BIB

^t4■ y*aty» nu ' ^v t'ircpg '^ tp< r wX *'g* ^*^««f*«r»*«oir fc-^'" . ■■., _ ■■ V ._\ m i.7rtL umxrri f^ f*

10th Cent. Codex Basiliensis, known to Erasmus, but little used by him. -Luke i. 1-2 nearly, as in all Greek Testaments.

BIB

division is very elaborate. It originated in the liturgical use in worship ; and so, the more the books were used, the more complete was the notation. The N. T. quotations from the 0. T. for the most part are cited with no more specific reference than to the book from which they come, but sometimes in other ways: thus, " the bush " quoted from in Mark 12 : 26 and Luke 20 : 37 was a familiar section of our present Exodus, and was only one of similar terms for other parts. In like manner, the existence of a cycle of lessons is indicated by Luke 4:17; Acts 13 : 15 ; 15 : 21; 2 Cor. 3 : 14, and this, whether identical or not with the later Rabbinic cycle, must have involved an analogous arrangement to that subsequently adopted. Prof. Plumptre, in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible says: " The Law was divided first, much later the Prophets; the former into fifty-four sections, to correspond with the number of Sabbaths in the Jewish intercalary year. But these sections were subdivided to fit them for reading by diflFerent persons in the synagogue service. The Prophets were not so uniformly nor so imperatively divided. Yet in intention these sections corresponded to the sections of the Law, so that they together constitute a 'table of lessons' for Sabbath public use. Some time in the ninth century a. d. the sections were divided into verses."

2. The New Testament. —The Gospels were divided first about the middle of the third century (a. d. 220), by Am-monius of Alexandria, into short chapters, " constructed to facilitate the comparison of corresponding passages of the several Gospels." Later on the Acts, the Pauline and the Catholic Epistles, and finally, about a.d. 500, the Revelation, were thrown into chapters.

Our present division of all the books in the Bible into chapters is much later, dating from Cardinal Hugo de St. Cher (died 1263), whose Concordance to the Vulgate popularized the use of verses likewise. This division was introduced into the Latin Bible, and afterward into the Greek 0. T.

The present system of verses was prepared and introduced by Robert Stephens in his Greek Testament, 1551.

While both these divisions are on the 124

whole well made, there are numerous places where correction is loudly demanded ; chapters begin in wrong places, and verses end in the midst of a sentence. These divisions are at best necessary evils. The reading of the Bible is interrupted by them, owing to the practice of ending with a chapter. Paragraph Bibles are to be commended, because in them the sections are arranged according to the writer's thought, irrespective of the chapters, and the verses are merely indicated by numbers on the margin. No verses are marked in Tyndale, Cov-erdale, or the Great Bible.

V. The Translations of the Bible. 1. Ancient Translations.

(a) Into Chaldee. —Since the Jews, during the Captivity, had lost command over Hebrew, it became necessary to translate the sacred books into their vernacular, the Chaldee. We find a reference to this state of things in Neh. 8 : 8. These Chaldee translations and paraphrases are called Targums (the word means interpretation), but there is no one which comprises the whole 0. T.

(b) Into Greek. —The best known is called the Septuagint, and is commonly represented in scholarly books by the Roman numerals LXX. It was made direct from the Hebrew by a company of learned Alexandrian Jews in that city under the patronage of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and begun b. c. 285. It is not of equal fidelity throughout. The name Septuagint— i. e. seventy, a round number for the more exact seventy-two—arose from a tradition that the work was executed in seventy-two days by seventy-two Jewish scholars. The version was made from Egyptian Hebrew manuscripts, and probably at different times, which may account for the inequality. As it now stands, it includes the Apocrypha, but did not at the beginning. Those books were gradually added. The LXX. has exerted great influence, was claimed by the Jews to be inspired, was in universal use among them in Christ's day, is continually quoted by the N. T. writers and by the Greek Fathers, was translated instead of the Hebrew into Latin, and is the authority in the

BIB

Greek Church to-day. When the Christians in debate quoted it against their Jewish adversaries, the latter awoke to the fact that their own regard for it was excessive, and therefore abandoned it and returned to the study and use of the original Hebrew. Though not literal, and perhaps intentionally so, it is very valuable in explaining the Hebrew text. Other Greek translations were made by Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus, but they exist only in fragments.

(c) Into Si/riac. —A translation into this language, made by Christians, direct from the Hebrew, called the Peshito {aimple, because it was literal, and not paraphrastic), was in common use in the fourth century, but probably dates from the latter part of the second. It is the earliest of these direct versions.

{d) Into Latin. —The one called the Itala, made from the Septuagint, existed very early in the Latin Church. But the one which is now the " authorized version " in the Church of Rome was made by Jerome, the most learned Christian of his day, directly from the Hebrew, A. D. 385-405. It is called the Vulgate, and was declared by the Council of Trent (1563) to be of equal authority with the original Bible. All Roman Catholic versions must be conformed to it.

It was very natural that the first book printed was the Bible. Gutenberg, the inventor of the art of printing, turned his skill unto the service of God( 1450-55). Before discussing other versions,we quote a few lines upon pre-Reformation Bibles : "The earliest printed Bibles in the modern European languages were the first and second German Bibles by Mentelin and Eggesteyn of Strasburg, of rather uncertain date, but certainly not later than 1466. In 1471 appeared at Venice two translations into Italian—the one by Malermi, printed by Vindelin de Spira, and the other by Nicolas .Tenson. In 1477 was printed the first N. T. in French, by Buyer, at Lyons, and the same year ap-peai-ed the first edition of the 0. T. in Dutch, printed at Delft by Jacob Jacobs zoen and Mauritius Yemants zoen. In 1480 was published the splendid Bible in the Saxon or Low German language, from the press of Heini-ich Quental, of Cologne, followed by a second edition in 1491, and a third in 1494. The Psalms,

in Dutch, first came out in 1480, in small octavo, and in Greek and Latin in 1481, while the first Hebrew Pentateuch appeared in 1482. The entire Bible, done into French paraphrase, was published by Guyard de Moulins in 1487. A full translation appeared in the Bohemian language, printed at Prague in 14S8. The same year appeared the entire 0. T. in Hebrew from the press of Abraham ben Chayim de' Tintori, at Son-cino. This chronological arrangement shows us also many noteworthy points, such as that nearly all the earliest Bibles were huge folios; that the first Bibles printed at Rome and Venice appeared in 1471, and that the sixth German Bible, by G. Zainer, in 1475, at Augsburg, was the first with the leaves folioed or numbered; that the first quarto Bible appeared in 1475, printed by John Peter de Ferratis at Placentia, which also was the first book printed at Placentia; that the first of Coburger's celebrated Bibles appeared in Nuremberg in 1475, and that by the end of the century no less than thirteen large folio Bibles had come from this house alone; that the four splendid Bibles printed in 1476 all bear the printers' signatures, though it is difficult to say with certainty which was the first; that the first Bible with a distinct title-page was printed at Venice, by George de Ravabenis, in 1487, in small quarto, and that the first Bible in small octavo — or the poor man's Bible—was the earliest, or among the earliest books, from the press of Johann Froben, of Basle, in 1491.

" Prior to the discovery of America no less than twelve grand patriarchal editions of the entire Bible, being of several different translations, appeared from time to time in the German language; to which add the two editions by the Otmars of Augsburg of 1507 and 1518, and we have the total number of no less than fourteen distinct large folio pre-Reformation or ante-Lutheran Bibles, No other language except the Latin can boast of anything like this number."— Henry Stevens : Bibles in the Caxton Exhibition, pp. 27, 28.

Thus, prior to the Reformation, there were translations of the entire Bible into the principal languages. Still, their unwieldy size and great cost kept them from popular use, although, more than

BIB

is commonly supposed, they carried a knowledge of the Word unto the common people, and thus prepared the way for better things. These several translations were from the Vulgate j those now to be very briefly mentioned were made after the Reformation, and from the original tongues.

2. Modern Translations.

(a) Into German. —We have already seen that there were fourteen editions of the entire Bible printed and circulated in Germany before Luther (1483-1546) nailed his theses upon the church-door at Wittenberg, Oct. 31, 1517. But to the great Reformer is due the credit of translating the entire Bible, together with the Apocrypha, out of the original tongues. He conceived the idea, and carried it out by translating the N. T. while in friendly captivity in the Wart-burg during 1521. He published the work in the fall of 1522. Then he began at the 0. T., and published the translation in sections as he advanced. The first edition of the entire Bible appeared in 1534. Ten editions of the original version were printed. In 1541 he issued an edition in which the first had been faithfully revised by his colleagues and himself. This translation is that used in Germany to-day. It has often been remarked that it fixed the German language and at the same time established Protestantism.

(b) Into French. —A French version by Le Fevre was published at Antwerp in 1530. But there is no national French version; that which comes nearest to it is Olivetan's, which, however, is sadly defective, though improved by Calvin, his cousin. This version appeared in 1535 in the village of Serri-eres, near Neufchatel, at the expense of the AValdenses. Of existing versions, Segond's (1880) is by far the best.

(c) Lito Dutch. —The States-general's translation, ordered by the Synod of Dort (1619), is reputed the most accurate of all present modern versions.

(d) Into English. —The story of the English Bible begins before the Reformation.

(1.) John de Wycliffe (about 1324-

84), aided by Hereford, was the first to

translate the entire Bible into English.

The greater part of the translation of

126

the N. T. was made by him; this appeared in 1381. The 0. T. was principally the work of Nicholas de Hereford, but Wycliffe finished it. Manuscript copies were multiplied. Many poor priests went through the country preaching from this version. The first true text was not brought out in print before 1850, in the edition of Forshall and Madden, in 4 vols. (The earliest printed editions of the N. T. by Baber and in Bagster's English Hexupla are not the version of Wycliff"e, but of one of his followers).

Wycliff'e simply translated from the Vulgate, and hence there was need of a new and independent version. Besides, the change in the language required it. The invention of printing rendered it possible to give the Bible in the vernacular to the masses, but the Roman Church has never been favorable to this, knowing full well that Bible study means independent research and protest against unscriptural traditions. It was not until the gathering storm of the Reformation burst upon the deformed and diseased Roman communion that the English people received a translation from the original languages of the entire Bible.

(2.) For doing this the credit belongs to William Tyndale (born 1484), who was burnt at the stake, a martyr to the cause of religious liberty, Oct. 6, 1536; but not before he had by his work won an imperishable fame. Filled with the one wish, which he lived to realize—to give everj^ one who could read English the opportunity of reading for himself God's holy word—he endured the contradiction of sinners against himself. Understanding, as he says, " that there was no place to translate the N. T. in all England," he went to Europe in 1524, and carried on his work amid every sort of difficulty and danger. The N. T. appeared at Worms in the latter part of 1625, and arrived in England the early part of 1526, where it was extensively circulated. Tyndale revised it, and published in this enforced and stealthy way several editions under his personal supervision. He also issued at intervals various books of the 0. T., and the manuscript translation of other parts was just before his death transmitted to Thomas Poynitz of Antwerp, who finally delivered them to John Rogers {alias

BIB

Thomas Matthew), who subsequently edited them.

(3.) Miles Coverdale (1488-1569) is the next name upon the list. He differed greatly from his predecessor, Tyndale, lacking his independence and devotion and his knowledge of the original languages, yet on the whole he deserves well of posterity. His translation of the entire Bible appeared Oct. 4, 15;]5, prefaced by a fulsome dedication to the king, Henry VIII. In order to render the volume more attractive, it was illustrated with several wood-cuts. It was avowedly not made from the original tongues, but from three Latin and two German translations (viz. the Vulgate, Erasmus, Pagninus, Luther, and Leo Juda). The 0. T. was based chiefly on the Swiss-German (ZUrich) Bible, and the N. T. on Tyndale, although with many variations. It was printed in Antwerp at the expense of Jacob van Meteren,* but published in London. This translation had but little influence upon the so-called A. V.

(4.) The "Thomas Matthew" Bible was a compilation, although not a mechanical one, under this assumed name, made by John Rogers (1505-55), Tyn-dale's friend, who is famous as the first Marian martyr, burnt at Smithfield, Feb. 4,1555, from the above-mentioned translations of Tyndale and Coverdale. It was published in London, 1537, but probably printed by Jacob van Meteren in Antwerp.f The publishers, Messrs. Grafton & Whitechurch, in some way interested Archbishop Cranmer in this edition, who through Crumwell procured a royal license for it, and this Bible became the first authorized version. And so it came about that this edition of the Bible, which was two-thirds Tyndale's translation, " that had been again and again publicly stigmatized and condemned by authority of this same king, Henry VIII., and even actually prohibited seven years before, was now 'set forth with the king's most gracious license,' this authorization being printed in red ink in each separate volume." Appended to the chapters are notes; upon this part the editor laid out his strength.

(5.) Richard Tavener (1505-1575)

*Vide Henry Stevens : Bibles in Caxton Exhibition, pp. 38, seq. t Stevens, p. 75.

issued a revised edition of the Matthew Bible in 1539, but it never was widely used. Its sale may have been stopped by the publication of the so-called Great Bible.

(6.) The "Great Bible," sometimes called Whitechurch's, after one of the printers' names, or oftener " Cranmer's Bible," from the mistaken idea that he was the editor of it,, was published in London, 1539. Its name came from its size ; its pages are fully 15 inches in length and over 9 in breadth. Its text is Matthew's, revised by Coverdale, who in his singular humility thus revised his own work. To Crumwell's Protestant zeal and triumphant energy do we owe the volume. It was devoid of notes. It was the first edition which printed in a ditferent type the words not found in the original. It also derives interest from the fact that the Scripture sentences in the English Prayer-book in the Communion Service, in the Homilies, and the entire Psalter are taken from it. In 1540 appeared the Cranmer Bible, so called from the archbishop's prologue, but in fact only a new revised edition of the Great Bible of the previous year.

(7.) The Geneva Version (1560), made by the refugees from the Marian persecution, j^rincipally by William Whittingham (1524-89), whose wife was Calvin's sister. But the Genevan Bible must not be confounded with the New Testament which appeared there in June, 1557, the fruit of the editorial labors of Whittingham. The Genevan Bible was begun the January following. The N. T. had for the first time the division of verses (following the Greek of Stephens, 1551), with the numbers prefixed. It had also characteristic marginal notes, and marks by italics the words supplied. The Genevan Bible, having been begun, was carried resolutely through. It is not known how many were engaged upon it, but a large share of the work fell upon Whittingham, Avho tarried in Geneva along with Gilby and Sampson a year and a half after Queen Elizabeth's accession in order to complete the work begun during the dark days of ''Bloody Mary." The Bible finally appeared April, 1560, with a dedication to the queen. The translation is careful and scholarly

BIB

work, based chiefly upon Tyndale and Cranmer, with many proofs of the influence of Beza. It is really the first complete direct English translation from the original Hebrew and Greek Scriptures. It at once became widely popular. " It was printed in Roman characters, with division into chapters and verses. It was not a heavy, unhandy fqlio like the editions of Coverdale, Rogers, or the Great Bible, but a moderate and manageable quarto. Its marginal notes were a kind of running comment, vigorous and lucid, dogmatic and practical. ... It became at once the people's book in England and Scotland, and it held its place not only during the time of the Bishops' Bible, but even against the present A. V. for at least thirty years. It was the first Bible ever printed in Scotland (1576-79), and it was the cherished volume in all Covenanting and Puritan households."— Eadie : The English Bible, vol. ii. p. 16.

(8.) The Bishops' Bible. —In the early part of Queen Elizabeth's reign the Great Bible was allowed to be read in the churches as the authorized version, but the Genevan edition was a formidable rival, greatly excelling it in popularity and, besides, in accuracy. Thus it came about that a revision was demanded, and this Archbishop Parker (1504—75) was anxious to make. He began it about 1563-64, having distributed the work to 15 scholars, 8 of whom were bishops, and therefore the Bible was called ''The Bishops' Bible," and the book was published in 1568. It contained no word of flattery, nor even a dedication, but was ornamented with 143 copper-plate engravings of maps, portraits, coats of arms, etc.; it also had notes, brief but valuable, generally on matters of interpretation, but occasionally dogmatic. It was a revision of the Great Bible, which in turn was based on " Matthew's" recension of Tyndale. An eff'ort was made to secure for the Bishops' Bible the royal sanction, but ineffectually. Convocation, however, passed a decree in 1571 ''that every archbishop and bishop should have at his house a copy of the Holy Bible of the largest volume as lately printed in London, and that it should be placed in the hall or large dining-128

room, that it might be useful to their servants or to strangers." The order applied to each cathedral, and, " so far as could be conveniently done, to all the churches." The Bishops' Bible supplanted the Great Bible, but could not the Genevan, because that was wide-spread among the peoj^le. The most important fact in its history is that it was made the basis for the recension which resulted in our present A. V.

(9.) Roman Catholic Translations. — The Roman Church has never been friendly to vernacular translations of the Scriptures. Hence we should not expect it would spontaneously make one; but when the Genevan version became so popular in England, it seemed desirable that, since English Roman Catholics were sure to fall in with it, they should be given a corrective in the shape of a translation by some of the faithful. The N. T. appeared at Rheims, in France, in 1582, and the 0. T. at Douai (1609-10), although it had been prepared before the appearance of the N. T., but delayed for lack of means. The first complete edition of the entire Bible according to this recension was published at Rouen (1633-35). Its translators were good scholars, but were obliged to take the Latin Vulgate as the basis, and to adhere very closely to it. They accompanied the translation with polemical notes. On the whole, the work is inferior to our version, and disfigured by unintelligible Latinisms. No effort was made to give this translation any circulation. It was issued in an expensive form, and none of the Church dignitaries concerned themselves with it. Cardinal Wiseman {Essays, vol. i. pp. 73-75) says : '' To call the Roman Catholic version now in use the version of Rheims and Douai is an abuse of terms. It has been altered and modified till scarcely any verse remains as it was originally published; and so far as simplicity and energy of style are concerned, the changes are in general for the worse." The revision was chiefly made by Dr. Challoner (1750) and by Dr. Troy (1791). The Catholic version has retained from the Vulgate some of the oldest and best readings and a large number of Latinisms, some good (as advent, victim, alle-

BIB

gory, prevarication, altercation, fallacy), others which have never gone into public use (as azyntes, corhana, parasceve, consubstantial, coin(piination, scenope-gia). It has contributed some improvements to King James's revisers. See examples in Moulton's History of the Enrj-lish Bible, p. 187 (London, 1878). " Nothing is easier," says Dr. Moulton, " than to accumulate instances of the eccentri-■city of this revision, of its obscure and inflated renderings ; but only minute study can do justice to its faithfulness and to the care with which the translators executed their work."

(10.) The King James's Version (1611).—The final outcome of this series of original translations and revisions of transUvtions of the Scriptures was the so-called A. v., which for 250 years has been the channel whereby God's truth has flowed into Anglo-Saxon minds. But it has been even an instructor in o-ther things than those of religion, for from it the language has drawn its stability. Its style is regarded with admiration by natives and foreigners alike. It is the first of English classics. Even se-ceders to Rome admit this, as the sweet and fervent hymnist, Dr. F. William Faber, whose remarkable judgment (often falsely attributed to Dr. John Henry Newman) is well worth quoting in full: " Who will say that the uncommon beauty and marvellous English of the Protestant Bible is not one of the gre<at strongholds of heresy in this country ? It lives on the ear like a music that can never be forgotten, like the sound of church-bells, which the convert hardly knows how he can forego. Its felicities often seem to be almost things rather than mere words. It is part of the national mind and the anchor of national seriousness. Nay, it is worshipped with a positive idolatry, in extenuation of whose grotesque fanaticism its intrinsic beauty pleads availingly with the man of letters and the scholar. The memory of the dead passes into it. The ])otent traditions of childhood are stereotyped in its verses. The power of all the griefs and trials of a man is hidden beneath its words. It is the re])reseiitative of his best moments; and all that there has been about him of soft, and gentle, and pure, and penitent, and good sjieaks to him for ever out of his Enailish Bi-

ble. It is his sacred thing, which doubt has never dimmed, and controversy never soiled. It has been to him all along as the silent—but oh how intelligible !—voice of his guardian angel, and in the length and breadth of the land there is not a Protestant, with one spark of religiousness about him, whose spiritual biography is not in his Saxon Bible. And all this is an unhallowed power !"

The A. V. is a monument to the memory of King James I. of England, but he had no more to do with it than to appoint the commission, and did not contribute a penny for its execution. It was abruptly proposed in the Hampton Court Conference (Jan., 1604) by a learned Puritan divine, the Rev. Dr. Reynolds (1549-1607), president of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, who suggested to His Majesty ''that there might be a new translation of the Bible, because those which were allowed in the reign of King Henry VIII. and Edward VI. were corrupt and not answerable to the truth of the original." Bishop Bancroft opposed the motion as impertinent, but the vain king, who thought himself as wise as Solomon, unexpectedly and at once agreed to it, and displayed his biblical erudition by criticising the previous translations, especially that of Geneva, which he hated on account of its marginal notes. He invited a number of distinguished scholars to do the work (June ;>0, 1604), but without any expense to himself. Professing his own poverty, he held ouf before the revisers the hope of Church preferment, giving orders to the bishops to that effect, and for their immediate expenses he called upon the bishops and. chapters to contribute toward the requisite amount.

Revision had no attractions for the clergy nor for the people. The Bishops' and (xeneva Bibles already in their hands seemed to answer every purpose. Accordingly, as far as can. be determined, no one responded to the king's call for money ; yet since the whole amount A^as only about £700, the proportion from each diocese was really small. " King James's version never cost King James a farthing." At the chancellor's suggestion, the revisers met

BIB

at the universities, where they received board and lodging free of cost; and " at the final revision the 6 or 12 revisers received each, according to one statement, ?>() shillings a week from the Company of Stationers." The work of revision thus arranged in the summer of 1604 was not really begun in earnest till the spring of 1(307, and then occupied about 2 years and 9 months. Dr. Reynolds, who had proposed the work, and who was well qualified to carry it on, died in that year, just as his wish was to be gratified. The original number of revisers appointed by the king at the suggestion of some one unknown, but probably Richard Bancroft (1544-1610), then the bishop of London, soon afterward the archbishop of Canterbui-y, was 54, but owing to death, declinature, and other causes there were only 47 actually engaged. These 47 formed themselves into 6 companies, two meeting at Westminster, Cambridge, and Oxford respectively.

The following are the rules which were composed to govern them in their labors :

"(1.) The ordinary Bible read in the Church, commonly called 'The Bishops' Bible,' to be followed, and as little altered as the truth of the original will permit.

"(2.) The names of the prophets and the holy writers, with tiie other names of the text, to be retained as nigh as may be, accordingly as they were vulgarly used.

" (3.) The old ecclesiastical words to be kept; viz.: the word church not to be translated congregntion, etc.

"(4.) When a word hath divers significations, that to be kept which hath been most commonly used by the most ancient fathers, being agreeable to the propriety of the place and the analogy of the faith.

"(o.) Tlie division of the chapters to be altered either not at all or as little as may be, if necessity so require.

" (fi.) No marginal notes at all to be affixed, but only for the explanation of the Hebrew or Greek words which cannot, without some circumlocution, so briefly and fitly be preserved in the text.

"(7.) Such quotations of places to be originally set down as shall serve for the fit reference of one Scripture to another.

"(8.) Every particular man of each company to take the same chapter or chapters; and having translated or amended them severally by himself where he thinketh good, all to meet togetlier, confer what they have done, and agree for their parts what shall stand.

"(9.) As any one company hath despatched any one book in this manner, they 130

shall send to the rest to be considered of seriously and judiciously; for His Majesty is very careful in tliis point.

"(10.) If any company, upon the review of the book so sent, doubt or differ upon any place, to send then) word thereof, note the place, and withal send the reasons; to wliich if they consent not, the difference to be compounded at the general meeting, which is to be of the chief persons of each company at the end of the work.

''(11.) When any place of special obscurity is doubted of, letters to be directed by authority to send to any learned man in the land for his judgment of such a place.

"(12.) Letters to be sent from every bishop to the rest of his clergy, admonishing them of this translation in hand, and to move and charge as many as being skilful in the tongues, and having taken pains in that kind, to send his particular observations to the company either at Westminster, Cambridge, or Oxford.

"(13.) The directors in each company to be the deans of Westminster and Chester for that place, and the king's professors of Hebrew and Greek in either university.

"(14.) These translations to be used when they agree better with the text than the Bishops' Bible: Tindale's, Matthew's [Rogers'], Coverdale's, Wliitchurch's [Cran-mer's], (reneva.

"(15.) Besides the said directors before mentioned, three or four of the most ancient and grave divines in either of the universities, not employed in translating, to be assigned by the vice-chancellor, upon conference with the rest of the heads, to be overseers of the translations, as well Hebrew as Greek, for the better observation of the fourth rule above specified."

How closely these rules were followed it is impossible to say. The secrets of their sessions have been inviolably kept; for although the translators were engaged for 3 years, of the incidents of their labor little can be gathered from contemporaneous history, and little was probably known beyond the circle of the translators. A passing I'emark of Selden furnishes nearly all that can now be known of what may be termed the private history of our English Bible : "The translation in King James's time took an excellent way. That part of the Bible was given to him who was most excellent in such a tongue, and then they met together, and one read the translation, the rest holding in their hands some Bible, either of the learned tongues, or French, Spanish, Italian, e-tc. If they found any fault, they spoke; if not, he read on."— Table Talk. When the revision was completed,

BTB

BIB

three copies of the whole Bible were sent [to London]—one from Cambridge, a second from Oxford, and a third from Westminster—where they were committed to six persons, two from each company, who reviewed the whole. This final revision lasted 9 months. The work was at last given up to the printer, Ilobert Barker; the proofs were read by Dr. Thomas Bilson, bishop of Winchester, and Dr. Myles Smith (appointed bishop of (xloucester in 1012).

The first edition of the A. V., including the Apoci-ypha, appeared, bearing date 1611, in handsome folio, in black letter, with a beautiful frontispiece engraved by C. Boel of Richmont. Besides the translation, there were given a Calendar, a Table of Lessons, and elaborate Tables of Genealogies. The dedication was fulsome in its praise of James. The preface, entitled " The Translators to the Reader," written by Dr. Myles Smith, is pedantic, according to our notions, but written in excellent English, and important as a clear statement of the principles upon which the revision was made. The title-page contained the words '' Appointed to be read in the churches"— i. e. of England. But there is no evidence that this appointment was ever made by convocation or Parliament, privy council or the king. The version " gained currency partly by the weight of the king's name, partly by the personal authority of the prelates and scholars who had been engaged upon it, but still more by its own intrinsic superiority over its rivals."— Wesfcott. The printing of the so-called A. V. at once stopped the printing of the Bishops' Bible, though it did not that of the Genevan Bible, which continued to be used, especially in New England, until about the middle of the seventeenth century, when King James's version was on all hands accepted as the English Bible.

" When all ci'itical helps and sources of influence have been taken into account, the student whose analysis [of the A. v.] has been most complete will find most to admire in the work that the translation or revision of 1607^11 has given us. The praise he will award to the revisers will not be indiscriminate eulogy. He will discover that very much that they have transmitted to us

was inherited by them from others; the execution of different parts of the work will prove to be unequal, the Epistles, for example, standing far below the Pentateuch in accuracy and felicity of rendering ; many flaws and inconsistencies will reveal themselves; occasionally it will be found that better renderings have been deliberately laid aside, and worse preferred; but, notwithstanding, almost every paragraph will bear testimony to the tact, care, diligence, and faithfulness of the men to whom, in God's providence, we owe the version of the Scriptures which has come down to us consecrated by the associations of 250 years."— Moulton : History of the English Bible, pp. 207-8.

The modern edition of the English Bible is a great improvement upon that of 1611. In that year there were two issues, both incorrectly printed, and both containing errors which were not typographical. Much care has been taken since that date to make the version, in grammatical and typographical correctness, as nearly perfect as possible. Three editions of the A. V. deserve particular mention: (1.) Bishop Lloyd's (London, 1701), containing, for the first time, marginal dates, derived principally from Archbishop Ussher ; (2.) the Cambridge Bible of 1762, edited by Dr. Paris; (3.) the Oxford edition of"l769, edited by Dr. Blayney. '' These editors sought to apply with greater consistency the principle of denoting additions to the original text by italic type, substituted ordinary forms of words for such as had, in their opinion, become obsolete, and made very large additions to the number of marginal references, which in our present Bible are said to be seven times as numerous as in the edition of

1611 [But] as late as 1830, Bibles

were often printed with serious want of accuracy. The last forty years have witnessed a considerable improvement, and recent editions have left little to be desired. The Cambridge Paragraph Bible, edited by Dr. Scrivener, is the classic edition of the A. V., and is a monument of minute accuracy and unsparing labor."—MouLTOX : History of the Emjlish Bible, pp. 209-11.

In the Jubilee Memorial of the American Bible Society, prepared by Rev. Isaac Ferris, D. D., LL.D. (New York,

BIB

1867), it is stated (p. 25) that the American Bible Society's Version Committee in 1847 undertook a "most careful revision of our English text in order to secure its conformity to the British, so as to make what should be a standard edition.'' Their final report was made in 1851. But inasmuch as their changes were many and important, there was a constitutional objection to the Society's adopting this revision, and then, moreover, there was a deep prejudice or reluctance to any alteration; and therefore the revision was rejected in 1852. A new committee was appointed, and the Bible, as it came from their hands, with some fruits of the labors of the previous committee, is now (since 1860) the standard of the American Bible Society.

VI. The Anglo-American Revision of THE Authorized Version.

The reasons for desiring a revision may be thus stated: (1.) During the 268 years since our version was finished the English language has undergone some changes; some words have become obsolete, and others have changed their signification. In this way sentences which conveyed a clear and correct meaning to our ancestors mislead or mystify us. It will be suflScient to instance such examples as : to ear for to plouffh: to 2irevent for to (jo before, to precede ; to let for to hinder; carriage for bagijage. (2.) Immense strides have been made in all biblical studies. The geography and archaeology of the Holy Land, the Hebrew and Greek languages, both in grammar and dictionary, are far better known now than they could be in King James's time. The A. V. is very careless and inconsistent in the use of the article, the tenses and modes of verbs. (3.) The text of the Bible is now in a very satisfactory state—much nearer the ipsis-si7na verba of the inspired writers than that known in 1611. ''The number of the various readings," says Prof. Ezra Abbot, " which have been collected from more than 500 manuscripts, more than a dozen ancient versions, and from the quotations in the writings of more than a hundred Christian fathers, only attests the exuberance of our critical resources, which enable us note to settle the true text of the N. T. with a confidence and precision which are wholly unattainable 132

in the case of any Greek or Latin classical author; Jbut] in the time of our translators of 1611 only a small fraction of our present critical helps was available." We are able to appreciate this remark when we remember that the best texts rely on manuscripts of the fourth and fifth centuries, while of our Greek and Latin classics many (e. g. ^schyliis and Sophocles) are transcriptions from only one ancient manuscript, and that not earlier than the tenth century.

The Anglo-American Bible revision movement originated in the Convocation of Canterbury, May 6, 1870, by the appointment of a committee of eminent biblical scholars and dignitaries of the Church of England to undertake the revision in association with scholars from other denominations. The English committee was divided into two companies, one for each Testament, who held monthly meetings in the Jerusalem Chamber and the Chapter Library at the deanery of Westminster, London. The American committee was organized in 1871, on invitation of the British committee, to co-operate with it. It was similarly composed of representative scholars of different denominations, and met for several days of each month in the Bible House, New York. The two committees embraced about 80 active members (exclusive of about 20 more who died or resigned after the work began), and were in constant correspondence. They submitted to each other portions of their work as it advanced, and issued one and the same revision. The variations of the American committee were embodied in an appendix. Some American editions embody these variations in the text.

The object set before them was to bring King James's version up to the present state of the English language without changing the idiom and vocabulary, and to the present standard of biblical scholarship. It was not the intention to furnish a new version, but merely a conservative revision of the received version, so deservedly esteemed in all churches. And so slight are most of the changes that the mass of readers and hearers will scarcely mark them, while a careful comparison will reveal improvements in every chapter and almost every verse. The object was to remove acknowledged

BIB

errors, obscurities, and inconsistencies, to make a good and faithful version better and more faithful, and thus to bring the old Bible nearer the understanding and make it dearer to the heart of English-speaking Christendom.

The general principles followed by both committees are as follows:

" (1.) To introduce as few alterations as possible in the text of the A. V. consistently with faithfulness.

" (2.) To limit, as far as possible, the expression of such alterations to the lauguage of the Authorized and earlier English versions.

" (3.) Each company to go twice over the portion to be revised—once provisionally, the second time finally, aud on principles of voting as hereinafter is provided.

" (4.) That the text to be adopted be that for whicli the evidence is decidedly preponderating ; and that when the text so adopted ditfers from that from which the A. V. was made, the alteration be indicated in the margin.

" (5.) To make or retain no change in the text on the second final revision by each company except two-thirds of those present approve of the same, but on the first revision to decide by simple majorities.

" (6.) In every case of proposed alteration tliat may have given rise to discussion, to defer the voting thereupon till the next meeting whensoever the same sliall be required by one-third of those present at the meeting, such intended vote to be announced in the notice for the next meeting.

" (7.) To revise the headings of chapters, pages, paragraphs, italics, and punctuation.

"(8.) To refer, on the part of each company, when considered desirable, to divines, scholars, and literary men, whether at home or abroad, for their opinions."

The revised New Testament appeared in England May 17, and in America May 20, 1881. Several million copies were sold in a few months. In the United States there were, almost at once, upwards of twenty reprints. The New Testament for the first time in history supplanted the newspaper in popular interest. It was sold upon news-stands, hawked through the streets, and read on all public conveyances. It was the literary event of the century. Its reception by the religious public was most flattering. The revised Old Testament is expected in 1885. It will then be for the churches to decide, through their ecclesiastical authorities, whether the Anglo-American revision shall supersede

King James's Version. If the verdict be favorable, the British and Foreign and the American Bible Societies can amend their constitutions so as to allow them to publish the revised version.

VII. Other Versions, and the Distribution OP THE Bible.

The Bible is now printed in 226 different livtgtuujes or dialects. More than four-fifths of these versions are the product of missionary scholarship and zeal. In many cases the very language needed to be reduced to a written form and permeated with Christian thought before a translation could be made. The chief agencies in giving the Scriptures this world-wide distribution are :

(1.) 21ie Britiah and Foreign Bible Society, founded March 7, 1804. Its predecessors, the most prominent of which were the " Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge," 1698, and the " Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts," 1701, had cultivated a much narrower field. The honor of suggesting a society to send Bibles all through the world has been assigned to Rev. Joseph Hughes, a Baptist and one of the secretaries of the London Religious Tract Society, Lord Teign-mouth was the first president. Up to 1878 this society had issued 82,407,062 copies of the Scriptures.

(2.) The American Bible Society, founded May 8, 1816. The need of a national society had been felt for some time, but the obstacles in the way prevented its formation. Hon. Elias Bou-dinot, LL.D., was the first president. The society had, up to Jan. 1, 1879, issued 35,621,262 copies of the Scriptures.

Twice as many copies of the Bible have been circulated in the present century in heathen lands as were issued between the first printed Bible (1450-1455—no date) and the era of Bible societies, in 1804. One hundred and forty-nine million copies of Bibles, Testaments, and portions have been distributed by the various Bible societies in this and other countries since 1804. And thousands of copies have been privately printed. '' The demand for the printed Bible has always been great. It is supposed that within three years after the publication of the Great Bible in 1539, no less than 21,000 copies were printed.

BIC

BIR

Between 1524 and 1611, 278 editions of Bibles and Testaments in English were printed. In 1611, 1612, 1613, five editions of King James's A'^ersion were published, besides separate editions of the New Testament."— Manual of (he Amey-ican Bible Society, 1876, p. 34.

The enormous demand for the Bible still continues, and it is a most healthy sign. The entrance of God's AVord giveth light. It is a veritable miracle how rapidly its use dissipates moral and spiritual darkness. As Chancellor Kent once said: " The general distribution of the Bible is the most effectual way to civilize and humanize mankind; to purify and exalt the general system of public morals ; to give efiicacy to the just precepts of international and municipal law ; to enforce the observance of prudence, temperance, justice, and fortitude, and to improve all the relations of social and domestic life."

BICH'RI [youthful), a progenitor of Sheba. 2 Sam. 20:1.

BID'KAR {son of stabbing, i.e. stabler), a "captain " of Jehu who had ridden in the chariot with Ahab as an upper officer. 2 Kgs. 9 : 25.

BIER. Luke 7 : 14. The bed or frame on which the dead body is conveyed to the grave. Probably it was made (as coffins are in modern times) more or less expensive in shape and ornament according to the circumstances and rank of the deceased. 2 Chr. 16 : 14. See Burial.

BIG'THA [gift of God), one of the "chamberlains " or eunuchs in the harem of King Ahasuerus. Esth. 1:10.

BIG'THAN, OR BIG'THANA {gift of God), a chamberlain or eunuch who, with Teresh, a fellow-eunuch, sought to lay hand on King Ahasuerus. Esth. 2: 21; 6:2.

BIG'VAI (hajypy?). 1. "Children of Bigvai" returned with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2:14; Neh. 7: 19, and others with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 14.

2. One of this name was prominent under Zerubbabel, and afterward signed the covenant. Ezr. 2:2; Neh. 7 : 7: 10:16.

BIL'DAD (son of strife), one of Job's three friends who visited him in his affliction, and whose arguments in justification of God's dealings occupy chaps. 8, 18, and 25 of the book of Job. 134

Job 2 : 11. See Job. The name Shu-hite is probably derived from the country in which he lived, or from Shuah, son of Abraham and Keturah, whose descendant he may have been.

BILi'EAM (foreigners), a place in Manasseh, 1 Chr. 6 : 70 ; same as Ibleam and Gath-rimmon. Josh. 17:17; 21: 25. Porter would locate it near Megiddo, on the plain of Esdraelon ; Drake, behind Jenin, on the same plain, and nt the ruin liclameh.

BIL'GAH (cheerfulness). 1. The head, in the time of David, of the fifteenth course of the priests. 1 Chr. 24:14.

2. A priest who returned under Zerubbabel. Neh. 12 : 5, 18.

BIL'GAI (cheerfulness), probably the same with Bilgah, 2. A priest who sealed the covenant. Neh. 10 : 8.

BIL'HAH (timid, modest), the handmaid of Rachel, and, by Jacob, the mother of Dan and Naphtali. Gen. 29:29; 35:25.

BIL'HAH. See Balah.

BIL'HAN (modest). 1. A Horite chief. Gen. 36 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 1: 42.

2. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 7:10.

BIL'SHAN (son of the tongue, i. e. eloquent), a companion of Zerubbabel on the Return. Ezr. 2:2; Neh. 7 : 7.

BIM'HALi (son of circumcision,!, e. circumcised), an Asherite. 1 Chr. 7: 33.

BIN'EA (fountain), a descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8:37; 9:43.

BINNU'I (a building). 1. A Levite. Ezr. 8:23.

2, 3. Two who had foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 30, 38.

4. A Levite, a builder of the wall. Neh. 3: 24.

5. The father of some who returned with Zerubbabel, Neh. 7 : 15; called, Bani in Ezr. 2:10.

BIRDS are mentioned as articles of food in Dent. 14 : 11, and lists of birds not to be eaten are given. Lev. 11 : 13-19; Deut. 14 : 12-19. In general, the ravenous kinds feeding on flesh are forbidden. From Job 6:6; Luke 11 : 12 we learn that the eggs of birds were also eaten. In the cleansing of the leper birds were used in a peculiar way. Lev. 14: 4-7.

There was a humane law in the Jewish code which forbade the taking a

BIR

BIS

mother-bird, though her young might be taken. The common mode of taking birds was with a snare. Ps. 124: 7 ; Prov. 7 : 2;}; Am. 3 : 5. A speckled bird, Jer. 12 : 9, probably means a vulture (in Hebrew), which, as is well known, other birds are accustomed to pursue and attack. Some authors find etymological reasons for reading " hyena" instead of *' speckled birds " in Jer. 12 : 9. Many of the birds of Palestine are similar to our own, but, strictly speaking, there is but one species common to both countries. The house-sparrow {Passer do-t)iesticus), which we have received from England, is found in the towns along the coast. Of 322 kinds obtained by Mr. Tristram in the Holy Land, 172 are also found in England, 260 in Europe, and 2() are peculiar to Palestine.

BIR'SHA {so)i of gndlessness), a king of Gomorrah. Gen. 14 : 2.

BIRTH. See Children.

BIRTH'DAYS. The custom of making a feast in anniversary of a birth is very ancient. We find reference to it in Gen. 40 : 20. In regard to the custom in Egypt, Wilkinson tells us : '' The birthdays of the kings were celebrated with great pomp. They were looked upon as holy, no business was done upon them, and all classes indulged in the festivities suitable to the occasion. Every Egyptian attached much importance to the day, even to the hour, of his birth." But the Jews, probably on this very account, " regarded their observance as an idolatrous custom." " The day of our king," spoken of in Hos. 7:5, was probably his birthday. It was upon Herod's birthday that John Baptist was beheaded. Matt. 14 : 6-10. The fact that the Herodian family observed birthdays would be an additional grievance on the part of the Jews.

BIRTH RIGHT. Gen. 25 : 31. The first-born son among the Jews enjoyed sj^ecial privileges above his brethren, and these privileges were hence called his birthright, or his right by birth. Among these privileges were, consecration to the Lord, Ex. 22 : 29 (" In consequence of this fact—that God had taken the Levites from among the children of Israel, instead of all the first-born, to serve him as priests— the first-bora of the other tribes were

to be redeemed at a valuation made

by the priest, not exceeding five shekels, from serving God in that capacity. Num. 18 : \b, 16 j comp. Luke 2 : 22 tf." — Home's Introdnction) ; great dignity, (Jon. 49 : 3 ; a double portion of his father's estate, Deut. 21: 17 ; and (in the royal families) succession to the kingdom. 2 Chr. 21: 3. Though this was not invariably the case. Solomon was a younger son ; so was Jehoahaz, 2 Kgs. 23:31, 36,- and so was Abijah. 2 Chr. 11: 18-22. The eldest son seems to have been regarded, in the father's absence, as in some respects his representative.

The paternal blessing was also in a peculiar sense the right of the first-born, though the right itself and all the blessings of it might be forfeited or transferred, as in the case of Jacob and Esau, Gen. 25 : 33, Reuben and Joseph. 1 Chr. 5:1. But wlioever enjoyed it was regarded as invested with great dignity and superiority. The Jews attached a sacred import to the title "first born."

Hence the peculiar force and appropriateness of the titles "first born," "first begotten," given to the divine Redeemer. Rom. 8 : 29 ; Col. 1:18; Heb. 1 : 2, 4, 6.

BIR'ZAVITH {olive-source), an Asherite. 1 Chr. 7: 31.

BISH'LAilI {son of peace), a Persian olficer in Palestine at the time of the Return who wrote a letter against Jerusalem to Artaxerxes. Ezr. 4 : 7.

BISH'OP. 1 Tim. 3 : 2. The original Greek word means " overseer," as Joseph was in Potiphar's house. Gen. 39 :4, or as the three thousand six hundred men were in Solomon's temple, 2 Chr. 2:18, or as Uzzi was of the Levites. Neh. 11: 22. In the N. T. the term is synonymous with presbyter or elder, with this difference—that bishop is borrowed from the Greek and signifies the function, jyresbyter is derived from an office in the synagogue and signifies the dignity of the same office. Comp. Acts 20: 17, 28; Phil. 1:1: 1 Tim. 3 : Iff.; Tit. l:5ff. These presbyters or bishops of the apostolic period were the regular teachers and pastors, preachers and leaders, of the congregations. We may imagine, however, that among themselves there would be a division made

BIS

BLE

according to individual fitness. See Elder.

BISH'OPRIC. Acts 1: 20 ; 1 Tim. 3: 1. The jurisdiction, charge, or ofiice of a bisho]).

BITHI'AH {daughter, i. e. worshipper, of Jehovah), a daughter of Pharaoh and wife of Mered. 1 Chr. 4:18.

BITH'RON {ravi)ie), a defile or tract of country east of the Jordan, toward Mahanaim. 2 Sam. 2 : 29.

BITHYN'IA, a rich Roman province of Asia Minor, on the Black Sea ; named onlv twice in Scripture. Acts 16:7: 1 Pet. 1:1.

BITS. See Harness.

BIT TER HERBS. Ex. 12:8. The Jews were commanded to eat the Passover with a salad of bitter herbs; and the Rabbins tell us that such plants as wild lettuce, endives, and chicory were employed for that purpose, as they still are by the Arabs in those regions. The use of them on that occasion was intended to call to their remembrance the severe and cruel bondage from which God delivered them when they were brought out of Egypt.

BIT'TERN. Isa. 34:11. Doubtless a correct translation. The bitterns belong to the heron tribe, and the Oriental species differ but slightly from the American. A solitary bird, its strange booming note is often heard during the stillness of the night in fens and marshes. The language of prophecy, Isa. 14:23 and 34:11; Zeph. 2:14, imports the utmost solitude and desolation.

BITU'MEN. See Slime.

BIZJOTH'JAH (contempt of Jehovah), in the south of Judah, Josh. 15 : 28 ; perhaps same as Baalah and modern Deir-el-Beldh.

BIZ'THA {enmieh), one of the seven "chamberlains" or eunuchs of Ahasuerus. Esth. 1:10.

BLAINS. Ex. 9:9. Burning pustules or ulcers, which broke out upon the Egyptians and all their beasts, and constituted the sixth plague. " It seems to have been the black leprosy, a fearful kind of elephantiasis." — Smith. Perhaps reference is made to this plague in Deut. 28 : 27.

BLAS'PHEMY. Col. 3 : 8. The word, in its original use, denotes all 136

manner of detraction or calumny, such as is expressed by the terms rail, revile, speak evil, etc.; but in the restricted sense of the Scriptures and of common use, it denotes reproachful, irreverent, or insulting language concerning God or any of his names or attributes. Lev. 24: 10-16. Whoever thinks of the character of God as infinitely holj', just, and good will not be surprised that this offence was regarded as very heinous, and was punished by stoning. There is no reason to suppose that the sin of profane swearing, so common at this day, is less odious and offensive to God than it was in the time of Moses.

Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, Matt. 12 : 32, such as the Pharisees were guilty of. or were in danger of committing, when they ascribed the miracle of curing the blind and dumb man (who was also possessed with a demon) to the agency of Beelzebub or Satan, is declared to be unpardonable.

It is far worse than '' grieving the Spirit." Some persons are apprehensive that they have committed this sin and give themselves up to despair, but such fears prove that they are still open to recovery and pardon. The sin against the Holy Ghost implies a state of final and hopeless impenitence, and is committed by those who have again and again wilfully resisted the influences and warnings of the Holy Ghost, and have made themselves incapable of repentance, and consequently of pardon.

BLAS'TUS (sprout), the chamberlain of Herod Agrippa I. Acts 12 : 20.

BLEM'ISH. For a list of ceremonial blemishes see Lev. 21:18-20; 22 : 20-24.

BLESS, BLESSED, BLESSING. Gen. 12:2: 22:17, 18. These words are of frequent occurrence in the sacred writings, and their particular force may generally be determined by the connection. Men are said to bless God when they ascribe to him the praise and glory which are due to him. Ps. 134. God blesses men in bestowing upon them continually mercies, spiritual and temporal. Job 42 : 12 ; Ps. 45 : 2. And men are said to bless their fellow-creatures when, as in ancient times, in the spirit of prophecy they predicted blessings to come upon them. This was the kio<i

BLE

BOA

of blessing which the patriarchs pronounced. Gen. 49. So Moses blessed Israel. Dent. 33. The form of blessing prescribed by the Jewish ritual, Num. 6 : 23-27, is admirably simple and sublime. It was pronounced standing, with a loud voice, and with the hands raised toward heaven. Luke 24 : 50. National blessings and cursings were sometimes pronounced. Deut. 27 and 28 ; Isa. 19 : 25.

Thk Cup of Blessing, 1 Cor. 10 : 10, and Cup of Salvation, Ps. 116 : 13, are expressions derived from a custom prevalent among the Jews at their feasts. The master of the feast took a cup of wine in his hand, and solemnly blessed God for it and for all the mercies which were then acknowledged. It was then passed to all the guests, each of whom drank of it in his turn. The aptness and force of the figures employed in the above passages are thus made obvious.

BLESSING, VALLEY OF. See Berachah, Valley of.

BLIND'NESS is extremely common in the East, as all travellers in those lands observe. In Egypt especially ophthalmia prevails extensively among children and adults. The infliction of blindness was in old times a common as well as barbarous punishment or penalty of resistance to a victorious enemy. Jud. 16 : 21; 1 Sam. 11 : 2 ; 2 Kgs. 25 : 7. There are several recorded occasions, when, as translated in A. v., God miraculously sent blindness. Gen. 19 : 11 ; 2 Kgs. 6 : IS ; Acts 9: 8; 13: 11. In these incidents there was not so much an actual, though transient, loss of vision as a confusion of sight—perhaps really a mental confusion, which gave all the uncertainty of actual blindness, as in Luke 24: 16. The word '' blindness " is likewise employed in a spiritual sense as meaning the sinner's inability to recognize divine truth ; e.q. Rom, 11: 25; Eph.4:18.

BLOOD is the fluid of life in the animal body. Ex. 29 : 12. Its use was expressly prohibited to Noah when everything else was freely given him. Gen. 9 : -4. By the Jewish law also it was expressly and solemnly forbidden. Lev. 17 : 10, etc. The reason of this interdiction is probably because blood was sacredly appropriated. Lev.17: 11. The Jewish ritual abounds with the use of

blood, Heb. 9 : 22; and the manner of

em})Ioying it is stated with minuteness in lleb. 9 and 10, where also its use and efl'ects are shown in striking contrast with the blood shed upon the cross. See also Acts 20 : 28 ; Rom. 5:9; Eph. 1:7; Col.l:U; lleb.7:27; 1 John 1: 7.

The prohibition of eating blood or animals that are strangled has been always rigidly observed by the Jews. In the Christian Church the custom of refraining from things strangled and from blood continued for a long time. In the council of the apostles held at Jerusalem, Acts 15, it was declared that converts from paganism should not be subject to the legal ceremonies, but that they should refrain from idolatry, from fornication, from eating blood, and from such animals as were strangled and their blood thereby retained in their bodies: which precept was observed for many ages by the Church. Acts 15 : 20-29.

The notion that the blood of the victims was peculiarly sacred to the gods is impressed on all ancient pagan mythology. See Christ.

Blood, Avenger of. See Avenge, Cities of Refuge.

BLUE. See Colors.

BOANER'GES {sons of thunder), the name Christ gave to James and John, probably because of their fiery zeal; for proof of which, see Luke 9 : 51: Mark 9 : 38 ; comp. Matt. 20 : 20.

BOAR. Ps.80:13. This is the original stock of the common hog, and when hard pressed is a very furious and formidable animal. The wild boar is found throughout Europe and the neighboring

Wild Boxi (Alter Tribttum)

parts of Africa and Asia. Travellers tell us that it is found in great numbers on the banks of the Jordan, among the reeds

BOA

BOO

of the Sea of Tiberias, and generally among the thickets of the Holy Land. In some districts wild boars are so destructive to the vineyards and crops that it is necessary at times to keep nightly watch against them. — Hartley : lie-searches in Greece, p. 234.

BO'AZ, OR BO'OZ {lovely), was a descendant of Judah, Ruth 2:1, and through him is traced the reijiilar succession of Jewish kings. Matt. 1 : 5. Boaz was a man of wealth and of great respectability. He married Ruth and begat Obed, the father of Jesse, the father of David. See Ruth.

BO'AZ {lireli/}, one of the brazen pillars erected by Solomon before the portico of the temple. Its companion was Jachin. They were named for their givers or makers, or else had a symbolical meaning. 1 Kgs. 7 : 21; 2 Chr. 3 : 17; Jer. 52 : 21.

BOCH'ERU (youth), the son of Azel. 1 Chr. 8 : 38;'9 : 44.

BO'CHIM (weepers), so named from the weeping of Israel. Jud. 2 : 1-5. It was west of the Jordan, above Gilgal.

BO'HAN (tJmmb), a Reubenite. Josh. 15:6: 18:17.

BO'HAN (thumb), STONE OF, in the valley of Aehor, between Judah and Benjamin. Josh. 15 : 6 ; 18 : 17. The " stone of the finger," in Wadi/ Daber, may be on its site.

BOIJj. See Medicine.

BOL'LED. Ex. 9 : 31. The expression /lax loas boiled means that it was podded or nearly in a state to be gathered, and of course the loss of it was much more severe than it would have been at an earlier stage of its growth.

BOL'STER. See Bed.

BOND, BOND'AGE, BOND'-MAN, BONDWOMAN, BOND'-MAID. See Servant.

BON'NETS. See Clothes, Mitre.

BOOK. What we call books were unknown to the ancient Jews, at least in their present convenient form. Letters were engraved on stone, brick, metal (as lead and copper), or wood, and written on cloth and skins, and at a

inthebegi

nnixgwast

hewordan

DTHEWORD WASWITHft ODANDTHE

wordwasg odthesamr wasintheb eginningw ithgodall thingswer

later period on parchment. Ex. 17:14; 2 Tim. 4 : 13. Tablets of lead and brass or copper of great antiquity have been discovered in modern times.

The earliest mode of preserving inscriptions was by engraving on a rock. Comp. Job 19 : 24. The Sinaitic peninsula, especially the Wady Mukatteb (the "Sculptured Valley"), and the neighborhood of Mount Serbal and Mount Sinai, are full of rock-inscriptions (called the Sinaitic Inscriptions).

The loriting-table mentioned Luke 1: 63 was probably a tablet covered with wax or otherwise prepared to be written upon. Deut. 27 : 2, 3. Such tablets were used in England as late as the year 1300.

Leaves and the bark of trees were also used, and were often prepared with much skill. The people of Ceylon write with a bodkin on broad and thick leaves cut into narrow slips; and these leaves, being fastened together, make books which they call alias. The missionaries often prepared tracts in this form before paper and printing were introduced upon the island. In Sumatra and among the Indians of North America bark is still used for making letters and pictures.

Leather and linen or cotton cloth were also used. These were prepared in the form of long rolls, 12 or 14 inches wide, and fastened at each end to sticks (like the rollers to which maps are attached), and which were rolled together till they met midway. Sometimes these leaves were connected in the form of modern books, and opened in the same way. In this case the sheets were fastened to rods, and these rods passed through rings, and thus formed the back of the book.

The writing was generally in capital letters and without punctuation or division of words; and when used, the reader unrolled the manuscript as far as the place which he wished to find, and kept before him just so much as he would read.

The pages resembled the following in their general appearance, though they were of course wider and longer than these, and were read from right to left:

EMADEBYHI

MANDWITHO

UTHIMWASN

OTANYTHIN

GMADKTHA

TWASMADB

138

INHIMWASLI

FEAXnTHELI

FEWASTHELI

GHTOFMENA

NDTHELIGHT

SHINETHIND

John 1: 1-5.

BOO

These columns could be divided from one another and used separately, as we may cut the columns of a newspaper which is printed on one side only, and arrange the extracts as we like. Sometimes the reading was what is called furrow-wise. The first line was from right to left, and the second from left to right, and so on alternately, like ploughing a field. The roll or book of curses which Ezekiel saw was 30 feet long and 20 wide. The writing was usually on one side, but not always. Eze. 2: 10.

When the roll was done with, it was carefully deposited in a case. The cut on the next page shows the book of the Law rolled upon two cylinders, with the seal at one side.

There were other forms of the scroll, and also collections of sheets in the shape of a modern book, secured with rings and rods.

A very good idea may be formed of an ancient roll by supposing a common newspaper to have rods or rollers at the right and left sides. The reader takes hold of the rods and unrolls the sheet until he comes to the desired column. Thus, in Luke 4 : 17 the phrase " opened the book " would properly read " unrolled the scroll," and in v. 20 for " closed the book " read •' rolled up the volume " or " scroll." This shows the force of the figure, Isa. 34 : 4, where the heavens are represented as rolled together as suddenly as the opposite ends of an unrolled scroll fly to meet each other when the hand of the reader is withdrawn from it.

A kind of paper was made from the stalk of an Egyptian vegetable called papyrus, or paper-reed, Avhich is still found in various parts of India. See Bulrush. The stalk was slit with a needle into plates or layers as broad and thin as possible. Some of them were 10 or 15 inches broad. These strips were laid side by side upon a flat horizontal surface, and then immersed in the water of the Nile, which not only served as a kind of sizing, but also caused the edges of the strips to adhere together as if glued. The sheets thus formed were dried in the sun and then covered with a fine wash, which made them smooth and flexible. They were finally beaten with hammers and polished. Twenty

or more of these sheets were sometimes connected in one roll.

The pen or style* was made of some hard substance, perhaps not unlike the instruments used by glaziers to cut glass. Jer. 17 : 1. Upon tablets of wax an instrument was used, one end of which was pointed, to mark the letters, and the other broad and flat, to make erasures. Pens or styles of copper are now used by the Ceylonese. On a soft substance like linen or papyrus, the marks were painted with a fine hair-pencil, as is practised among the Chinese to this day.

Most of the Eastern nations now use the reed-jjen, which is split with an instrument used as we use the penknife. Jer. 36 : 23. The pith is removed, and the bark or rind, being split like a quill, retains and properly sheds the ink. It is not hard or stiff" enough to be used long without mending. See Pen.

Ink was prepared from a variety of substances (see Ink), and those who were skilful in writing wore an ink-horn fastened to the girdle, Eze. 9: 2, which is the present mode among the Persians and the Moors of Bar-bary. See Inkhorn.

As tables were unknown, the paper or other substance written upon was laid upon the knees or held firmly with the left hand.

A sealed book was a roll fastened together by a band or string, and a seal aflixed to the knot, Isa. 29 : 11, as seen in the cut.

Book op the Generation, Gen. 5:1; Matt. 1:1, signifies the genealogical history or records of a family or nation.

Book of the Living, Ps. 69:28, and the kindred phrase. Book of Life, Rev. 21: 27, are supposed to allude to the genealogical lists or registers kept by the Jews, from which the names of the dead were erased. Isa. 4: 3. The aptness and force of the figurative use of the terms are sufficiently obvious.

Books of Judgment. Dan. 7 : 10. The allusion here is probably either to the practice of opening books of account to settle with servants or laborers, or to the custom of the Persian kings to have a book in which a daily record is made of special services performed by

* Hence the word style, signifying one's maU' ijer of writing— easy style, elegant style, etc.

BOO

BOT

any of their subjects, and of the rewards which were given to the individuals. Esth. 6 :1-3.

Book of the Wars op the Lord, Num. 21: 14, Book of Jasher, or the Right-

Book of the Law closed.

Eous, Josh. 10 : 13 and 2 Sam. 1: 18, and Book of the Chronicles (or annals) of the kings of Judah and Israel, 1 Kgs. 14:19,29, are the names of ancient writings known to the Jews, but not preserved in the sacred canon.

BOOTH. See Feast of Tabernacles.

BOOT'Y. Moses laid down the law upon this subject in Num. 31: 26-30. In regard to the army, David made the additional rule that those who "tarried by the stuff"—the bag-140

gage-guard—should share equally with those Avho fought. 1 Sam. 30 : 24. No booty could be taken from the Canaan-ites, as they were all, with all they had, devoted to destruction. But in wars outside of Palestine the practice was allowable. Metallic articles were kept Josh. 6:17-19; cf. Deut.

for holy use. 20:12-18.

BO'OZ, FOR BO'AZ. Matt. Luke 3: 32.

1:5;

BOR'DER. See Clothes. BORROW. See Loan. BOS'CATH. 2 Kgs. 22 : 1. See

Bozkath.

BO'SOM. The dress of the Jews was such as allowed them to carry within a fold in the bosom of the robe what could not be carried in the hand. Isa. 40 : 11 ; Luke 6 : 38, It was also used to denote a place of rest and security. Hence the term Abraham's bosom is figuratively spoken of as the abode of Lazarus, and means the same as paradise. Luke 16 : 23 ; comp. 23 : 43. To lean on the bosom implied great intimacy. John 13 : 23. The position of John, leaning on the bosom of the Saviour, was easy and natural, since the company were reclining at table upon couches, and the back of his head came near the bosom of Jesus, who was on his left. The use of this term, John 1 : 18, imports the perfect unity of the Father and Son.

BO'SOR, in 2 Pet. 2 : 15, Greek form of Beor.

BOS'SES, the prominent or projecting parts of the buckler, and of course the thickest and strongest. Job 15 : 26.

BOTCH, probably the black leprosy, or elephantiasis. Deut. 28 : 27, 35. See Leprosy.

BOT'TLE. Gen. 21 : 14. Ancient bottles were made of the skins of animals, which were properly dressed for the purpose. The openings of the skin were closed except at the neck, through which the liquor was to be received and discharged, and which was fastened by a string, like a bag. They were, of course, of different sizes and shapes, as the skins of kids, goats, or oxen might be used. Bruce describes particularly a bottle which he saw in Arabia, made in this manner, of an ox-skin, which would hold 60 gallons.

BOW

BOZ

Christian missionaries in Eastern countries frequently speak of the goatskins and leathern bottles in which they carry water in their journeys.

Skin-Bottles. (Ayre.)

Where the travelling is rough and the vessels likely to strike against each other, they are made of the strongest material that can be found. The skins or bottles used for new wine were of the freshest and most flexible kind, in order that they might the better endure the process of fermentation. Matt. 9:17.

The effect of smoke on a skin-bottle would be to blacken and shrivel it. Ps. 119 : 83. Water or wine put into such a bottle would all run out. Nearly

Arab Water-Carner.

all the drinking-water now used in Egypt is brought from the river Nile in skin-bottles, by Arab water-carriers, as shown in the ])icture.

BOVV. See Armor.

BOW, a posture. Gen. 37: 10. To bow down one's self is expressive of great reverence and humility. Gen. 24 :

26, 48 ; 1 Kgs. 1: 58 and 2:19. It was a common mode of salutation in the East to kneel upon one knee and bow the head until it touched the ground.

It is still the custom in many Eastern nations for subjects to kneel before the throne of the king and bow their heads slowly till they touch tlie earth.

BOWELS. As we use the terms heart, breast, bosom, so this term is used by the sacred writers, evidently in a figu -rative sense, for affections or emotions of the heart. Col. 3 : 12 ; 1 John 3:17.

BOX TREE. Isa. 41 : 19. A small evergreen tree, either the same with or closely resembling the shrubby box of our gardens. One species ( nit.rus longifoUa) is found on Lebanon, and may once have been common in Palestine. It is believed that the Phoenicians imported the wood of other species from Chittim, and used it with ivory for inlaid work. The perfect proportions of this tree, its perennial beauty of foliage, and its utility illustrate the prosperity and grace which God will bestow on Zion. Isa. 60:13.

BO'ZEZ,one of two sharp rocks between Geba and Michmash. 1 Sam. 14: 4, 5. Robinson traced them out in Wady Snweineit, but Stanley could not make them out. Conder suggests El Hosn.

BOZ'KATH, AND BOS CATH [stotnj hei</ht), a place on the plains of Judah. Josh. 15 : 39 ; 2 Kgs. 22 : 1. Warren proposes BesJiit as its site.

BOZ^RAH (fortress), two cities. 1. Bozrah in Edoin, Isa. 34: 6 ; 63:1, which was to become a perpetual waste, Jer.49:13; Am.l:12; Mic. 2:12; modern Bnseircli, in the mountains of Petra, 20 miles south-east of the Dead Sea.

2. Bozrah in Moab. Jer. 48 : 24. Judgment has surely fallen upon it. Porter thinks it the same as modern Buzrah, where are the ruins of a magnificent city nearly 5 miles in circuit, once having 100,()00 inhabitants, but now only 20 families. It is near the Hauran, 60 miles south of Damascus. Portions of its massive walls and towers, theatre, temples, stone doors and roofs, some of the ruins of the work of the early inhabitants.perhaps the giants llephaim, and more of the work of later Roman builders, are still to be seen in good state of preservation. Bozrah at one time had 17 bishops under its archbishop.

BRA

BEE

BRACE'LET. An ornament (chain or clasp) worn on the arm by

Bracelets. {British Mu.'-eum. From Ayre.)

1. Gold Egyptian Bracelets. 2. Silver Bracelet. 3. Bronze, with Bell attached, taken from Mummy of a Girl. 4. Iron, with Cornelian Setting. 5. Bracelet of Cowries.

both sexes. Gen. 24:30. Among Eastern princesses it is a badge of royalty, and was probably regarded as such in the time of David. 2 Sam. 1:10. The royal bracelet was of much richer materials, and was worn above the elbow ;

Assyrian Bracelets. (From Nineveh Marbles. Ayre.)

the common bracelet was worn on the wrist. Eze. 16 : 11.

BRAM'BLE. See Thorns.

BRANCH. This word is often figuratively used by the sacred writers. Ps. 80:'l5; John 15: 5, 6. It is also one of the titles of the Messiah. Isa. 11 : 1 comp. with Isa, 53 : 2 ; Zech. 3: 8 and 6:12. The family of Jesse is represented under the figure of the stock of a tree firmly rooted, and the coming of Christ from the seed of David is represented as the shooting forth of a branch, which is here called, by way 142

of distinction and eminence, " THE BRANCH ;" for Christ, even in his common nature, far surpassed all the house of David in the dignity, power, and glory of both his person and oflSce.

BRASS, This compound metal was probably unknown in ancient times, but bronze, a mixture of tin and copper, may sometimes be referred to under this name. That which is called brass in most passages of the sacred writings was doubtless what we call copper. Gen. 4 : 22; Deut. 8:9. It was used for a variety of purposes about the temple, and also for fetters, Jud. 16 : 21; 2 Kgs. 25 : 7 ; armor, 1 Sam. 17 : 6, 6 ; and musical instruments. 1 Chr. 15 : 19 ,• 1 Cor. 13:1. The words brass, brazen, etc., occurring under the words Armor, Altar, Book, etc., are used in conformity with the common English translation of the Bible, and not with technical ac-curacv.

BRA'ZEJV SEA. See Layer.

BRAZEN SERPENT. See Serpent.

BREAD. The bread of the Jews was generally made of wheat. Barley and other grains were sometimes used. Jud. 7:13.

The materials were prepared as in modern days. See Mill, Sieve. The kneading of the dough was performed in kneading-troughs. Gen. 18 : 6; Ex. 12 : 34; Jer. 7:18, or wooden bowls such as the Arabians use at this day for a like purpose, although some suppose that the kneading was done upon a circular piece of leather such as is now used in Persia, and which would be more properly called a kneading-bag, as it draws up like a knapsack. Either of the utensils would be easily transported. Very simple leaven was used in the dough. The loaves were shaped like a plate, and when leavened were ordinarily of the thickness of one's little finger. See Table. These cakes were generally baked in either public or private ovens. The fuel was wood or dried flower-stalks or grass. Other modes of baking were, however, used ; as by spreading the dough upon heated stones or throwing it into the embers of the fire. A pan likewise seems to have been used at other times. 2 Sam. 13 : 9. The unleavened bread was very thin, and was broken, not cut. Lam. 4:

BEE

BRI

4 ; Matt. 26 : 26 ; Mark 14 : 22 ; Luke 22 : 19. The term bread is often used for food or provisions in general.

Bread-corn, Isa. 28 : 28, is used for wheat, barley, or any other grain from which bread was made.

The figurative expressions bread of norroirs, Ps. 127 : 2, and bread of tears, Ps. 80 : 5, may denote that the suffering of sorrow and the shedding of tears had become as much a part of the portion of every day as one's daily bread. So the bread of wickedness, Prov. 4: 17, and bread of deceit, Prov. 20:17, denote not only a living or estate obtained by fraud and sin, but that to do wickedly is as much the portion of a wicked man's life as to eat his daily bread.

BREAK'FAST. See Meals.

BREAST'PLATE. 1. A part of the official dress of the Jewish high priest. Ex. 28 : 15. It was a piece of embroidered work, about 10 inches square and made double, with a front and lining, so as to answer for a pouch or bag. It was adorned with twelve precious stones. See High Priest.

The two upper corners were fastened to the ephod, from Avhich it was not to be loosed, Ex. 28 : 28, and the two lower corners to the girdle. The rings, chains, and other fastenings were of gold or rich lace. It was called the memorial, Ex. 28 : 12, 29, inasmuch as it reminded the priest of his representative character in relation to the twelve tribes; and it is also called the breastplate of judgment, Ex. 28 : 15, perhaps because it was worn by him who was instrumentally the fountain of justice and judgment to the Jewish Church. Others think it is because the Urim and Thum-mim were annexed to it. See Urim and Thummim.

2. The breastplate was also that article of ancient armor which protected the breast. Eph.6:14. See Armor. Its figurative use in the passage above cited, and also in Isa. 69 : 17, is sufficiently obvious.

BREECH'ES, a kind of drawers, reaching from the loins to the thighs, worn by the priests. Ex. 28 : 42.

BRETH'REN OF THE LORD. See Brother.

BRICK, Gen. 11 :3, was a building-material among the Jews, but the size of their bricks was much larger than that of ours. Bricks found among the ruins of l>abylon are a foot s(iuare, and resemble tile rather than brick. They were usually hardened by the heat of the sun, although kilns were not unknown. 2 Sam. 12 :

Egyptmn Brick 3^ j 43 ; 9; Nah. stamped witli the „ ', . -r I

oval of Tliothmes 3 : 14. In lower III. {British Mu- Egypt many pictures seam. Ayre.) ^„ ^^^ ^^„g represent

the Jews making bricks under the lash of the Egyptian taskmasters, in confir-

Assyrian Brick from Nimroud, inscribed with Shalmaneser's Name and Title. {Ayre.)

mation of the account in the book of Exodus, 1:11; 5:7-14.

Jews

and Captives making Bricks in Egypt.

BRIDE, BRIDE'GROOM, BRIDE-CHAMBER. See Mar-

RIAGE.

BRIDLE. See Harness.

BRI

BUL

BRI'ERS. See Thistle.

BRIG'ANDINE. Supposed to be the same with the habergeon and coat of mail. Jer. 46 : 4. See Armor.

BRIM'STONE. Ps. 11 ; 6. Sulphur, a Avell-known mineral substance, exceedingly inflammable, and which when burning emits a suffocating smell. We are told that the cities of the plain were destroyed by a rain of fire and brimstone. There is nothing incredible in this, even if we suppose only natural agencies wei'e employed. Like many other travellers, the writer has pieces of pure sulphur and of asphalt or mineral pitch, both found in that vicinity in abundance and highly inflammable. Volcanic action might easily have filled the air with inflammable substances, falling down in streams of liquid fire upon those devoted cities.

This word is often figuratively employed. Job 18 : 15 ; Isa. 34 : 9 ; Rev. 21: 8. Whether the word is used literally or not in the passages which describe the future sufferings of the wicked, we may be sure that it expresses terrible punishment.

BROTHER, BRETH'REIV, a term which properly denotes the nearest consanguinitj'—that is, male children of the same parents, as in Gen. 4 : 2 and 42:13, but sometimes persons of more remote kindred or of the same nation, Gen. 13 : 8 : Esth. 10 : 3 ; Acts 7 : 25, 37 and 13 :26, or even those who are closely united in affection. 2 Sam. 1 : 26. In the N. T. the term is more frequently applied to the spiritual relationship which the true followers of Christ sustain to him and to each other. Matt. 12 : 50; Rom. 14:10; 2Thess. 2:13.

" The Brethren of the Lord." — The N. T. repeatedly speaks of brethren (and also of sisters) of Jesus, and names four of them—Jame«, Joseph, Simon, and Judas. There are three theories about the degree of this relationship. 1. The simplest explan.ation is that they were the full brothersof Jesus, or younger children of Joseph and Mary. This is the natural deduction from the context. Matt. 1: 25 ; 13: 55. But the feeling of reverence for the virgin mother, the value placed upon celibacy in the eai'ly Church, the instinctive shrinking from regarding Mary as an ordinary woman, bear-144

ing children in sorrow, and that, too, after the Hob/ Ghoxt had overshadowed her and she had given birth to the Messiah,—have suggested to the Roman and Greek Churches and to many Protestants two other theories. 2. That they were the children of Joseph by a former marriage. So taught Epiphanius and the ancient Greek Church. 3. That they were the children of Mary, the wife of Alpheus, the supposed sister of the Virgin Mary, and hence that they were Christ's cousins, and among the apostles. So St. Jerome and the Roman Church. Lange has modified this view by supposing that Alpheus was the brother of Joseph, and that because he died earh' they were adopted by Joseph into his family, which is extremely improbable. The strongest objection to 1 is that Jesus commended his mother to John. John 19 : 26. 2 is not open to any grave objection. 3 is beset with difficulties: (1.) It does violence to the natural and usual meaning of the word " brother," while the N. T. has a special term for "cousins." Col. 4:10; Luke 1:36. (2.) It assumes that two sisters had the same name, Mary. (3.) It fails to explain how these brethren could also be apostles, while we are told that they did not believe in Jesus before the resurrection and treated him rather disrespectfully. John 7 : 5. (4.) It is probable that Salome, and not Mary, was the sister of our Lord's mother. .John 19 : 25. The natural view furnishes an argument in favor of the historical character of the Gospels.

BUCK'LER. See Armor.

BUILD'INGS. See Dwellings.

BUK'Kl (iraxtiiH/). 1. The Danite chief chosen of the Lord to represent his tribe in the division of the Land of Promise. Num. 34 : 22.

2. One of the high-priestly line. 1 Chr. 6 : 5, 51 : Ezr. 7 : 4. Probably he was never the high priest.

BUKKI'AH (ivnsthig from Jehovah), the chief of the sixth division of singers. 1 Chr. 25:4, 13.

BUL. See Month.

BULLS. Cattle, being often left to roam for years at pleasure, became half wild. In the rich pastures of Bashan the bulls were strong and ferocious. Ps. 22 : 12. In Deut. 14 : 5 and Isa. 51 : 20

BUL

BUli

there is a Hebrew word translated " wild bull" which is believed to mean the oryx ( Oryx lencoryx), a large and powerful antelope still found on the borders of Palestine. Its chief means of defence are its sharp horns, often more than 3 feet in length, which gracefully curve over its back, but which in conflict, by bending the neck, are thrown forward. When entangled ** in a net" these horns would be a great disadvantage.

BULRUSH, RUSH, a large sedge {Oi/penisprtpj/nis) still found upon Lake Merom and the northern shores of the Sea of Galilee. It was formerly abundant in Egypt, but has now disappeared. Upon the upper Nile it is still found, and it is used by the modern Abyssinians for constructing boats. Ex. 2 :3-5 ; Isa. 18:2.

The bulrush grows in shallow water or mire. Job 8:11. It has an unbranch-ing straight, triangular culm, terminating in a large head (umbel) of small and somewhat drooping stems, as shown in the cut, bearing the chaffy fruit on their extremities. The stalk is usually about 10 feet high and 2 or 3 inches in diameter at the base. An area of papyrus surmounted by its beautiful tufted plumes is a fine sight.

From this plant paper was first made and derived its name. See Book.

BUL'WARK. See War.

BU'NAH (f//s-cre.tion), one of Ju-dah's descendants. 1 Chr. 2:25.

BUN'NI {built). 9:4.

2. One who sealed the covenant. Neh. 10:16.

3. A Levite. Neh. 11 : 15.

Bulni.sh.

A Levite, Neh.

Bunni is said to have been the Jewish name of Nicodemus.— Ewnld.

BUR'DEN. This word, when it is used in connection with some city or nation (as tlie burden of Monb, the burden of Nineveh, etc.), expresses the disastrous and calamitous import of the prophecy. The burden of the desert of the sea (Babylon), the burden of the vdlley of vision (Jerusalem), and similar expressions, are explained by their subject or connection. The phrase is frequently used by Isaiah. Isa. 13 : 1 ; 15 : 1. etc.

BURIAL, BURY. Gen. 23:4; Matt. 26 : 12. It was customary among the Jews, and ancients generally, for the children or near kindred to close the eyes of the dying. Gen. 46 : 4. A loud and general wailing followed the decease, John 11 : 19, 31, 33, and continued many days after burial. The body of the deceased was washed and laid out. Acts 9 : 37. It was wrapped in folds of linen cloth, and the head bound around with a napkin. It is said that Lazarus was bound " hand and foot with grave clothes," John 11 : 44, and it is supposed by many that each limb had its separate wrapper, as it was customary in Egypt to wrap even each finger in a separate cloth or band, so that hundreds of yards of cloth are often unwound from one of their mummies. When thus bound around, it was placed on a bier, in readiness to be borne to the grave. See Bier, Embalm.

The climate, and the uncleanness which was contracted, under the law, from contact with a dead body, or even by coming into the same apartment with it, would naturally lead to the custom of early interments. In Persia, we are told, it is not customary to keep the dead over two or three hours, and the European Jews universally bury their dead early. There were many exceptions in this respect, however. The practice of embalming was not general among the Jews, though spices, etc., were used in their burials. 2 Chr. 16 : 14 ; John 19 : 40. Jacob and Joseph, whose bodies were embalmed, both died in Eg3'pt, wliere the art of embalming was very skilfully practised. In Jacob's case we are told that Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm

BUR

his father, aud then he was placed in a coffin in Egypt, and thence his body was carried to Machpehih, in Canaan, and buried. Gen. 50 : 2, 7, l."). Coffins were used in Egypt and Babylon, but are unknown in the East even at the present day% excej)t when a body is to be conveyed to a distant place. See Embalm. All civilized nations have agreed in attending with some solemnity to the burial of their dead. Among the Jews the bier was followed to the grave by the nearest relations and other fi'iends. 2 Sam. 3 : 31 ; Luke 7 : 12. Other persons attended, and sometimes mourners (or rather wailers by profession) were employed to attend the body. Jer. 9:17; Eze. 24: 17; Am. 5:16; Matt. 9:23. This is the custom now in many Eastern nations.

Certain places were appropriated by the Jews to the purpose of burying the dead, and thev were both public and private. Gen. 2*3 : 4: 50 : 13 ; Jud. 8 : 32 ; 16: 31 ; 2 Sam. 2 : 32 ; 21 : 14; 2 Kgs. 23 : 6 ; Jer. 26 : 23. They were usually selected in gardens, 2 Kgs. 21: 18, 26 ; John 19 : 41; or fields. Gen. 23 : 11 ; or caves in the sides of the mountains, 2 Kgs. 23 : 16, 17 ; or in rocks, Isa. 22 : 16 ; and to be unburied was regarded as exceedingly disgraceful. 1 Sam. 17 : 44— 46 ; 2 Kgs. 9:10; Ps. 141: 7 ; Jer. 8: 2 and 22: 19. The grave was called the house or home of the dead. Job 30 : 23 ; Eccl. 12 : 5. The burial-places were usually in retired situations, and hence were the resort of demoniacs. Matt. 8 : 28, and were usually without the city walls. Kings and prophets alone, it would seem, were buried within the walls. Josh, 24 : 30, 33 : 1 Sam.25:l; 28:3; 2 Kgs. 21:18; 2 Chr. 16 : 14; 24: 16; 33:20; Neh. 3:16. Though solitary, the)' were selected with reference to shade, prospect, efc. Gen. 23: 17; 35:8; 1 Sam. 31:13.

The desire to be buried with , one's kindred was very strong, 2 Sam. 19 : 37; and it is remarkable that the Jews, as a people, in all their dispersions and sufferings, retain an ardent desire to be buried in their own land, especially around Jerusalem.

It was not unusual for a single family 146

to have near their dwelling-house a small building without door or window, built of stone or other durable material, which was called the sepulchral house or family mansion for the dead. The following description of the tombs of the Judges is taken from Baedeker's Palentine nud Syria, p. 238 : On the western side of the rock there is a small fore-court, leading to a vestibule, from which is entered the tomb-chamber. The portal was once capable of being closed from within. On the left side of the chamber are 7 shaft-tombs, above which, at irregular distances, ai-e 3 vaulted niche-tombs, and at the back of these again there are several shaft-tombs. In the western wall is a niche. Adjoining this first chamber on the east and south are 2 others, on about the same level, and 2 on a lower level. They have tombs on three sides. A passage with 3 tombs descends from the first to the north-eastern chamber, which contains 13 tombs. The other side-chamber contains no tomb.

The sepulchres of the Jews were sometimes expensively built and adorned or garnished, and were whitened at short intervals, so as to make them conspicuous, that they might be avoided, as contact with them occasioned ceremonial uncleanness. Hence the

Plan

of Tumbs of the Judges. {After de Saulcy.)

force of our Lord's reproof. Matt. 23 : 27. Sometimes titles or inscriptions were placed on them. 2 Kgs. 23 : 17. To build a sepulchre for a man was an

BUR

BYT

expression of respect and honor. Matt. 23 : 21) : Luke-11 : 48.

The most faiuous sepulchres in Palestine are the Machpelah, the burial-place of the patriarchs, under the great mosque of Hebron, to which, however, no stranger is admitted ; the sepulchre of Joseph, near Jacob's well, in Sa-

Tomb of tlie Judges. (From Photograph by Good.)

maria; the tombs of the kings and the tomhs of the Judges, near Jerusalem : and the supposed sepulchre of Christ, in the church of the Holy Sepulchre, in Jerusalem.

BURNING BUSH. See Moses and Shittim-wood.

BURNT-OFF BRING. See Sacrificp:.

BUSH. Mark 12: 26; Luke 20:^7. In these passages reference is made to that section of Scripture in which the account of the burning bush is to be found, and not to the bush itself.

BUSH'EL. See Measures.

BUT'LER, an honorable officer of the king's household, called ''cupbearer " Xeh. 1:11, it being his duty to fill and bear the cup or drinking-vessel to the king. The chief butler had the charge and oversighji of the rest. Gen. 40 : 1-13.

BUT'TER. As this word is used in the Scriptures, it probably means sour or coagulated milk, which, when mingled with water, is still regarded as a very agreeable and refreshing beverage by Eastern nations. Gen. 18 : S. Their butter, such as it was, might have been sometimes clarified

and preserved in jars, as at the present day in Asia, and when poured out resembles rich oil.

The figurative expression in Job 29 : 6, " I washed my steps with butter," denotes primarily the abundance with which the ])atriarch was blessed; but it is also supposed by some to refer to the great quantities of cream which his herds produced, and which were trodden into butter. This fanciful interpretation aside, the passage seems to be self-explanatory, the figurative allusion to butter having the same force and eff'ect as that to oil.

The place of butter as a general article of food in the East was supplied in some measure by the vegetable oil which was so abundant.

Butter was made by pouring the milk into a goat-skin, and then shaking or treading it to and fro in a uniform direction until the separation of the butter took place. The butter mentioned in Jud. 5 : 25 was probably cream, or a preparation of which cream was a component part. It is not improbable that the bottle of milk in the passage cited was no other than a skin which had been used as a churn, and that the refreshment was butter-milk, presented in the richest vessel that was at hand. Butter-milk is still esteemed a most refreshing beverage by the Arabs.

Butter and honey were used together, and were esteemed among the choicest productions of the land. And travellers tell us that the Arabs now use cream or new butter mixed with honey as a principal delicacy.

BUZ (coDtempf), a territory: perhaps named from Buz, and probably in northern Arabia. Jer. 25 ; 23; Gen. 22:21.

BUZ (contempt). 1. A son of Abraham's brother Nahor. Gen. 22 : 21.

2. A Gadite. 1 Chr. 5 : 14.

BU'ZI {contempt), the father of Eze-kiel the ])rophet. Eze. 1 : 3.

BUZ'ITE, THE. Elihu is so called. Job 32 : 2, (5; probably because he was the descendant of Buz. Gen. 22 : 21.

BYTHIN'IA. See Bithynia.

CAB

CJE

CAB. See Measitkes.

CAB'IION, a place in Judah. Josh. 15 : 40. Three places have been suggested as its site— el-Kufeir, 10 miles southeast of Ashkelon ; el-Knheibeh,x\QdiY Beit Jihrin ; and Abu Knhus.

CAB'INS, Jer. 37 : 16, or CELLS, were probably niches or apartments within the dungeon, for the separate confinement of prisoners. The idea conveyed is, that the prophet suffered the most severe and loathsome imprisonment.

C A'BUIi. 1. A 2:)lace in Asher, Josh. 19:27; now Kahtd, 10 miles south-east of Accho.

2. A name of the land containing 20 cities given by Solomon to Hiram, 1 Kgs. 9: 10-13, in a region of Galilee east of Accho. The word has no special meaning in Hebrew.

C^'SAR, the official title of the Roman emperors. It is borrowed from the famous Julius Caesar. It occurs about 30 times in the N. T., and is applied to Augustus, Luke 2:1; Tiberius, Luke 3:1; Claudius, Acts 11 : 28 ; and Nero, Acts 25 : 8. Such Jews as were Roman citizens had the right of appeal to Caesar, Acts 25 : 11, who was their ruler. See separate names.

C^'SARAUGUS'TUS. See Augustus.

CESAR, CLAU'DIUS. See Claudius.

C.ESARE'A, the chief Roman city of Palestine in New Testament times. It was on the Mediterranean, about 44 miles south of Acre, and 47 miles in a direct line north-west of Jerusalem. It had a harbor protected by an artificial wall or breakwater.

History. —Originally it was called "Strato's Tower." Herod the Great built a city there, b. c. 10, and named it in honor of Augustus Caesar. Herod Agrippa I. died there. Acts 12: 19-23. Philip the evangelist lived there, 8 :40 ; 21 : 8, 16, and Cornelius, 10 : 1-24. Paul frequently visited it, 9 : 30 : 18 : 22 ; 21 : 8 ; 23 : 33 ; was in bonds there two years, 24 : 27 ; it was the official residence of 148

Festus and of Felix. Vespasian was declared emperor there. It had a learned school and an episcopal see; was the birthplace of Procopius; the residence for a time of Origeu; of Eusebius, the historian, who was bishop of Cfesarea ; was a noted city in the time of the Crusades; was twice rebuilt by the Christians; fell into decay; and is now in ruins. It is called Knisnri-eh. Large quantities of the building-stones have been carried to other towns and used for building. Stanley calls it the most desolate site in Palestine, with no signs of human life, and the nearest road passes at a distance from the extensive ruins.

C^SARE'A-PHILIPPI, the Greek Paneas, now called Banias by the Arabs, is a town at the base of Mount Hermon, about 20 miles north of the Sea of Galilee and 45 miles south-west of Damascus. It was the northern limit of our Lord's journeys. Matt. 16 : 13; Mark 8 : 27, and was probably Baal-gad of Old Testament history. It was here that Peter, in the name of all the other apostles, made that fundamental confession of faith in Christ as the Son of God and the Saviour, and that Christ uttered the prophecy concerning the indestructible character of his Church. Matt. 16 : 16 IF. The gushing waters of the sources of the Jorda*i and the immovable rocks of Mount Hermon were in full view when our Lord spoke those words, and served to illustrate their meaning. The landscape is one of the most beautiful in Palestine, and has been called the Syrian Tivoli.

History. —The town is remarkable for its physical and historical associations. It was near two important sources of the Jordan ; its ancient classical name was Pniieion, in commemoration of the sanctuary of the god Pan; it was enlarged by Philip the Tetrarch, and named Caasarea-Philippi to distinguish it from the other Ca^sarea, on the Mediterranean ; later on it was called Ncro-lu'as by Herod Agrippa II.; it became the seat of a bishopric; it was repeatedly

Coesarea. i^Frotn a Photograph. Palestine Exploration Fund.)

Csesarea-Philippi, or Baiiias. (After Photographs of Frith and Good.)

Sources of the Jordan uear Banias. {After Photographs of Frith and Good.)

CAL

taken during the Crusades, It is now called Banias, and has about 50 houses, many ruins of columns, towers, temples, a bridge, and of a remarkable castle. The place is now noted for one of the chief sources of the Jordan, which rushes in clear crystal springs from beneath the rocks of Mount Hermon, and flows rapidly towards Dan, uniting with another source below that town.

CiE'SAR'S HOUSE'HOLD, Phil. 4 : 22, was Paul's phrase for the servants and dependents in the palace of the Roman emperor, some of whom were converts. It is unlikely that any members of the imperial family are meant, although the expression (as Lightfoot remarks) " might include equally the highest functionaries and the lowest menials."

CA'IAPHAS {depression) was the high priest of the Jews, A. d. 27-36, and therefore at the time of our Saviour's trial. John 11: 49, 51. The ofl&ce was formerly held for life, but at this time it was filled and vacated at the pleasure of the Roman government. The raising of Lazarus roused the Sanhedrin to action, and Caiaphas turned their thoughts toward the execution of the hated and feared Prophet by deliberately advising his death on the score of expediency. His language was unconsciously prophetic. John 11: 49-52.

After Christ's arrest he was arraigned before Caiaphas. A vain effort having been made to secure false testimony sufficient for his condemnation, Caiaphas at last adjured him to declare whether he was indeed the Christ, the Son of God. On Jesus's answering affirmatively, Caiaphas pretended to be so shocked at his supposed blasphemy that he declared all further witness was unnecessary to convict him, and the council unanimously condemned hira to de.ith. Matt, 26 : fi5-68.

As Caiaphas had no power to inflict the punishment of death, Christ was taken from him to Pilate, the Roman governor, .John 18:28, that his execution might be duly ordered. See Annas. Before Caiaphas, Peter and John were brought for trial. Acts 4 : 6.

CAIN {jjossessi'in), the first-born of Adam and Eve. Gen. 4:1. Welcomed as the promised deliverer, he disap-pointe<l his paients' dearest hopes and proved to be of a bad heart, for out of 150

envy because his brother's sacrifice had been accepted and his own rejected, he slew his brother. See Abel.

For this crime he was banished from his home. But God, remembering mercy in the midst of wrath, gave him some sign or mark whereby he would have protection from attacks likely to be made upon him as the accursed of God. He then went to the land of Nod, to the east of Eden ; after the birth of his son Enoch (and perhaps other children), he began to build a city— i. e. a village of rude huts, as distinguished from the movable tents of the nomads. Gen. 4:16, 17. See Nod.

CAIN {lance), in the mountains of Judah, Josh. 15 : 57 ; perhaps modern Yiikin, south-east of Hebron.

CAI'NAN (possession, or a smith). 1. The sonof Enos. Gen. 6: 9-14 ; Luke 3: 37. He is called Kenan, which is the correct form, in 1 Chr. 1: 2. He lived 910 years.

2. A son of Arphaxad, Luke 3 : 36; but as the name is not found in the Hebrew, it is probably an unwarranted interpolation into the Septuagint, and thence copied by Luke into his Gospel.

CAKE. See Bread.

CA'IjAH (old age), one of the oldest of Assyrian towns ; founded by Nimrod, Gen. 10:11, and probably for a time the capital of the Assyrian kingdom. Layard, Porter, and Kalisch locate it at Kileh-Shenjliat, on the Tigris, 40 miles below Nimroud, where there is a vast ruin 3 miles in circuit. The Rawlinsons, Geo. Smith, and others, place it at Nimroxid, where are ruins covering about 1000 acres. They indicate a town in the form of an irregular quadrangle, surrounded by a wall, flanked with towers, and pierced with gates. The r^piains of palaces, temples, and a famous tower or pyramid forui a mound of ruins, 600 yards long, with a cone 140 feet high. See Assyria and Armenia.

CAL'AMUS, Song Sol. 4:14 : Eze. 27 : 19, OR SWEET CALAMUS, Ex. 30 : 23, OR SWEET CANE, Isa. 43 : 24 ; Jer. 6 : 20, All probably names for the same plant. It seems to have been an aromatic reed brought ''from afar country." Lemon-grass (Andi-opogon) is '' a plant of remarkable fragrance and a native of Central India, where it

CAL

is used to mix with ointments, on account of the delicacy of its odor." Calamus ma}-^ have been a species of this.

CAL'C O L (sHsteiHiuce), a Ju-dite, 1 Chr. 2:6; probably same with Chalcol. 1 Kgs. 4 : 31. He was one of the four sages whom Solomon excelled in wisdom.

CALDRON, a vessel for boiling flesh for any use, ceremonial or domestic. 1 Sam. 2: 14; 2 Chr. 35:13; .Job 41 •''O • Mic Reeds. (SchuffS " r-qm-dOD -±1.-0, iviic. ^^ Commentary.-■)

CAXEB (capnlle). 1. The son of Ilezron, of the tribe of Judah, and father of Hur. 1 Chr. 2:9 (where he is called Chelubai), 18, 19, 42, 46, 48.

2. One of the twelve spies sent by Moses into Canaan. Num. 13 : 6. He and Joshua were the only adults born in Egypt who entered the land as conquerors, because they brought a truthful report, while the other ten were frightened, told exaggerated stories of the native population, and spread discontent and despair. Caleb and Joshua assured the people that they might easily gain possession of Canaan. In return for these assurances, the people proposed to stone them. A plague from the Lord broke out, and the lying spies were all killed. Num. 13 and 14. Forty-five years afterward, when the conquest was completed and the land apportioned among the tribes, Caleb, being then eighty-five years of age, applied to Joshua for his share, reminding him of the promise of God, by which he and Joshua were excepted from the general curse of the people, and proposed to take, as his share of the land, Kirjath-arba, the stronghold of the giants and the centre of their fortifications. His request was granted, and he accordingly attacked and subdued Kirjath-arba, and thence proceeded to Kirjath-sepher, another stronghold, afterward called Debir. Here he proposed to give his

daughter Achsah in marriage to the man who should capture the city. His nephew, Othniel, undertook the enterprise and succeeded, and received the promised reward. Caleb's possessions were called bv his name. Josh. 14 and 15 ; 1 Sam. 30 : 14.

3. A Caleb, the son of Hur, is mentioned in 1 Chr. 2 : 50. He may bo identical with the spy.

CA'IiEB (o (lo(/), the district in Judah, between Hebron and Carmel, assigned to Caleb. 1 Sam. 30 : 14.

CALF. Gen. 18 : 7. A fatted calf was regarded by the Jews as the choicest animal food. 1 Sam. 28: 24 : Am. 6:4; Luke 15 : 23. The allusion in Jer. 34 : 18 is to an ancient custom of ratifying a contract or covenant in the observance of which an animal was slain and divided, and the parties passed between the parts, signifying their willingness to be so divided themselves if they failed to perform their covenant. Gen. 15 : 9, 10, 17.

Calf, Molten, Ex. 32 : 4, was an idol-god prepared by Aaron in compliance with the request of the children of Israel, who had become impatient at the absence of Moses and desired some visible image or representation of the Deity. See Aaron. It was probably made of wood and thickly overlaid with gold.

The golden calves of Jeroboam, 1 Kgs. 12 : 28, were objects of worship set up by that king in the land of Israel to prevent the ten tribes from resorting to Jerusalem to worship, and so more effectually

Bronze Figure of Api.s. ( Wilkinson.) to separate them from the house of David. One of the idols was in Pan and

CAL

CAM

the other in Bethel, the two extremes of his kingdom. It is supposed this wicked king had become acquainted with the forms and objects of idolatrous worship while he dwelt in Egypt. 1 Kgs. 11: iU. His sin is almost always mentioned whenever his name is used. See Jeroboam.

Calves of our Lips, Hos. 14: 2, is a figurative expression signifying the fruits of our lips, or our offerings of praise to God. Calves were used in sacrifices, and we are to render praises and thanksgivings to God as the offering of our lips. Heb. 13 : 15.

CAL'NEH {fortifiedplace?), a city of Chaldiea founded by Nimrod. Gen. 10 : 10; Am. 6:2; probably the same as Calno, Isa. 10 :9, and Canneh, Eze. 27 : 23. Some have proposed to locate Calneh at Ctesiphon, or Kileh-Shenjhat, on the Tigris, 40 miles below Nimroud. Rawlinson and others, however, place ancient Asshur at Kileh-Sherghat, and identify Calneh with Niffer. The ruins at Niffer are 60 miles north-west of War-ka, and on the east side of the Euphrates, but 30 miles from the present course of the river. They are conceded to be of very great antiquity, and are divided into nearly equal groups by a deep ravine or channel, 120 feet wide, apparently the dry bed of a river which once ran through the town. Inscriptions found in the mounds indicate that the ancient name of the city was Nijnir, probably the Nojiher of the Talmud, and hence the Calneh of Genesis.

CAL'VARY {skul/), the place where our Lord was crucified, so called from its conical shape. There is no Scrijjture warrant for the popular phrase "Mount Calvary." It was simply an elevation. Tradition places the site at the modern church of the Holy Sepulchre, within the present walls of Jerusalem. This view is stoutly maintained by George AVilliams, Rit-ter, Krafft, Raumer, Rosen, De Saul-cy, Sepp, Tischendorf, and several of the members of the British Palestine Survey. It is as stoutly disputed by Robinson, Tobler, John Wilson, Barclay, Thomson, Bonar, Meyer, Ewald, S. J. Andrews, and others.

The arguments turn chiefly on the course of the second wall of Josephus —whether it ran so as to include or 162

to exclude the present church of the Holy Sepulchre. The evangelists place Calva-rv distinctly outside of the city in Matt. 28 : 32 ; Heb. 13 : 12 : John 19 : 20, 41. The church of the Holy Sepulchre is inside the present city, which is much smaller now than in the time of Christ. To establish the traditional site it must be proved that the second wall excluded the church, which is quite improbable. Mr. Schick and Bishop Gobat of Jerusalem locate Calvary near the Grotto of Jeremiah, north-west of the Damascus gate; Fisher Howe and Conder, on the Grotto of Jeremiah; Barclay suggests a place near Gethsemane. As in the case of Moses, so in that of Jesus, it may be best that the exact place of his crucifixion and burial remain unknown and out of the reach of profanation and idolatry.

CAM'EL, a well-known and highly useful animal in Eastern countries, and justly called "the ship of the desert." It is by the law of Moses unclean. Lev. 11: 4. The camel is usually about 6 feet in height to the saddle. Though he makes loud complaints when caused to kneel or receive a load, he is still docile, and marches on as under a painful sense of duty. He varies in color from white to black, but is ordinarily tawny. In the Bible lands the Arabian or one-humped camel ( Camelits dromedcu-ius) is found. Two-humped camels (C. Bactrianus) are rarely used except in Central Asia.

The feet of this animal are provided with a tough, elastic sole, which prevents them from sinking in the sand. His hump serves as a cushion for loads, Isa. 30 : 6, and a store-house of food against times of scarcity. There is a large callus on his breast and three pairs of calluses on his legs, which protect him from laceration when kneeling upon sharp stones. His nostrils are adapted for breathing with safety in a sandstorm. A horny mouth with divided upper lip is fitted for the harsh and thorny shrubs of the desert, which he seems to prefer to more tender herbage. The second stomach of the camel, which is a ruminant animal, is divided into hexagonal cells, and receives and retains for gradual use the water which is drunk. On a full supply he can live even 20 or 30 days. As the camel never sensibly perspires, there is no loss in this direction. These qualities all combine to

CAM

adapt the animal to the countries he inhabits and to the services required of him. He is, perhaps, more sure-footed than the ass, more easily supported, and capable of an incomparably greater burden. lie can carry a load of 600 or 800 pounds

Camel.

at the rate of 30 miles a day, and, on short journeys, 1000 to 1200 pounds. His usual speed is two and a half miles an hour, but the breed of fast camels called distinctively dromedaries, Jer. 2 : 23, will travel 100 miles a day.

Like a docile colt, this animal is driven or led by a rude halter. Crescent-shaped ornaments of cloth and cowrie-shells, or even of silver, are often hung to the camel's neck Jud. 8 : 21, 26. The flesh and milk are used for food (except by Jews); the skin and hair are employed for garments ; the bones are cut into various articles 5 and sometimes the dung is needed for fuel.

The ordinary life of the camel is from 30 to 50 years. Camels were formerly, and are still, in the East, among the chief possessions of the wealthy. Gen. 12 : 16 ; 30 : 43 ; 37 : 25 ; Jud. 6 : 5 and 7:12; 1 Sam. 30:17; 1 Kgs. 10:2; 1 Chr. 5 : 21 : 2 Chr. 14 : 15; Job 1 : 3 and 42: 12; Isa. 30:6. 153

The expression in Matt. 19 : 24 is usually considered figurative, denoting something beyond human power. The same form of expression is used among the Arabs and by the Rabbins in respect to the elephant. Some believe that the expression refers to the small door within the large and heavy door of the Oriental gate, for this is called in Arabic "Me needle's eye." Rolla Floyd (a well-known Syrian dragoman) told the writer that till recently it was the custom to close the gates of Jerusalem from 12 till 2 on Fridays during Mohammedan worship, but this small door

might then be used. On one such occasion, Mr. F. was waiting outside the Jafla gate for some travellers, when a train of camels arrived. He saw them enter the city by unloading each animal and taking it separately through " the needle\ eye."

Another figurative expression occurs Matt. 23 : 24, in which the inconsistency of the scribes and Pharisees (who attended to the most unimportant ceremonies of their religion, while they were unjust, unmerciful, and faithless) is compared to one who should very carefully strain nut (not at) a gnat or other small insect from the liquor he was about to drink, and yet swallow an animal as large as a camel. See Drink.

Travellers sometimes throw over the camel, u])on the top of his burden, a pair of panniers, in which they ride, one on either side. Two boxes like small carriage-bodies are often hung upon the animal in the same manner, and in these females may ride and be sheltered from the heat. Gen. 24:64. It is easy to see how Rachel might have concealed her father's idols. Gen. 31: 34. The camel is said to choose ruinous and desolate places for his habitations, and hence the force of the prophetic language respecting Rabbah, Eze. 25 : 5 ; though the prophecy would be abundantly verified if the place should merely become a stopping-place for caravans.

Camel's Hair, Matt. 3 : 4, was made into cloth. 2 Kgs. 1:8; Zech. 13:4. Sometimes the fabric was wrought of the finest and softest part of the hair, and was then a very rich and luxurious article of dress. A coarser kind was used for the covering of tents and for the upper garments of shepherds and camel-drivers. Travellers tell us that modern dervishes wear cloth of this kind, and also leathern girdles. The raiment of John the Baptist, Matt. 11: 8, was probably of this kind, for it is put in opposition to soft raiment; but some think it was of prepared camel's hide.

CAME'LEON. See Chameleon.

CA'MON {stalks, or grain f), where Jair was buried, Jud. 10: 5 ; east of Jordan, in Gilead.

CAMP. This term is frequently used in reference to the movements of the children of Israel, and many pas-

CAM

sages of the Levitical law relate to things that are to be done within or without the camp.

The form of encamping, Ex. 16 : 13, is particularly prescribed in Num. 2. The tabernacle occupied the centre, and nearest to this were the tents of the Le-vites, who were intrusted with the principal care of it. Num. 3. The whole body of the people, embracing upward

of 600,000 fighting-men, besides women and children, were formed in four divisions, three tribes constituting a division, so that the tabernacle was en' closed in a hollow square. Each of these divisions had a standard, as well as each tribe and each of the large family associations of which the tribes were composed. Each tribe had its captain or commander assigned by Uod's direction.

The view of such a mass of people, maintaining the most perfect order and subordination, might well excite the admiration of the beholder. Num. 24: 2-5. It is not diflBcult to imagine the emotions which such a view would awaken in one who, from the summit of Mount Peor, looked down upon the vast congregation of the Lord's people gathered around the sacred symbols of his presence.

" How beautiful are thy tents, 0 Jacob ! And thy tabernacles, O Israel ! As the Valleys are they spread forth ; As gardens by the river's side : As lign-aloeswhicli Jehovah hath planted, As cedars beside the waters."

Num. 24:5,6. 154

" Outside of the camp " must all defilement and all defiled persons be put. Consequently, lepers, those defiled by contact with the dead, captives taken in war, were ke})t out for a greater or less period, and the ashes of the sacrifice and all that was not burnt on the altar were carried out. The dead were there buried, and there executions and the burning of the young bullock for the sin-offering took place. See references in order : Lev. 13 : 46 ; 14 : 3 ; Num. 12:14,15; 31:19: Josh. 6:23; Deut. 23:10,12; Lev. 6 : 11 ; 8:17: 10 :4, 5 ; 24 : 14 ; 4 : 12. AVe are not to picture an enormous camp lying foursquare, containing regular streets, like

CAM

CAN

a modern military camp, because in that case these regulations evidently could not be carried out without a great expenditure of time. But the Israelites traversed a country broken up into innumerable little valleys, and oftentimes the host must have stretched along for miles, but so closely hemmed in between mountain-sides that to go without the camp would be but a few steps.

In later times, when Israel was settled in the Promised Land, we find scattered references to camps. They appear to have been generally pitched upon high ground. Jud. 7 :1, 8 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 4 ; 28 : 4. They were sometimes intrenched; at other times a barrier was formed of the baggage-wagons. Jehoshaphat established permanent camps. 2 Chr. 17 : 2.

CAM'PHIRE. Song Sol. 4:13. A shrub, sometimes 10 feet high, growing in Egypt and other Eastern countries, and called henna {Lawsonia alba).

The white-and-yellow flowers grow in clusters, like the lilac, and are very fragrant. From the leaves, when dried

Cam phi re. {Lawsonia alba.)

and pulverized, is made an orange or reddish dye, with which females stain their hands and feet. Sonnini saj's that Eastern women "are fond of decorating themselves with the flowers of the henna-plant ; that they take them in their

hands and perfume their bosoms with them." What we call ca7njihor is an entirely diff'erent substance. It is remarkable that camphire is still found growing only at one place in Palestine, and thatEn-gedi. Song Sol. 1:14.

CA'NAAN {low, humbled), the fourth son of Ilam, Gen. 10:6; 1 Chr. 1:8, and the progenitor of those peoples who inhabited the country on the west of the Jordan. Noah, his grandfather, cursed him on awaking from his drunken sleep because of the conduct of Ilam, his father. Gen. 9 : 20-25. The difficulty is easiest solved if we trust a Jewish tradition that Canaan was the one who first saw his grandfather's shame, and that, instead of decorously concealing it, he told his father. His descendants bore the curse. The Israelites carried on a war of extermination against them, and they became, in great measure, servants or slaves.

CANAAN, LAND OF. Gen. 12 :5. The country inhabited by the posterity of Canaan, who were hence called Canaanites, and which was given by God to the children of Israel, the posterity of Abraham, as their possession. Ex. 6:4; Lev. 25:38.

The original boundaries were Mount Lebanon on the north, the wilderness of Arabia on the south, and the Arabian desert on the east. On the west their possessions extended at some points to the margin of the Mediterranean. Their boundaries on this side were partially restricted by the Philistines, who held the low lands and strong cities along the shore. Gen. 10 : 19. Besides the possessions of the Israelites, the land of Canaan embraced Phoenicia on the north and Philistia on the south-west. Zeph. 2 : 5. The land of Canaan was called the land of Israel, 1 Sam. 13 : 19, because it was occupied by the descendants of Jacob or Israel; the holi/ land, Zech. 2 : 12 ; the la)id of jjromise, Heb. 11: 9, because it was promised to Abraham and his posterity as their possession ; the l<(nd of Jndah, Jer. 39 : 10, because Judah was the leading tribe; the land of the Hebrews, Gen. 40 : 15, or the descendants of Eber, an ancestor of Abraham. The modern name of Palestine, or the land of the Philistines, was originally applied to the region lying along the coast of the Mediter-

CAN

ranean, south-west of the Land of Promise, but in its present usage denotes the whole country bounded by the Jordan on the east, the Mediterranean on the west, Arabia on the south, and Lebanon on the north. For physical features,

see PA.LESTINE.

Sketch-Map of Canaan before the Conquest.

History. —Previous to its conquest by which Joshua, Canaan was peopled by several tribes, as Ilittites, Jebusites, Amorites, Girgasites, Hivites, Perizzites, and four others, all early known as Canaanites. Gen. 10 : 15-19. Later, '^Canaanites" appears to designate a separate tribe, and 156

the land was inhabited by them and six

other tribes. Canaan was the country for which Terah started, Gen. 11 : 31; Abrani dwelt in it; it was promised to him for a possession. Gen. 12 : 5, 8, etc.; Isaac, Jacob, and the patriarchs made their home there. Gen. 26-35. It was left by Jacob because of the famine; searched by the twelve spies. Num. 13:2; viewed by Moses, Deut. 32:49; conquered by Joshua, Josh. 11:23; divided by lot among the twelve tribes. Josh. 13 : 7 ; a king of the country was slain by Deborah and Barak. Jud. 4:24. See Map. In the temple at Kar-nak, in Egypt, a triple list of 118 or 119 towns of Canaan has lately been discovered, which is believed to be a record of an Egyptian conquest of the land by Thothmes III. previous to that by Joshua. Seethe list of these towns in Con-der's Tent-Work in Palestine, vol. ii. 344-346. It is the oldest known record of Canaanite cities before the time of Joshua. For later history see Judah, Kingdomof; Israel,Kingdom OF; and Palestine.

CA'NAANITES, THE. See preceding article.

CA ]VA OF GALr-LEE, a town noted as the scene of Christ's first miracle, John 2 : 1-11, and of another miracle, 4 : 46, and as the home of Na-thanael. 21:2. Tradition places it at Kefr-Kenna, about four English miles north-east of Nazareth, and the traveller is now shown an earthen jar, is claimed to be one of the water-jars used at the wedding. Robinson and others, with less probability, identify Cana with Kdna-el-JelU, about 9 miles north of Nazareth. It has a fine situation, and the ruins indicate the existence in former times of a

CAN

considerable village. Contler suggests a new location, and proposes to place Cana at Jio'neh, north-east of Nazareth, and only one and a half miles distant.— CONDEH : Tent- Work- in PaleHtine, 1878, i. p. 154. This lacks confirmation.

CAN'DACE {>iovereiijn of hIuvch ?). The name is a title of Ethiopian queens. Acts 8 : 27. Her chamberlain or treasurer, a eunuch, was met by Philip the evangelist on the road between Jerusalem and Gaza, and converted. See Philip.

CAN'DLE. Job 18 : 6. Often used figuratively to denote light generally. See Lamp.

CANDLESTICK, GOLD'-EN —a misnomer, as it held only lamps—Ex. 25 : 31. It was a splendid article of the tabernacle furniture, made of fine gold, not moulded, but " of beaten work," and computed by some to have been worth, at the modern value of gold, $30,000. It consisted of a shaft or stem, supposed to have been 5 feet high, with six branches. The

Golden Candlestick. {From the Arch of Titus.)

branches came out from the shaft at three points, two at each point, as in the accompanying cut, and the width of the whole candlestick across the top was about three feet and a half. It was richly adorned with raised work representing flowers, and also knops or knobs, and little bowls resembling half an almond-shell. At the extremity of

each branch there was a socket for the lamj). and also at the top of the main shaft, making seven in all. Tongs to remove the snuif and dishes to receive it, as well as oil-vessels, were articles of furniture belonging to the candlestick, and were all made of gold. The lights were trimmed and supplied daily with the ])urest olive-oil. The,y were lighted at night and extinguished in the morning, thougli some su))pose that a part of them at least were kept burning through the day. The candlestick was so situated as to throw the light on the altar of incense and on the table of shew-bread, occupying the same apartment, and from which the natural light was excluded.

In Solomon's temple there were 10 golden candlesticks. 1 Kgs. 7:49; 2 Chr. 4 : 7. They were taken to Babylon. Jer. 52:19. In Zerubbabel's temple there was only one candlestick. This was removed from Herod's temple by Titus, and carried immediately before him in his triumphal entry into Rome. It is sculptured uj)on the Arch of Titus, in Rome. Its after-history is curious. Titus deposited it in the Temple of Peace; it was carried to Carthage by Genseric, A. D. 465; recovered by Beli-sarius; brought to Constantinople, and then " respectfully deposited in the Christian church of Jerusalem," A. D. 533. Nothing further is known of it.

CANE. See Calamus.

CANKER-WORM. Joel 1:4; Nah. 3 : 15, 16. This was one of the army of destroying insects by which the land of Juda?a was laid waste. It is thought that the original word means rather the locust in its larva or caterpillar state, when it is even more destructive than after it acquires wings and is about to fly away. Of this Na-hum's words are very expressive: it "spoileth and fleeth away."

CAN'NEII. See Calneh.

CAN'ON (literally, a cane, then a rod of measurement) means the collection of books of the 0. and N. T. which form the original and authoritative written rule of faith and practice in the Christian Church.

I. The 0. T. C((non.—Q\\Y Bible is a growth of many generations. Moses put the " book of the law " in the side of the ark. Deut. 31 : 26. This book, which

CAN

contained not alone direct precepts, Ex. 24 : 7, but also general exhortations, Deut. 28:61, and historical narratives, Ex. 17 : 14, was further increased by the records of Joshua, Josh. 24 : 26, and probably by other writings. 1 Sam. 10 : 25. At a subsequent time collections of psalms and proverbs were made. The later prophets, especially Jeremiah, were familiar with the writings of their predecessors. But although book was added to book, there probably was no collection made containing them all until the Caj^tivity. According to Jewish tradition, the formation of the canon of the 0. T. in its present form was due to Ezra and the men of the " great synagogue." The division of the 0. T. into three parts—the Law, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa —I. e. the remaining sacred writings—(see Bible) was not arbitrary or accidental, but was a reflection of the true historical order of their composition. The Law is the foundation of the Jewish state; the Prophets relate the story of the struggles of the Jews against internal and external dangers, and likewise the revelation of the divine Mind toward them and their neighbors; the Hagiographa contain additional information, and, above all, the outpourings of the nation's heart and the expression of their wisdom. According to Josephus, there were only 22 books in the sacred canon, corresponding to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet. But this short list was made by combining several books which we projierly separate. Thus, the two books of Samuel, of Kings, of Chronicles, formed but one book respectively ; Judges and Ruth, Ezra and Ne-hemiah, Jeremiah and Lamentations, were similarly combined; and finally, the twelve minor prophets were reckoned as one book. And although other lists, slightly different, are given, still the main fact is testified to that the Jews had a certain fixed and uniform amount of writing to which they gave a divine character and paid peculiar regard. This list does not include the Apocrypha of the Septuagint, which, accordingly, has been excluded from the Protestant 0. T., though often printed between the Testaments. The Roman Catholic Church, however, receives them as authentic. The British and Foreign 158

Bible Society ceased to print them after 1826. The American Bible Society likewise omits them.

We may therefore say that the 0. T., as we have it to-day, existed shortly after the Captivity, and that the present number and arrangement of the books do not affect its age, since nothing has been added or omitted which had any right to be in the canon or the individual books.

The canon as we have it existed in our Lord's day, as is evident from the quotations in the N. T. by him and his disciples. There are in all 275 quotations from different books, but, with the exception of the words of Enoch in Jude, no book out of the canon is used for this purpose. We may therefore feel certain that we have a canon endorsed by the highest conceivable authority. It should, however, be borne in mind that the Septuagint version is generally quoted, even when it differs from the Hebrew. The apostles were no slaves of the letter, but used the Scriptures in the freedom of the Spirit.

II. The N. T. Canon.—T\\Q history of the collection and authoritative determination of the N. T. canon may be divided into three periods.

1. Doivn to A. D. 170. —Paul claimed for his Epistles '' a public use and an authoritative power." 1 Thess. 5:27; 2 Thess. 3:6; Col. 4 : 16; 1 Tim. 4 : 6. John solemnly warns against any additions to or deductions from the book of Revelation. Rev. 22:18, 19. Peter significantly puts Paul's Epistles side by side Avith '"' the other Scriptures." 2 Pet. 3 : 16. Nothing is more striking than the great difference in contents and expression between the N. T. and the Christian writings of the following centuries. This difference is a subsidiary but convincing proof of the inspiration of the former. We see in the Apostolic Fathers (a. n. 70-120) evidence of acquaintance with at least the majority of our present N. T.

The period from A. D. 120-170 has been termed the age of the apologists. These efforts to defend the Christian faith led to a new use of the facts of Christ's life, and it then became manifest how gi-eatly superior the four Gospels were to all other accounts; and accordingly, they were separated and

CAN

CAP

assigned to a place of honor and absolute authority. At the close of the period was composed the Muratorian canon in the West, while about the same time appeared the S3'riac translation of the N. T. called the Peshito, and the first Latin versions called Itala.

2. From A. D. 170 to A. D. 303.—As the result of the investigations in the patristic writings of this period, West-cott declares that the four Gospels, the Acts, 1 Peter, 1 John, 13 Epistles of Paul, and the Apocalj'pse (the Revelation) were accepted by the Church, and, with the exception of the Apocalypse, have never been questioned since until modern times. Speaking generally, we may say that of the so-called *' disputed" books of the N. T. the Apocalypse was universally received by all the Christian writers, while the Epistle to the Hebrews found acceptance in the Oriental, but not in the Occidental, Church. Judging from the writings, " the Epistles of James and Jude and the second and third of John were little used, and the second of Peter was barely known."

3. From A. D. SOS to A. D. 307.—At the close of this jieriod the third Council of Carthage, A. D. 397, took place, memorable as that by Avhich the present canon of the N. T., with its 27 books, was ratified. Since that time it has remained unchanged. Luther revived doubts concerning some of the 7 books Avhieh Eusebius calls "disputed," especially the Epistle of James (which he could not harmonize with Paul's doctrine of justification by faith); but these were private opinions, and were not adopted by the Lutheran Church. All the Protestant Churches agree with the Ureek and the Roman Churches as regards the extent of the canon of the N. T. And this little book contains the chief wisdom of the world, and will continue to guide mankind in the way of salvation to the end of time.

CAN'TICLES. See Song of Sol-

OMOX.

_ CAPER'NAUM (town ofNahum), a city of great interest as the home of Jesus after he left Nazareth. Though it fills a large place in the gospel narrative, it is not once mentioned in 0. T. history, nor in any portion of the Bible except the four Gospels. It is called Christ's " own city,"

Matt. 9:1, and it was the scene of t^omo of his most remarkable miracles, labors, and discourses. Matt. 8 : 5-14 ; 9 : 2 ; 17 : 24; John 6 :17-C^>; 4 : 46, etc. Much exploration, study, and discussion have been given to determine its true site, but the question is still unsettled.

The gospel narrative throws some general, though not very definite, light upon the location of this lost city. It was (1) a city of Galilee, Luke 4: 31; (2) by the lake-coast. Matt. 4:13: John 6 : 17, 24; (3) with collectors of customs, and probably a custom-house, Matt. 17 : 24 ; Mark 2 :1, 14; Luke 5 : 27 compared with Matt. 9:1,9; (4) it had a noted syn-nagogue, built by a Roman centurion, Matt. 8:5; Mark 1; 21; Luke 7:1,5; (5) it was joined with Chorazin and Beth-saida in the woes pronounced upon them by Christ, and its complete destruction was predicted. Matt. 11:20-23; Luke 10 : 13-15; (6) it has been inferred also from the Scriptures that Capernaum was in the land of Gennesaret, but this is not certain. Comp. Matt. 14: 34 with John 6 : 16, 17, 24, 25. These indicate that the city was on the west side of the Sea of Galilee, and near its northern end.

Two places have been mainly urged as marking the site of ancient Capernaum : (1) Khan Alinyeh, supported by Robinson (1852), Macgregor (1864), Porter (1875), Kiepert, Sepp, and by members of the recent British and American Palestine Exploration Societies (Kitchener and Merrill) ; (2) Tell Hum, maintained by Dr. Wilson, Major Wilson, W. M. Thomson, Stanley, Hep-worth Dixon, Ritter, Baedeker, De-litzsch, Plumptre, Schaff", and others.

Tell Hum is a ruin near the Sea of Galilee, about two miles south-west of where the river Jordan enters the sea. Khan Minyeh is a Saracen inn on the northern extremity of the plain of Gennesaret {cl-Gkuweir), about 5 miles south-west of the mouth of the Jordan and 2i to 3 miles below Tell Hum, and situated near the lake.

Several other places have been suggested : as 'Ain Mudaumrah, once urged, but afterward abandoned, by Tristram, and ruins near Bethsaida Julias; but their claims are generally regarded as not well supported.

The argument from tradition is divided between Khan Mhii/eh, and Tell Hum,

CAP

but prevailingly in favor of Tell Hum. Conder {Tent- Work in Palestine,ii. 182) claims Jewish and Arab tradition for Khan Mini/eh, but Br. Thomson and Furrer claim it decidedly for Tell Hum. The arguments for Khan Mini/eh, briefly stated, are: (1) It is near the

Gennesaret, from Khan Minyeh. {From a Photograph taken for the Palebtlne Exploration Fund.)

sea-shore,, while Tell Hum is at some distance from the shore; (2) it is in the land of Gennesaret, if Gennesaret is identical with el-Ghnweir ; (3) it is well located for a custom-house, on the highway from Jerusalem to Damascus.

The arguments in support of Tell Hum mainly are ; (1) The extensive ruins, covering a space half a mile long by a quarter of a mile wide, indicate a large city like Capernaum ; (2) the ruins of a large synagogue have been discovered there ; (3) when Christ crossed the lake from Capernaum, Mark 6 : 33, the crowd ran around the end of the lake to meet him ; and it is claimed that Tell Hum is more likely, therefore, to have been his starting-point than Khan Minyeh ; (4:) Jose-phus, wounded on the plain of Batikha, at the north end of the lake, was carried to Capernaum, most likely the nearest place—not, therefore, at Khan Minyeh, but Tell Ham; (5) historical narratives of the sixth and seventh centuries and the Jewish and Arab tradition appear to favor Tell Hum as Capernaum ; (6) the identity of name, for Capernaum means " the village" {Ke/r or 160 '"'

Kafr) "oi Nahum," and Tell Hum means "the mound or ruins of Hum" —(■. e. Nahum.

The strongest argument against Khan Minyeh is the absence of ruins of sufficient importance to indicate a city of the size of Capernaum. The English Sur-

vey party in iSIWi

g-;^ ^--^ _ .,_ i dug up at Khan Min-yeh chiefly fragments of pottery; Kitchener in 1877 examined the more extensive excavations, bringing to light what appeared to him to be a wall of squared stones. Robinson conjectures that the ruins of Ca-jiernaum were trans-orted to Tiberia8,but Tiberias was already built when Capernaum was in its I) r 0 sp eri ty. Those who place Capernaum at Khan Minyeh usually locate C h o r a z i n at Tell Hum and Bethsaida This theory leaves the

at Et-Tdhl<ihah, important ruins at Kerazeh to be explained. As the latter cannot be ignored, they form a strong objection to Khan Minyeh. If, however, Capernaum was at Tell Hum, then Chorazin was doubtless at Kerazeh, and no important ruins remain unexplained.

At present, therefore, the arguments are strongly in favor of Tell Hum, but a final decision of the question must wait further excavations. The explorations of the English society organized in 1878-1879 for the purpose of determining the sites of the three cities may furnish information for the satisfactory settlement of this question.

Bulns at Tell Hum. —The most remarkable ruin at Tell Hum is that of a Jewish synagogue. Around this, and up the slope behind it, are the remains of an ancient town; the walls of many private houses can be traced, and the appearance of a main street leading toward ancient Chorazin. The synagogue was about 75 feet long by 58 feet wide ; its walls were built of hard white limestone, almost marble, resting on ba-

CAP

saltic rock. Portions of columns, pedestals, capitals of the Corinthian order, and blocks of stone have been uncovered on its site, and on the lintel of a door a representation of the pot of manna was discovered, recalling the words of Jesus: "Your fathers did eat manna in the wilderness, and are dead." John 6: 49. If Tell Hum is Capernaum, then this synagogue was doubtless the one which

Kuins at Tell Hum. (From a Photograph. the pious Roman centurion built, Luke 7:1-10, and in which Jesus taught.

North of the town are two tombs, one built under ground of limestone blocks after the hard basaltic rock had been cut away; the other above ground and whitewashed within and without, as in our Lord's day. Matt. 23 : 27.

The road from Khan Miin/eh to Tell Hum now leads over the rocks at some height above the lake. It is a narrow path, more like an ancient conduit than a road. From this height the view extends to Tiberias. A short distance from Khan Minyeh by the seashore is 'Ain et-Tin, or ''Fig Spring" (which Dr. Robinson erroneously identified with the spring '^Kapharnaum," mentioned by Josephus). A mile farther north is the charming bay Et-Tdhu/hah, by which some locate western Bethsaida, but at which, more probably, was the suburb and harbor of Capernaum: here is a very copious fountain abounding in fish (probably the " Kapharnaum " of Josephus), and a large stream which turns a mill and once watered, through an aqueduct, the plain of Gennesaret. The road from Et-Tdbighah continues 11

northward along the bank, on which several springs and the remains of buildings are to be seen, until it reaches Tell Hum. From thence northward to Kera-zeh, probably Choraziri, is about 2 miles, and there are traces of a paved road which connected the city with the great caravan-road to Damascus. Following the shore of the lake to the north-west about 2 miles, where the Jordan empties into the Sea of Galilee, is Abu Ztaiy, which Dr. Thomsoti .^regards as Beth-ij' saida, the birthplace of Peter and Andrew. The ruin of all these cities has een so complete as to render their very sites doubtful, and strikingly to remind us of the fearful prediction of our Lord concerning them. Matt. 11 : 21-23.

CAPH'TOR

chaplet), the origi-

Palestine Exploration Fund.) jjj^j home of the

Caphtorim or Philistines. Deut. 2 : 23; Jer. 47 : 4; Am. 9 : 7. Some have placed

it in Cappadocia, others in Cyprus or in Crete. It is more probably identical with Caphtur, and the northern deltaof Egypt.

CAPPADO'CIA, the largest and most easterly province of Asia Minor. On the north was Pontus, on the east the Euphrates, beyond which were Armenia and Mesopotamia, on the south Syria and Cilicia, and on the west Ga-latia. It was high table-land, intersected by ranges of mountains, sparsely wooded, but good for grain or grazing. Cappadocia was conquered by Cyrus, ruled by Alexander the Great, tributary to the vSeleucidte, and became a Roman province, A. D. 17. Some of its people were in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost, Acts 2 : 9, and afterward Christians of the province were addressed by Peter. 1 Pet. 1:1.

CAP'TAIN, an officer in the Jewish army whose rank or power was designated by the number of men under his command, as captain of fifty or captain of a thousand, and the commander or chief of the whole army was called the captain of the host. Deut. 1:

CAP

15 ; 2 Sam. 19 : 13, etc. The divisions of the army were regulated in some measure by the division of families, as the heads of families were usually officers. 2 Chr. 25 : 5. Captains of hun-

A Roman Captain or Centurion.

dreds, or larger companies, were probably what would be called in modern phrase staflf-officers, and formed the council of war. 1 Chr. 13 : 1. The ''captain of the guard," Acts 28 : 16, was the commander of the Praetorian troops at Rome. See Centuriox.

Captain op the Temple, Acts 4:1, was the chief of the priests and Levites who kept guard around and within that sacred edifice. In this non-military sense is Christ called '' Captain" in Heb. 2: in.

CAP'TIVE. Gen. 14:14. Usually denotes one taken in war. Among Eastern nations such persons were treated with great cruelty, and were subjects of merchandise. For instances of this merciless treatment see Jud. 1 : 7 ; 1 Sam. 11 : 2 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 2 ; 2 Kgs. 26 : 7. It is a remarkable fact that though the Israelites dealt in many instances harshly with those they capture<l, yet their conduct stood out in such favorable contrast to that of heathen nations that the humanity of some even of their worst kings was reckoned upon by their conquered enemies. 1 Kgs. 20 : 31-34. The passage Joel 3 : 3 brings out into melan-162

choly prominence both the lot of prisoners of war and also the contempt manifested for the Jews. The Bible (Speaker's) Commentary thus expounds the verse : " The Jewish prisoners were held so cheap that a slave-girl was sold by her captor for a draught of wine, and a slave-boy was given in place of the small coin thrown to a prostitute. During the Jewish war Titus took 97,000 prisoners, of whom he publicly sold all that were under 17 years of age. After Hadrian's Jewish war four Jews were sold for a measure of barley at Hebron." The Romans sometimes compelled a captive to be joined with a dead body, and to bear it about until the horrible effluvia destroyed the life of the living.

↑ Back to top