3:1..''.; Luke 6 : 6, 8. The
WIT
WOR
man's hand was not only paralyzed, but dried up.
WITHS, a band of pliable twigs (as of the willow or osier kind), twisted closely together while green, and u?ed instead of ropes. The marginal reading of Jud. 16 : 7 is '• small cords."
WIT'NESS, one who gives testimony. Two or more witnesses were required by the Mosaic Law in judicial investigations, Deut. 17 : 6, 7; and when the sentence of stoning was pronounced, they were required to commence the process of execution. Acts 7 : 58. A false witness was to suffer that penalty which his testimony might have brought over the accused.
The witness of the Spirit with our spirit, Rom. 8:16, denotes the consciousness, more or less distinct, of the operations of the Spirit u{)on the mind, enlightening the understanding and inclining the subject of them to do the will of God.
John often exhibits the gospel in the light of a testimony, 1 John 5 : 9, and Christ himself is called "the faithful and true Witness," Rev. 1:5; 3:14, not only to the glory and perfection of the Father, but also to his own divine mission and to the universality and perpetuity of his kingdom.
WIZ'ARD. See Witchcraft.
WOE. Num. 21: 29. This term often denotes a feeling of compassion or S3'm-pathy, Matt. 24 : 19, or a simple lamentation as, "Alas for me !" Ps. 120 : 5. In other connections it is equivalent to the threatening of punishment. Ilab. 2 : 6, 9, 15. 19: Zech. 11 : 17.
WOLiF, a fierce, cruel, ravenous animal, in size and general appearance resembling a dog, and a most terrible enemy to sheep. Isa. 65 : 25 ; Matt. 7 : 15: 10 : 16; John 10 : 1 2 ; Acts 20 : 29. The rapaciousness of the tribe of Benjamin was foretold by Jacob by a comparison with the wolf. Gen. 49 : 27. See Jud. 20 and 21 and comp. 1 Sam. 9 : 1 and 20 : 31 and Acts 9:1; Rom. 11 : 1 ; rhil. 3 : 5. The Bible-writers also illustrate the cruelty of Israel's oppressors hy an allusion to the wolf. E/.e. 22 : 27, and the sallying forth of the evening wolf in search of prey, Ilab. 1 : 8, is emblematical of the destruction which awaits wicked men. Jer. 5 : 5, 6. The allusion Zeph. 3:3 is to the circum-
stance that the wolf in its greediness often seizes on more than it can consume. The wolf still lurks in Palestine, the dread of shepherds. As there found, it is of a pale fawn-color, but, although thus lighter than the common European species {Vaiiin litijim), seems to be only a variety of it.
WO'MAN, the companion and helper of man. and by ex|)rcss command nuide subject to him. (ien. 3: 16. The social position, however, of the Hebrew women contrasted very favorably with thnt now occupied by Oriental women, esjiocially among Muslims. They managed the affairs of the household, bringing the water from the well, Gen. 24 : 15; 1 Sjim. 9 : 11, attending to the flocks. Gen. 29 : 6 ; Ex. 2:16, preparing the meals, (>en. 18 : 6; 2 Sam. 13 : 8, si)iniiing, Ex. 35 : 26 ; Prov. 31 : 19, and making clothes. 1 Sam. 2:19: Prov. 31:21. Women mixed very freely in social life, ])ar-taking in festivals both as hostess and guest. Job 1:4; John 2:3; 12:2. See also Miriam, Ex. 15 : 20, 21 ; Jeph-thah's daughter, Jud. 11 : 34 ; the maidens of Shiloh dancing in the vineyards, Jud. 21 : 21 ; the woman feting Saul and David. 1 Sam. 18 : 6, 7, etc. They even held positions in public life. See Miriam, Ex. 15 : 20 : Iluldah, 2 Kgs. 22 : 14; Noadiah, Neh. 6 : 14; Anna, Luke 2 : 36 ; and Deborah.
The word " woman," when used as a term of salutation, as in Matt. 15 : 28: John 2 : 4, implies no disrespect, but great tenderness and courtesy. It was thus that our Saviour addressed Mary under the most touching circumstances. John 20 : 15.
WOOL, as the principal material for the manufacture of clothing, was highly valued bv the Jews, Lev. 13 : 47 ; Deut. 22 : 11 ; Job 31: 20 ; Prov. 31 : 13 ; Eze. 34 : 3 ; Hos. 2 : 5, and the wool of Damascus enjoyed a great reputation in the market of Tvre. Eze. 27 : 18.
WORD (Lo:iox), THE, is one of the titles of Jesus Christ. Just as we express ourselves by words, so God expresses his mind to the world, his boundless love, his inflexible justice, through Christ, his Word. The term occurs only in the writings of John. John 1 : l-Il : 1 John 1:1; Rev. 19 : 13. It has been made a question whether John borrowed the term from Philo, who also uses
WOR
WOR
it, or whether he used it independently. But they do not mean the same thing. The "Word" of Philo was an abstraction ; the ''Word" of John was the Son of God.
WORD OF GOD. See Bible.
WORKS. Good works, Eph. 2 : 10, are such as proceed from love to God and are done in obedience to liis law and from a regard to his gloi-y. We are saved by faith,"butfaithwithoutworks is dead" — i. e., it is without any evidence of life. Works constitute the evidence and determine the strength and character of faith. Jas. 2 : 17, 18, 26. In some places the word is used in our translation to denote miracles. Num. 16 : 28; John 5 : 20; 10 : 25.
WORLD. This word in the A. V. is the translation of five Hebrew and four Greek words. It is therefore not always plain in what sense it is used. The Hebrew terms have these literal meanings : " The earth," " rest," " the grave," Isa. 38 : 11; "the world," corresponding to nion in the N. T., or that which is finite, temporary. Job 11: 17; " the veiled," unlimited time, whether past or future; used very frequently, and generally translated "for ever ;" and finally, the poetical term for " world," which occurs some thirty-seven times, but in various meanings which are easily understood. When the Hebrews desired to express the universe, they employed a phrase like " heaven and earth and the sea, and all that in them is." Ex. 20 : 11.
In the N. T. the Greek words are equally diverse:
1. Aion, " duration," thus used of time past, Luke 1 : 70, of time present, with the idea of evil, both moral and physical. Mark 4:19. Hence "children of this world," or worldly men, Luke 16 : 8; and so Satan is called " the god of this world." 2 Cor. 4 : 4. Aion is also put for endless duration, eternity, 1 Tim. 6 : 16, to signify the material world as created by the Deity, Heb. 11 : 3; also the world to come, the kingdom of the Messiah.
2. Ge, the earth, in contrast to the heavens. Rev. 13 : 3.
3. Knsmns, used in several senses: {n) the universe, the heavens, and the earth. Matt. 13 : 35, and thence for the inhabitants of the universe, 1 Cor. 4 : 9, and an aggregate. Jas. 3 : 6. {h) This lower world as the abode of man, John 16 : 18;
906
the inhabitants of the earth or mankind. Matt. 5 : 14. (c) The present world, as opposed to the kingdom of Christ. John 12 : 25; specifically, the wealth and enjoyments and cares cf this world. Matt. 16 : 26, and so for those who seek the opposite things to the kingdom of God, the worldlings. John 15 : 19.
4. Oikonmeite, the inhabited earth, Matt. 24 : 14, the people of it. Acts 17 : 31, sometimes the Roman empire (the then civilized world), Acts 17 : 6, including Palestine and adjacent parts. Luke 2:1; Acts 11 : 28.
The Jews distinguished two worlds, or Eeons, the present aon to the appearance of the Messiah, and the future ason, or the Messianic era, which is to last for ever. The closing days of the present order of things were called "the last days." Isa. 2:2; Mic. 4:1; Acts 2 : 17. The same pliraseology is found in the N. T., but the dividing-line is marked by the second instead of the first advent of the Messiah. Matt. 12 : 32 ; 1 Cor. 10 : 11; Gal. 4:3: Heb. 1:2; 6:5: 9 : 26.
WORM. Several Hebrew words are thus translated which seem to designate indefinitely caterpillars or maggots, either as destructive, as loathsome, or as helpless and insignificant. For the larva of the clothes-moth, evidently mentioned in Isa. 51 : 8, see Moth. In Mic. 7:17, "worm" should be "serpent " or " reptile." From the circumstance that maggots are found in putrefying flesh, we have the figurative expressions in Job 19 : 26; 21 : 26; 24 : 20 ; Isa. 14 : 11. Owing to the constant accumulation of filth and putrefaction in a valley near Jerusalem it was always alive with worms, and fires were maintained day and night to consume the sources of pestilence. Hence the allusion Isa. 66 : 24 ; Mark 9 : 44, 46, 48. At an advanced stage of some diseases worms are bred in the flesh from the eggs of the insect. Job 7:5; 17 : 14; Acts 12 : 23. The meanness of these creatures, and their liability to be trodden under foot, afford the illustrations in Job 25 : 6: Ps. 22 : 6: Isa. 41 : 14.
WORM'WOOD. At least five species of this plant (Artemisia) are found in the Holy Land, and are distinguished for intense bitterness. Hence this word is often joined with or used in
WOR
WRI
the same sense as "gall" and "hemlock " to denote what is offensive and nauseous. Deut. 29: IS; Prov. 5:4; Am. 5 : 7 ; 6 : 12. To be obliged to use it as food expresses the extreme of suffering. Jer. 9 : If); 23:15; Lam. 3: 1.^,19.
WOR'SHIP. This word, as used in our Bible, has various significations. In most instances it means sitnply an act of respect, Matt. 9 : IS ; Acts'10 : 25, and does not imply any religious emotion. Where the act respects the divine Being, the only proper object of religious worship, the connection shows it. John 4 : 24: Heb. 1:6; Rev. 22 : 9. It becomes idolatry when tendered to anv other person or thing. Dan. 3 : 5, 12. 14; Acts 19 : 27.
WORSHIPPER, in Acts 19 : 35, should be " temple-keeper," a term applied to cities devoted to the worship of some special idol, as Ephesus was to that of Diana.
WOT, WOT'TETH, indicative present of the old verb " to wit "— i. e., "to know." Gen. 39 : 8.
WREST'LIIVG. See Games.
WRIT'ING is either ideographic or phonetic. In ideographic writing the signs used represent the ideas themselves, either pictorially by direct imitation of the object, or symbolically, as when the picture of an eye is used to convey the idea of sight or knowledge, and the picture of a lion the idea of courage. In phonetic writing the signs simply represent the sounds of which a word is composed, sometimes encompassing them in whole syllables, sometimes dissolving them in single letters. Ideographic writing—that is, writing by pictures or in hieroglyphics—is an art of very ancient date, and is even now common in many savage nations. In its most unimproved form it is found among our American aborigines, and was the common method used by the Mexicans, some of whose ancient, pictures of this kind are preserved.
The most numerous and remarkable specimens of hieroglyphic writing exist in Egypt; they have been sought out by travellers and copied in drawings and copperplates, but have baffled the ingenuity and labor of many ages. A distinguished French antiquary, Cham-poUion, was the first who succeeded in deciphering a great number of them, I
and his labors have thrown great light upon the Scriptures and vindicated the Mosaic history from a multitude of objections. Now a hieroglyphic inscription can be read as accurately as a classical one.
As an example of an old method of phonetic writing may bo mentioned the cuneiform inscriptions found on old Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian monuments. The characters very much resemble arrow-heads, and the key to decipher them was not found until between 1800 and 1815, by Grotefend. It is evident also that the Jews were very early in possession of phonetic writing.
Through all the Mosaic history books and writing are mentioned as in familiar use. Ex. 17 : 14; 2 Sam. 11 : 14 : 1 Kgs. 21 : 8, 9, 11 ; 2 Kgs. 10 : 1, 2, 6, 7. The alphabet which the Jews used was a development of the Phoenician alphabet, and underwent various changes in course of time. The materials used in writing were tablets of stone, Ex. 31 : 18; 32 : 15, 16, 19; 34 : 1, 4, 28, 29, or box-wood and brass, or plaster, Deut. 27 : 2 ; Josh. 8 : 32, or skin, which was made into the finest parchment or vellum. For hard materials an iron stylus or engraver's tool was used. Job 19 : 24; Ps. 45 : 1 ; Isa. 8:1; Jer. 8:8; 17 : 1, but for parchment a reed pen and ink. 2 Cor. 3:3; 2 John 12: 3 John 13. The parchment was not cut in leaves, forming a book, but put together in long rolls. See Pen.
The practice of employing an amanuensis was much more common in ancient days than now. Hence, Paul gives as an authentication of his letters a few words written with his own hand. 1 Cor. 16 : 21 : Col. 4:18; 2 Thess. 3 : 17. This fact also explains Rom. 16 : 22. The size of the apostle's writing is indicated. Gal. 6:11.
The luk of the ancients was made of pulverized charcoal or the black of burnt ivory and water, with the addition of some kind of gum. The ink of the East at the present day is a much thicker substance than ours, but is not permanent; a wet sponge will obliterate the finest of their writing. The iii/chorx was, an<l is, a long tube containing the reed pens, with a little case fastened at the side to hold the ink. The whole is thrust into the girdle. See Book.
YAR
YOK
Y.
YARN, LINEN. 1 Kgs. 10 : 28. There is a diversity of opinion as to the meaning of this term. There is very strong reason to doubt the correctness of the rendering in our translation, and to substitute for it '"the drove"— i.e., of horses. See Eze. 27 : 7.
YEAR. The Jewish year had two commencements. The religious year began with the month Abib (April), the civil with Tisri (October). The year was solar. There were two seasons, summer and winter, Ps. 74 : 17; Zech. 14 : 8; Jer. 36 : 22; Am. 3 : 15. The months were lunar, of thirty days each, and twelve in number, although a thirteenth was sometimes necessarily intercalated. It was called Ve-adar. The festivals, holy days, and fasts of the year were as follows:
1. The feast of the Passover, the 14th day of the first month.
2. The feast of unleavened bread, in the same month, from the 15th to 21st, inclusive.
3. The feast of Pentecost, called also feast of harvest and '* day of first fruits," on the day which ended seven weeks, counted from the 16th of the first month, that day being excluded.
4. The feast of trumpets, on the first day of the seventh month,
5. The day of atonement, a fast, on the Iflth day of the seventh month.
6. The feast of tabernacles, or of gathering, from the 15th to the 22d day, inclusive, of the seventh month.
The post-Mosaic festivals are Purim, in the twelfth month of Adar, loth to 15th day, and dedication, on the 25th day of the ninth month.
YEAR OF JUBILEE. Lev. 25 : 8-10. See Jtbilee, Year of.
YEAR, SABBAT'ICAL. In the seventh year all agricultural labor was suspended, and spontaneous productions were left to the poor, the traveller, and the wild beasts. Lev. 25 : 1-7. This was (1) For the sake of the ground; (2) For the preservation of wild beasts ; and (3) To make the people provident and sensible of dependence. The people could 908
fish, hunt, take care of bees and flocks, repair buildings, manufacture clothes, and carry on commerce. This year was religiously observed, Deut, 31 : 10-13. There was, moreover, a general release-, no debt to a Jew was allowed to stand, but must be forgiven. Deut. 15 : 1-11.
It has been inferred from 2 Chr. 26 : 21 that this sabbatical year was neglected during seventy Sabbatical cycles— /. e., four hundred and ninety years. Whether it was ever observed is not a matter of certain record, but there is an allusion to it in 1 Mace. 6 : 49, and Luke 6 : 1 has been interpreted to refer to the " first Sabbath of the second year in the cycle."
YOKE. This was much lighter than ours, and probably much larger, so that the cattle stood farther apart and the plough could more easily be made to avoid obstructions. It was simply a stick
Yoke in Use in Palestine. a, h, tiniVier of the yoke; c, d, the bows ; e, e, pegs between which, at g, tlie end of the shaft comes, the shaft itself having been run through the rope between / and the cross-piece of wood h, i.
laid upon the necks of the cattle, to which it was held by thongs instead of wooden bows, and in a similar manner it was attached to the plough-beam. In modern Syria wooden pins are sometimes used instead of thongs, the lower ends of which are held by a parallel stick under the necks of the oxen.
The yoke was an appropriate emblem of subjection and of slavery, imprisonment, and severe rule, while the removal of it indicated the corresponding deliverance. Gen. 27 : 40 : Jer. 2 : 20 ; Matt. 11: 29, 30. Breaking the yoke also represents the rejection of authority. Nah. 1 : 13.
ZAA
ZAC
z.
ZAANA'IM (reworrt^s), THE
PLAIN OF, more accurately "the oak of," where Heber the Ktnite pitched his tent. Jud. 4:11. This has been identified with a phiin some 2 or 8 miles north-west of the Waters of Merom [Lake Hiileh), in the line of the hills which form the western boundary of the Jordan valley. The plain is about 2 miles long and 1 mile wide, and completely surrounded by hills. The hills are well wooded and have many " oaks." In the middle of the western side of this plain is the site of Kedesh-naphtali, or Kedesh. Conder says that Kedesh-uaphtali is 30 miles from Tabor, over a difficult country. He suggests another Kedesh, and the identification of Zaanaim with Jiensuin, east of Tabor. See Zaananxim.
ZA'ANAN {place of flocks). Mic. 1: 11. Conder suggests for it Khurhet S&meli. See Zenan.
ZAANAN'NIM {removaU), a place on the border of Naphtali, not far from Kedesh. Josh. 19 : 33. Identical with Zaaxaim. which see.
ZA'AVAN idinqnieted), a Horite chief. Gen. 36 : 27 : 1 Chr. 1 : 42.
ZA'BAD {qift). 1. One of David's mighty men. 1 Chr. 2 : 36, 37 ; 11 : 41.
2. An Ephraimite slain by the Gath-ites. 1 Chr. 7:21.
3. Oneof the murderers of King Joash, 2 Chr. 24 : 26 : called Jozachar in 2 Kgs. 12 : 21, probably the more'correct form.
4. 5, 6. Three who had foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 27, 33, 43.
ZAB'BAI {pure). 1. One who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 28.
2. The father of a repairer of the wall. Neh. 3:20.
ZAB'BUD (ffireu), one who returned with Ezra. Ezr. 8:14.
ZAB'DI (f/>Yt of Jehovah). 1. A Judite. Josh. 7:1, 17, 18.
2. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8:19.
3. The superintendent of David's vintage. 1 Chr. 27 : 27.
4. A mnsif*a1 Lcvite. Neh. 11 : 17. ZAB'DIEL dfi/'t of (l„d). 1. The
father of the chief of David's guard. 1 Chr. 27:2.
2. A prominent priest who returned. Neh. 11:14.
ZA'BIJD iqlvrn), "the friend" of Solomon. 1 Kgs. 4 : 5.
ZAB'UIiOIV, the Greek form of Zkuihn, which see. Matt. 4:13,15; Rev. 7 : 8.
ZACCAI (pure), the ancestor of seven hundred and sixty persons who returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2:9; Neh. 7:14.
ZACCH.E'US (pure). The story of his conversion is related only by Luke. 19 : 2-10. He was a rich Jew, resident in Jericho, and chief officer of the tax- or tribute-collectors in that place, and hence "a sinner," for the Jews regarded all publicans or tax-gatherers in this light. The revenue in Jericho was doubtless considerable, and mainly derived from taxes on the balsam so abundantly produced in the neighborhood, all along tb.z banks of the Jordan. His desire to see Christ was so much excited that he took pains to climb into a tree by the roadside that he might have a fair view of him as the crowd passed. Jesus, knowing his character and motives, proposed to sjiend the day with him, to which Zaccha}us gladly assented. His mind was probably brought at once under the influence of the Spirit of God. and on that very day he and his family became interested in the salvation of the gospel. He gave the best evidence of the sincerity of his conversion by declaring his intention to give half his goods to the poor and to restore fourfold for every illegal exaction he had made. Our Lord probal)ly passed the night in his house, and on the next morning passed on with the Passover pilgrims to Jerusalem. The name Zacehaus appears in the 0. T. in the form " Zaccai."
ZACTIIE'lTS. See Zxcru.r.is.
Z AC'CHUR (hi/;u//'i</), a Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4:26.
ZAC'CUR imiudfnl). 1. A Rcu-benite. the fither of the spy from that tribe. Num. 13 : 4.
2. A Merarite Levite. 1 Chr. 24:27.
3. A son of Asaph, and head of a
ZAC
ZAL
course of singers. 1 Chr. 25 : 2, 10; Neh. 12 : 35.
4. One who helped to build the wall. Neh. 3 : 2.
5. A Levite who sealed the covenant. Neh. 10:12.
6. A Levite, father of a treasurer under Nehemiah. Neh. 13 : 13.
ZACHARI'AH (remembered by Jehovah). The name is the same in Hebrew as Zechariah, which also see. 1. Son and successor of Jeroboam II., king of Israel, and the last of the house of Jehu. 2 Kgs. 14 : 29. He reigned only six months, and then fell by the hand of Shallum, who took the throne. 2 Kgs. 15 : 8-11 ; comp. Am. 7 : 9.
2. The father of Abi or Abijah, King Hezekiah's mother, 2 Kg?. 18 : 2 ; called Zechariah in 2 Chr. 29 : 1.
ZACHARI'AS, properly ZACHARI'AH (remembered by Jehovah). 1. Our Lord mentions a Zacharias, son of Barachias, as having been slain between the '' sanctuary " (not •' altar," but the inner shrine) and the temple, Matt. 23 : 35; Luke 11 : 51: probably the person of that name whose death under such circumstances is mentioned in 2 Chr. 24: 20-22. It is true that not this Zachariah, but Urijah, was the last 0. T. martyr, Jer. 26 .•23; but inasmuch as Second. Chronicles was the last book of the canon according to the Jewish arrangement, our Lord took an instance from it, as he took Abel from Genesis, the first. The principal objection to this identification is that this Zacharias is stated to have been the son of Jehoiada, and not of Barachiah; but the word "son" may be used in its usual lax sense, and Barachiah may have been his grandfather.
2. The father of John the Baptist, and husband of Elisabeth, which it is interesting to remark is the same name as ** Elisheba," the name of the wife of Aaron. Ex. 6 : 23. He was a priest of the course of Abia, which was the eighth of the twenty-four classes into which the descendants of Eleazar and Ithamar, the sons of Aaron, were divided. 1 Chr. 24. Each of these ministered in the temple one week. But this fact does not enable us in any wise to determine the date of the occurrence mentioned in Luke 1. Of Zacharias and Elisabeth we read: " They were both righteous before God, walking in all the commandments and 910