SHEHARI'AH {Jehovah seeks
The sheep was especially the animal of sacrifice, and there were few off"erings required in which the lamb or the ram was not admissible. As an animal symbolical of innocence and purity, the sheep was well fitted for this use. With reference to his sacrificial mission, as well as to his meekness, patience, and submission, Christ is often called "the Lamb," "the Lamb of God," " the Lamb slain." John 1 : 29, 36 ; Rev. 13 : 8 ; 22 : 1, 3.
SHEEP-GATE, an ancient gate of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 1, 32 ; 12 : 39. Barclay concludes that it must have been near the temple, and between the tower of Meah and the Prison-gate. Compare Acts 3 : 32 with 12 : 39 : A. V. " prison-gate." Tradition identifies the Sheep-gate with Saint Stephen's gate, which leads to 790
Gethsemane and Mount Olivet. Grove would phice it near the Bab el-Kaitanin. SHEEP-MARKET. John 5 : 2. "Market" is an interpolation by the translators; it should probably read " gate."
SHEETS, Jud. 14 : 12, should be " shirts," either the thin garment worn next to the body or the loose night-wrapper.
SHEHARI'AH {Jehovah seeks
him), a Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 26.
SHEK'EL means "weight," then a
; particular weight of uncoined gold or
i silver, to the value of 20 gera. Ex. 30 :
13. See Money. I SHE'LAH (;^e^V(ojO, the third son I of Judah. Gen. 38 : 5, 11, 14, 26; 46 : 12 ; Num. 26 : 20 ; 1 Chr. 2:3; 4:21.
SHE'LAH {s2iront). 1 Chr. 1 : 18, 24. See Salah. i SHE'LANITES, the descendants
of Shelah. Num. 26 : 20. 1 SHELEMI'AH {whom Jehovah re-2iai/s). I. 1 Chr. 26 : 14. See Meshel-
EMIAH.
2, 3. Two persons who had foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 39, 41.
4. Father of Hananiah. Neh. 3 : 30.
5. A priest appointed by Nehemiah a treasurer. 13 : 13.
6. Ancestors of one in time of Jehoi-akin. Jer. 36 : 14.
7. Father of one of Jeremiah's accusers to Zedekiah, 37 : 3; 38 : 1 ; perhaps identical with him mentioned in 36 : 26.
8. Father of the captain of a ward who arrested Jeremiah. 37 : 13.
SHE'LEPH {(Irairn out), the second in order of the sons of Joktan. Gen. 10 : 26 : 1 Chr. 1 : 20.
SHE'LESH {tried), an Asherite chieftain. 1 Chr. 7 : 35.
SHEL'OMI {pacific), the father of the prince of Asher in time of Moses, Num. 34: 27.
SHEL'OMITH (;K»cvy?c). 1. The Danite mother by an Egyptian of a stoned blasphemer. Lev. 24 : 11.
2. A daughter of Zerubbabel. 1 Chr. 3:19.
3. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 23 : 9.
4. A Kohathite Levite, 1 Chr. 23 : 18; called Shelomoth in 24 : 22.
I 5. One who had charge of the dedicated things in David's reign. 1 Chr. 1 26 : 25, 26.
SHE
SHE
6. A son of Rehoboam. 2 Chr. 11: 20.
7. One whose sons returned with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 10.
SHEL'OMOTH. 1 Chr. 24 : 22. See SnELOMiTH, 4.
SHELU'MIEL {friend of God), the prince of Simeon in the wilderness. Num. 1 : G; 2 : 12; 7 : 3G, 41; 10 : 19.
SH.EM(»(n»f), theehlestsonof Noah, preserved with his wife in the ark. His conduct toward his father on one occasion is recited to his praise. Gen. 9 : 20-27. The Jews are his descendants, and, besides, there are the Aramaeans, Persians, Assyrians, and Arabians. The languages spoken by the descendants of Shem (the Hebrew, Chaldee, Assyrian, and Arabic) are called Shemitic languages.
SHE'MA {rumor). 1. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 43, 44.
2. A Reubenite. 1 Chr. 5 : 8.
3. A Benjamite chief. I Chr. 8 : 13.
4. One who stood by Ezra during the reading of the Law. Neh. 8 : 4.
SHE'MA {nnaor), a place in Judah, Josh. 15 : 26; 19 : 2, and the same as Sheba, No. 2.
SHE3IA''AH {rumor), a Benjamite whose sons joined David at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 3.
SHEMAFAH {Jehovah hears). 1. A prophet in the time of Rehoboam, and a chronicler of his reign. 1 Kgs. 12 : 22;
2 Chr. 11 :2; 12 : 5, 15.
2. A descendant of Zerubbabel. 1 Chr.
3 : 22.
3. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4 : 37.
4. A Reubenite. 5 : 4.
5. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. Levites. 9 : 14; cf. Neh. 11: 15; 1 Chr. 9 : 10; 15:8, 11; 24: 6; 2 Chr. 17 : 8; 29: 14; 31 : 15; 35 : 9.
12. The eldest son of Obed-edom. 1 Chr. 26 : 4, 6, 7.
13. A messenger of Ezra's. Ezr. 8 : 13,16.
14. 15. A priest and another who had foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 21, 31.
16. A traitor. Neh. 6:10.
17. A priest who sealed the covenant. Neh. 10:8; 12: 6, 18, 35.
18. One of the princes of Judah. Neh. 12 : 34.
19. One of the choir at the dedication of the wall. Neh. 12 : 36.
20. A priest. Neh. 12 : 42.
21. The father of a prophet in the time of Jeremiah. Jer. 26 : 20.
22. A false prophet of Jeremiah's time. Jer. 29 : 24, 31, 32.
23. The father of a prince in Jehoi-akin's reign. 36 : 20.
SHEMARI'AII {whom Jehovah keeps). 1. One of David's soldiers at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 5.
2, 3. Two who had foreign wives. Ezr. 10 :32,41.
SHEM'EBER {lofty Jiight), one of the allies who were attacked by Chedor-laonier. Gen. 14 : 2.
SHE'MER {lecH of wine), the owner of the hill which King Omri bought and covered with the city of Samaria, giving it its former owner's name. 1 Kgs. 16 : 24.
SHEMI'DA, SHEMI'DAH {fame of wisdotn), a man of Manasseh. Num. 26 : 32 ; Josh. 17 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 19.
SHEMI'DAITES, the descendants of the above. Num. 26 : 32.
SHE3'I'INITH(^//,ee(Vy//f;0.amusical term which appears in 1 Chr. 15 : 21, and in the titles to Ps. 6 and 12. Its meaning is uncertain, but probably it refers to the time of the piece, rather than any instrument.
SHEMIR'AMOTH {name most high). 1. A musical Levite in David's day. 1 Chr. 15 : 18, 20; 16 : 5.
2. A Levite in the reign of Jehosh-aphat. 2 Chr. 17 : 8.
SHE3IIT'IC, ou SEMIT'IC, LANGUAGES. See Shem.
SHEMU'EL {heard of God). 1. The representative of Simeon in the division of the land. Num. 34 : 20.
2. Samuel the prophet. 1 Chr. 6 : 33.
3. A chieftain of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7 : 2. SHEN {the tooth). Samuel erected
the stone Ebenezer between Mizpah and Shen. 1 Sam. 7:12. It was probably so named from a tooth-shaped rock.
SHENA'ZAR { fier,, tooth), descendant of David. 1 Chr. 3 : 18.
SHE'NIR, a name given to Mount Hermon by the Sidonians. Deut. 3:9; Cant. 4 : 8. See Hermon.
SHE'PHAM {bear-region), a landmark on the eastern boundary of the Promised Land, between Hazar-enan and Riblah. Num. 34 : 10. 11.
S H E P H A T HI A H (Jehovah jud'/fs). a Bcnjiiniite. 1 (Mir. 9 : 8.
SHEPHATl'AH {Jehovah fudges).
SHE
SHI
I. The fifth son of David. 2 Sam. 3:4; 1 Chr. 3 : 3.
2. A Benjamite warrior with David at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 5.
3. The chief of the Simeonites in David's time. 1 Chr. 27 : 16.
4. A son of Jehoshajjhat. 2 Chr. 21: 2.
5. 6. Two persons whose posterity' returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 4, 57; Neh. 7 : 9, 59.
7. One of the posterity of Judah. Neh. 11 : 4.
8. One who desired Jeremiah's execution. Jer. 38 : 1-4.
SHEP'HERD (pastor). John 10:
II. See Sheep. SHEPHERD. Ps. 23 : 1. See
SHE'PHI (a nal-ed A(70, a descendant of Seir, 1 Chr. 1 : 40; called Shepho in Gen. 36 : 23.
SHE'PHO {smoothnefsfi). See above.
SHEPHU'PHAN {serpent), a grandson of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 8:5; called Shuphara in Num. 26 : 39, Shup-pim in 1 Chr. 7 : 12, 15, and Muppim in Gen. 46 : 21.
SHE'RAH {blood-kindred), daughter of Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7 : 24.
SHEREBI'AH (heat of Jehovah), one of the chief Levitical friends and helpers of Ezra, and one who sealed the covenant. Ezr. 8 : 18, 24; Neh. 8:7; 9 : 4; 10: 12.
SHE'RESH {root), a descendant of Manasseh. 1 Chr. 7:16.
SHERE'ZER (Asnr protect the king .'), a man mentioned in Zech. 7 : 2.
SHER'IFFS, mentioned in Dan. 3 :2 as among the Babylonish dignitaries, were probably officers like the mufti, or the '* head-doctors of the Law in the Turkish empire."
SHE'SHACH, a svmbolical name for Babylon, Jer. 25 : 26 ; 51 : 41, from its goddess Shach reduplicated, as Misael is called Meshach.
SHE'SHAI {ichiti^h), one of the three sons of Anak. Num. 13:22; Josh. 15: 14: Jud. 1: 10.
SHE'SHAN (lihj), a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2: 31,'34, 35.
SHESHBAZ'ZAR {fire-worshipper), the Persian name borne by Zerubbabel at the Persian court. Ezr. 1 : 8, 11; 5:14. 16.
SHETH {tumult). 1. The patriarch. 1 Chr. 1:1. 792
2. In Num. 24 : 17 not a proper name; read : *' children of tumult," not " children of Sheth." Jer. 48 : 45.
SHE'THAR {a star), one of the Persian princes. Esth. 1 : 14.
SHE'THAR-BOZ'NAI {star of splendor), a Persian oflScer in Syria. Ezr. 5:3, 6; 6:6, 13.
SHE'VA {Jehovah contends). The name is corrupted from Seraiah.
1. The son of Caleb ben-Hezron. 1 Chr. 2: 49.
2. The scribe of David. 2 Sam. 20 : 25. SHEW'-BREAD was unleavened
bread prepared anew every Sabbath, and presented hot on the golden table set in the sanctuary, in twelve loaves of a square or oblong shape, according to the number of the tribes of Israel. Ex. 25: 30. Salt and frankincense were put on each row. The loaves were placed either in two piles or in two rows, with six loaves in each, and it was called "shew-bread," or " bread of the face," or the " bread of setting before," because it stood continually before the Lord ; later " bread of ordering." 1 Chr. 9 : 32; marg.; Neh. 10 : 33.
Table of Shew-bread.
The incense having been burnt, the old loaves were removed every Sabbath, Lev. 24 : 8. and, as a general rule, were to be eaten by the priests alone, and by them only in the court of the sanctuary. 1 Sam. 21:1-6; Matt. 12 : 3, etc.
SHIB'BOLETH {an ear of corn, or a stream, a food). Jud. 12 : 6. In the course of a war between the Ephraimites and the Gileadites, the former were routed and fled toward the Jordan. The Gileadites had taken care to post a party at the fords, and when an Ephraimite
SHI
SHI
who had escaped came to the river-side and desired to pass over, they asked him if he were not an Ephraiiuite. If he said, "No," they bade him pronounce ** Shibboleth," and if he pronounced it " sibboleth," according to the dialect of the Ephraiuiites, they killed him. Thus fell 42,0U0 Ephraimites in a single day. Comp. Matt. 26 : 73. Milton says, with reference to that event,
"Without reprieve, adjudged to death, For want of well pronouncing shibboleth."
The word is now used for a test or the watchword of a party.
SHIB'MAH {fr<n/rance), a town in Reuben, east of the Jordan. Num. 32 : 38. See Sibmah.
SHI'CROIV {driDiJceiniess), a landmark of Judah between Ekron and Jab-neel. Josh. 15 : 11.
SHIELD. Jud. 5 : 8. See Armor.
SHIGGA'ION. Ps. 7, title. It probably means a dithyrambic ode, erratic— i. e., wild and mournful.
SHIGI'ONOTH, the plural of Shiggaion. Hab. 3 : 1.
SHI'HON (destruction), a place in Issachar. Josh. 19 : 19. Eusebius calls it a village near Mount Tabor, probably Shaiii, 3 miles north-west of Tabor.
SHI'HOR. 1 Chr. 13:5. See Nile.
SHI'HOll-LIB'NATH {blnck-white), a landmark of Asher. Josh. 19 : 26. The term is usually supposed to refer to a river which formed the extreme point of the frontier toward the south, and must have included Dor. Probably the Zerku, or ''Blue Kiver," which runs into the Mediterranean south of Dor; but Conder suggests its identity with Wdd]i Shac/Jiur.
SHIL'HI [armed), the grandfather of Jehoshaphat. 1 Kgs. 22:42; 2 Chr. 20:31.
SHIL'HIM {armed men), a town in Judah. Josh. 15 : 32. Wilton proposes to locate it at the ruin ex-Saram, and Conder has conjectured that it might be at Shelkhah.
SHIL'LEM [requital), a son of Naphtali, and ancestor of the Shillem-ites. Gen. 46 : 24 : Num. 26 : 49.
SHIL'LEMITES. See above.
SHILO'AH [sendinci forth), the quietly-flowing stream Siloam. Isa. 8 : 6. See Siloam.
SHI'LOH. The word " Shiloh," as
used in Gen. 49 :10, has given rise to much discussion. Many of the best scholars consider it as referring to the town. But it is better to adopt the traditional view, and interpret "Shiloh" of the Messiah. The word in this connection, according to the majority, means, " He whose right it is." Others translate '* Peace." Cf. Isa. 9 : 0. Still others, " The sceptre shall not depart from Judah till He comes to whom it belongs."
SHI'LOH [jilfice of rest), a city north of Bethel, south of Lebonah, on the east of the road from Bethel to She-chem. Jud. 21 : 19. It is now called Sei-lun, and is 17 miles north of Jerusalem and very nearly midway between Bethel and Shechem, being about 9 or 10 miles from each.
Scripture Histori/. —Joshua selected Shiloh as the site of the tabernacle, and there made the allotments of the Promised Land. Josh. 18:1, 8-10. During the period of the Judges, for three hundred years, the tabernacle remained here, and in its honor a festival was annually celebrated, on which occasion the daughters of Shiloh danced, and thus gave an opportunity for the Benjamites to carry otf two hundred of them as wives. Jud. 21 : 19-23. Shiloh was the residence of Eli and of Samuel, 1 Sam. 3 and 4, and thither tidings were brought to the old man of the capture of the ark by the Philistines. The ark was never brought back to Shiloh, and the tabernacle was removed to Nob and thence to Jerusalem. 2 Chr. 1 : 3, 4. The prophet Ahi-jah lived there. 1 Kgs. 14: 1-17. Shiloh seems to have been desolate in Jeremiah's day. Jer. 7 : 12, 14; 26 : 6, 9. In the time of Jerome the place was a ruin. In the Middle Ages it was erroneously supposed to have lain near Nehi/ SamwiL
Present Appearance. —It has been identified without doubt with iS'e(7(ni, a ruined village on a low hill, showing traces of ancient building-material and early foundations. The most interesting feature is a sort of level open court, 412 feet long and 77 feet wide, partly hewn out of the rock, " which might have been the actual spot where the ark rested, for its custodians would naturally select a place sheltered from the bleak winds that prevail in these highlands." (See Recovery of Jerusalem, p. 364.) In a little valley about half a mile from the ruins are
SHI
SHI
?eiluii (ancient Shilob).
the spring and well of Shiloh, and this must have been the spot where the " daughters of Shiloh " were seized. In the neighborhood of this spring are many rock-hewn tombs, in which, according to Jewish tradition, were laid the bodies of Eli and his sons. From its central, and at the same time secluded, position, Shiloh was well adapted to be the resting-place of the ark and the principal sanctuary of the Jewish nation.
SHILO'NI, the descendant of She-lah. Neh. 11 : [>.
SHI'LONITE, the resident of Shiloh; so Ahijah is called. 1 Kgs. 11 : 29.
SHI'LOXITES, THE, members of the house of Shelah. 1 Chr. 9 : 5.
SHIL'SHAH (triad—i. e., the third son), an Asherite chief. 1 Chr. 7 : 37.
SHIM'EA,SHIM'EAH(^;if/*erM--
i)>() — \. e., a)i-sit:eri)if/ — prayer). 1. Brother of David, 2 Sam. 21 : 21.: called Sham-mah and Shimma,
2. A son of David by Bathsheba. 1 794
Chr. 3:5; called Shammua and Sham-muah.
3. A Merarite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 30.
4. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 39.
5. A Beniamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 32. SHIM'EAM (the hearing—i. e., an-
steering — jjrai/er), 1 Chr. 9 : 38; same as 4, above.
SHIM'EATH (the hearing), an Am-monitess, the mother of Jozachar or Za-bab, one of the murderers of King Jo-ash. 2 Kss. 12 : 21 : 2 Chr. 24 : 26.
SHIM'EATHITES, a family of scribes. 1 Chr. 2:55.
SHIM'EI {renoivned). 1. A son of Gershon, the son of Levi. Num. 3:18; 1 Chr. 6:17, 29; 23:7. 9, 10; Zech. 12:13; called Shimi in Ex. 6:17.
2. The Benjamite of the house of Saul, living at Bahurim, who cursed David when the latter was fleeing from Absalom. 2 Sam. 16:5-13. David forbade any violence at the time. On his victorious return Shimei sought the forgiveness of David, who not only spared his life then, but covenanted with him never
SHI
SHI
to put him to death. 2 Sam. 19 : 23. On his death-bed, however, he charged Solomon to remember Shimei as a guilty man. Solomon accordingly forbade him to leave Jerusalem on pain of death. This prohibition he violated by going to Gath in search of two fugitive servants, and suffered the threatened penalty. 1 Kgs. 2 : 46.
3. One of David's mighty men who opposed Adonijah. 1 Kgs. 1 : 8.
4. The Benjamitish provision-officer of Solomon. 1 Kgs. 4 : 18.
5. The brother of Zerubbabel. 1 Chr. 3:19.
6. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4 : 26, 27.
7. A Reubenite. 1 Chr. 5 : 4.
8. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 42.
9. Head of the tenth musical course. 1 Chr. 25 : 17.
10. The overseer of David's vineyards. 1 Chr. 27 : 27.
11. A Levite who assisted in Ilezeki-ah's purification of the temple. 2 Chr. 29 : 14.
12. A Levite in Hezekiah's time who had charge of the temple-treasure. 2 Chr. 31 : 12, 13.
13. A Levite who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 23.
14. 15. Two persons who put away their foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 33, 38.
16. One of the ancestors of Mordecai. Esth. 2 : 5.
SHIM'EON (a hearuHf), one who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 31.
SHIM'HI {renoiDued), a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 21.
SHI'MI. Ex. 6 : 17. See Shimei, 1.
SHIM'ITES, the descendants of Shimei, 1. Num. 3 : 21.
SHIM'MA {the hearhig), David's third brother. 1 Chr. 2: 13.
SHI'MON (desert), a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 20.
SIIIM'R ATH ( watch), a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8:21.
SHIM'RI {watchful). 1. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4 : 37.
2. Father of one of David's guard. 1 Chr. 11: 45.
3. A Levite in Hezekiah's reign. 2 Chr. 29 : 13.
SHIM'RITH {watchful), a Moab-itess, mother of Jehozabad, one of the murderers of King Joash, 2 Chr. 24 : 26 ; called Shomer in 2 Kgs. 12 : 21.
SHIM'ROM, mistaken spelling for SHIM'RON (JtY(^-//), the fourth son of Issachar. Gen. 46 : 13 ; Num. 26 : 24; 1 Chr. 7:1.
SHIM'RON {watch-post), an ancient city of Canaan, over which Jabin was king. Josh. 11: 1; 19 : 15. The Shim-ron-meron of Josh. 12 : 20 is probably the same with Shimron. It may be identified with the village es-Semii-iyeh, about 5 miles from Acre, on the road to Tyre, where a solemn conference took jtlace, A. D. 1277. The Pal. Memoirs suggest Semdnieh, a small village with three springs, at the edge of the Plain of Esdraelon, 5 miles west of Nazareth.
SHIM'RONITES, the descendants of Shimron. Num. 26 : 24.
SHIM'RON-ME'RON. Josh. 12 : 20. See Shimron.
SHIM'SHAI {suumj), the scribe or secretary of Rehum the chancellor. He joined in opposing the rebuilding of the temple under Zerubbabel. Ezr. 4 : 8, 9, 17, 23.
SHI''NA'B {coolincj), the king of Ada-mah, in the valley of Siddim, when Che-dorlaomer invaded the land. Gen. 14 : 2.
SHI'NAR, THE LAND OF {casting out? country of two rivers?), the region where the people, after the Flood, made bricks and used slime (bitumen) for mortar. Gen. 11 : 2, 3. " Shi-nar" was probably the Hebrew name for the plain of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates and the Tigris. It would seem originally to have denoted the northern part of Babylonia, as " Chaldgea " denoted the southern part; but subsequently, like '"Chaldsea," it was sometimes used for the whole. Gen. 10:10; Isa. 11:11; Dan. 1:2; Zech. 5:11. In Josh. 7 : 21 it is rendered *' Babylonish." Among its cities were Babel (Babylon), Erech or Orech (Orchoi), Calneh or Calno (probably Niffer), and Arrad.
SHIP. Dean Howson says that more about the ancients' merchant-ships is to be learned from Luke than from all the writers in classic literature. Some of these ships were very large, and probably the majority carried from 500 to 1000 tons. They were steered by two large paddles at the sides. Acts 27 : 40, carried usually but one mast with a huge sail, but were also propelled by oars, hence required rowers, were ornamented
SHI
SHI
by images in the bow and stern and figures painted on the side of the bow, which made "the sign"— e. g., Castor and Polhix. Acts 28 : 11. Tliey were furnished with undergirders, which passed round the frame at right angles to its length and " frapped" it wlien the planks were in danger of starting, anchors like ours, except that they had no flukes, sounding-lines; ''could sail within seven points of the wind; seem to have had some mode of keeping the log; and it has been supposed that with a fair breeze they could make seven knots an hour."— A;/re. Xor need they hug the shore. The Hebrews were not sailors. We have no information in regard to the ships of their nautical neighbors. The reference to rudder-banch, Acts 27 : 40, is thus explained: the rudder-paddles already mentioned " were lashed up lest they should interfere with the ground-tackle. When they wished to steer again and the anchor-ropes were cut, they unfastened the lashings or bands of the paddles." Ancient ships were properly galleys.
SHI'PHI {ahnndnnt), the father of the prince of Simeon in Hezekiah's time. 1 Chr. 4 : 37.
SHIPH'MITE. Probably Zabdi, 1 Chr. 27 : 27, was a native of Shepham, which see.
SHIPH'RAH {hemihj), one of the chief midwives among the Hebrews in Egypt. Ex. 1: 15.
SHIPH'TAN (judicial), the father of the prince of Ephraim. Num. 34 : 24.
SHI'SHA {Jehovah, conteuds], father of the scribes of Solomon. 1 Kgs. 4:3; same with Seraiah.
SHI'SHAK, the head of the twenty-second dynasty, Sheshonk I., who received the fugitive Jeroboam, 1 Kgs. 11: 40, and in the fifth year of Rehoboam, B.C. 969, invaded Judaea and spoiled the temple. 14 : 25, 26 ; 2 Chr. 12 : 2-9. At Karnak, on the Nile, there is an inscription which records this expedition. The king presents, among his other captives, one with an unmistakable Hebrew physiognomy. The accompanying inscription, *'ludaha-malek," has been interpreted " Kingdom of Judah." If this is correct, then Rehoboam is probably meant.
Other inscriptions give a particular list of the "fenced cities" mentioned in 796
Head of Shishak. {Fiom temple at Karnak.)
2 Chron. 12 : 4 as having been taken in this expedition.
SHIT'RAI (scribe), one of David's chief herdmen. 1 Chr. 27 : 29.
SHIT'TAH TREE. Isa. 41 : 19. See Shittim-wood.
SHIT'TIM (acacias), the last encampment of the Israelites before entering Canaan ; the scene of the sin with the Midianites, and of its terrible punishment, Num. 25; 31 : 1-12; the completion of the Law and the farewell of Moses : the sending forth of the spies to Jericho; and the final preparation before crossing the Jordan. Josh. 2.
Physical Features. — Shittim — also called Abel-sfcittim, or "the meadow of acacias," from the number of acacia trees in it—was the green, fertile, well-watered plain stretching from the foot of the mountains of Moab to the Jordan. Tristram describes it as " by far the largest and richest oasis in the whole Ghor." Many acacia (shittim) trees still grow there. The plain now bears the name of Ghor es-Seisaban. At the north is Tell Ximrin (Beth-nimrah). South of this are Tell Kefrain (Abel-shittim and Abila of Josephus), Tell er-Rama (Beth-haram), and Smceimeh, which Dr. Merrill and others would identify with Beth-jeshimoth. See Abei.-siiittim.
SHITTIM, THE VALLEY OF, referred to in Joel 3 : 18, may denote the same valley mentioned above,
SHI
SHO
indicating that the blessing should spread even beyond the borders of Judah. Some, however, suppose that the reference is to a valley in which acacias grew, on the west side of the Jordan, and nearer Jerusalem.
S HI T ' T I M-W O O D (from the .ihiftah tree, Isa. 41 : 19) was much used in constructing and furnishing the tabernacle. Ex. 25 : 15, 16. The only timber tree of any size now found in the Arabian desertis theh-cyal(Acacia sci/al). The large specimens of this have been mostly destroyed for charcoal and other uses, but the writer saw a fio/al in Wddy Feiran 3 feet through, and Tristram speaks of trees of this kind on the west of the Dead Sea which would make planks "4 feet in diameter." There can be little doubt that this acacia was once abundant in the Sinai region and is the shittim of Scripture.
Shittim-wood (Acacia).
The seyal is a very thorny tree, some- I what resembling our apple tree when seen from a distance, but with decompound leaves, small leaflets, and little i
yellow balls of fibrous bloom, followed by locust-like pods. Its wood is close-grained, hard, browuish-hued, and well adapted for cabinet-work. From cuts or cracks in the trunk and limbs of this and one or two other acacias gum-arabio exudes, and is collected. The burning bush, Ex. 3 : 2, on philological grounds, is believed to be a similar but smaller tree, the fin)it (Acacia Nilolica), found occasionally in this region. Several localities mentioned in the Bible were named from the shittim.
SHI'ZA (loviny), the father of a Reubenite captain. 1 Chr. 11 : 42.
SHO' A {opulent). Eze. 23:2:5. Whether this is the name of a place, as Palmer suggests, or merely a title, is uncertain. Ewald renders it ''crying ;" Keil renders it " noble;" and the former takes it to be the name of some Chalda^an tribe.
SHO'BAB [ajiostate). 1. A child of Bathsheba by David. 2 Sam. 5 : 14; 1 Chr. 3 : 5 ; 14 : 4.
2. A son of Caleb, son of Hezron. 1 Chr. 2 : IS.
SHO'BACH {pouring). 1. The general (jf Hadarezer, king of the Syrians of Zoba. David defeated and slew him. 2 Sam. 10 : 15-18. In 1 Chr. 19 : 16, 18 he is called Shophach.
SHO'BAI {tahing captive), one whose children returned with Zerub-babel. Ezr. 2 : 42 ; Neh. 7 : 45.
SHO'BAL '{flowing). 1. The second son of Seir the Horite, and a sheik of the Horites. Gen. 36 : 20 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 38.
2. The son of Caleb, son of Hur.
1 Chr. 2 : 50, 52.
3. In 1 Chr. 4 : 1, 2 he is identical probably with 2.
SHO'BEK {forsaking), one who sealed the covenant. Neh. 10 : 24.
SHO'BI {taking captive), a chief Ammonite who provisioned David during Absalom's rebellion.
2 Sam. 17 : 27. SHO'C HO, 2 Chr. 28: 18,
SHO'CHOH, 1 Sam. 17:1, and SHO'CO, 2 Chr. 11 : 7. See SocoH. SHOES. See Clothes. SHOE-LATCH'ET. Mark 1 : 8. See Ci.OTHKS.
SHO'HAM {n7}i/x), a Merarite Le-vite. 1 Chr. 24 : 27.
SHO
SHU
SHO'MER [a keeper). 1. A man of Asher, 1 Chr. 7 : 32; called Shamer in V. 34.
2. The father of Jehozabad, who killed Joash, 2 Kgs. 12 : 21; called Shimrith in 2 Chr. 24 : 26.
SHO'PHACH (pouring). 1 Chr. 19 : 16, IS. See Shobach.
SHO'PHAX. Num. 32 : 35. The word should probably be written in connection with the preceding Hebrew word, "Atroth Shophan "—that is, "Ataroth of the burrow"—to distinguish it from the Ataroth in v. 34. See A troth.
SHOSHAN'IVIM (lih/), Ps.45; 69, title, SHOSHAN'IVIM - E'DUTH {lili/, a testimony), Ps. 80, title, probably signifies the melody to which the Psalm was sung. Some have regarded it as the title of a bridal-song, while others think it means a musical instrument.
SHOUL'DER. Gen. 49 : 15. To bare the shoulder is significant of servitude, and to withdraw it denotes rebellion. Neh. 9 : 29. To bear upon the shoulder is to sustain. Isa. 9:6: 22 : 22.
SHO'VEL. See Fan, Wiiraow.
SHRINE. See Diana.
SHROUD, in Eze. 31 : 3, means "cover," " shelter."
SHU'A (riches), father-in-law of Judah. Gen. 38 : 2, 12 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 3.
SHU'AH [a pit). 1. A son of Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 25 : 2; 1 Chr. 1 : 32. Bildad is called the Shuhite. Job 2 : 11.
2. A name in 1 Chr. 4 : 11.
SHU'AL {a fox), an Asherite. 1 Chr. 7 : 36.
SHU'AL (fox, or jachal), THE LAND OF, a district toward which one of the three devastating bands of Philistines went from Michmash. 1 Sam. 13 : 17. It was prol)ab]y not far from Bethel. It is not mentioned elsewhere, but there is a wild region east of Toiyibeh containing a ravine named that of "hyaenas," and it may be identical with the land of Shalim. 1 Sam. 9:4.
SHU'BAEL (captive of God). 1. In 1 Chr. 24 : 20. See Shebukt,. 1.
2. In 1 Chr. 26 : 20. See Shkuukl, 2.
SHU'HAM (perhaps pit-dii/(/pr), a Bon of Dan, Num. 26 : 42; called Hu-shim in Gen. 46 : 23. 798
SHU'HAMITES, the descendants of the above.
SHU'HITE. See Shuah, 1.
SHU'LAMITE, the woman from Shulem; probably Shunem, and hence Abishag the Shunammite. Cant. 6:13.
SHU'MATHITES, the inhabitants of an unlocated village Shumah. 1 Chr. 2 : 53.
SHU'NAMMITE. See Shu-lamite.
SHU'NEM (tiro resting-jilaces), a city in the territory' of Issachar. Josh. 19 : 18. The Philistines encamped there before the great battle of Gilboa. 1 Sam. 28 : 4. David's wife, Abishag, was of Shunem, 1 Kgs. 1 : 3, and it was the residence of the Shunammite woman who entertained Elisha. 2 Kgs. 4:8. It answers to the modern Sulem, on the southwestern slope of Little Hermon, about 53 miles north of Jerusalem, 8 Ptoman miles from Tabor, and 3i miles north of Jezreel. The village is encircled by enclosed gardens and luxuriant fields of grain. Porter noticed children playing bareheaded in the grain-fields under the burning sun, thus illustrating how the Shunammite's child may have played in the prophet Elisha's day. The villagers are rude and hostile. The place is in full view of the sacred sites on Mount Carmel; it has a spring, from which, doubtless, the Philistine army was supplied with water.
SHIT'NI (qniet), a son of Gad. Gen. 46: 16; Num. 26: 15.
SHU'NITES, the descendants of the above.
SHU'PHAM, SHUP^PIM [ser-penta). 1. X Benjamite. Num. 26:39; 1 Chr. 7:12.
2. A Levite porter. 1 Chr. 26 : 16.
SHU'PHAMITES, descendants of Shuphani.
SHIJR (fort-wrtU), a place in the wilderness, on the south-west of Palestine, including the whole district between the north-eastern frontier of Egypt and the land of Canaan. The wilderness is also spoken of as the "wilderness of Etham." Num. 33 : 8. We first read of Shur in the account of Hagar's flight, and this region later became the dwelling-place of the wild Ishmaelites. Gen. 16: 7; 25: 18. Abraham dwelt between Kadesh and Shur. Gen. 20 : 1. It was over against Egypt. 1 Sam. 15 : 7; 27 : 8.
SHU
SHU
Some would identify it with Ai/un Musa, 7 or S miles from Suez; but Trumbull supposes it to mean *' a wall of Egypt," from the Great to the Red Sea. See Etiiam.
SHU'SHAN (a lifi/), a celebrated city, known to the Greeks as " Susa," in the province of Elam, a part of ancient Susiana.
Historij. —" Shushan the palace," as it is named in the prophecy of Daniel and by Nehemiah, is mentioned over twenty times in the Bible, nineteen of the references being in the book of Esther. In Dan. 8 : 2 it is placed in the province of Elam. Elam is mentioned as a son of Shem, and then in connection with Che-dorlaomer's invasion^of Canaan .and in the prophecies of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel. The province was probably independent of Babylon, and perhaps superior to it, but in later times came under the power of Persia. Gen. 10 : 22 ; 14:1; Isa. 21:2; Jer.49:34; Eze. 32: 24. See Elam. The city of Susa was a place of great antiquity. Its name appears in the Assyrian inscriptions of As-sur-bani-pal, the Sardanapalus of the Greeks, b. c. 650, who took it, and the record gives a ground-plan of the city. From the tablets, as deciphered by George Smith, we take the following: *' I overwhelmed Elam through its extent. . . . Their bodies like bows and arrows filled the vicinity of Shushan. . . . Shushan, his royal city, I captured." Susa was possessed by the Babylonians after the division of the Assyrian empire by Cy-axares and Xabopolassar. In Belshaz-zar's last year Daniel was at Shushan in the palace when he saw the vision. Dan. 8 : 2. By the conquest of Babylon the Persians under Cjmus came into possession of Susa, and Darius Ilystaspes and the Acha3menian princes made it the capital city. He founded the grand palace described in Esth. 1:4, 6. It was cooler than Babylon, and. having excellent water, Susa was a suitable metropolis of the Persian empire. The kings made it their residence the chief part of the year, leaving it only during the summer for Ecbatana, among the mountains. After the battle of Arbela. Alexander the Great found in the city, treasures worth over twelve millions sterling, and all the regalia of the great king. His preference for Babylon caused Susa to decline, and
it was not again made the capital city. It was conquered by Antigonus, h. c. 315, who obtained treasures worth about three millions and a half sterling. It was again attacked by Molo, b. c. 221, who took the town, but did not capture the citadel. In the conquest of Persia by the Mohammedans, in A. d. 040, Susa was captured, fell into decay, and its site was for a long period unknown. The region was famed for its fertility, and the Kerkhah water was so excellent that it was carried about with the great king on his journeys. For an illustration of a palace see Assyria, p. 80.
Present Appearance. —The site of Shushan has been identified with the modern Shush or Sns, between the river Cho-aspes [Kherkhah) and the Ulai [Enlpcns). These are really two branches of the same river, which divides about 20 miles above Susa. Hence, Daniel might be standing on the " banks of the Ulai " and also " between Ulai." Dan. 8 : 2, 16. The site is nearly due east of Babylon and north of the Persian Gulf. The ruins cover an area some 3 miles in circumference, being 6000 feet long from east to west and 4500 feet wide from north to south. There are four distinct and spacious platforms or mounds; the western one, of earth, gravel, and sun-dried bricks, is smallest, but loftiest, being 119 feet above the river, with steep sides, having a round space at the top, and is supposed to have been the site of the citadel of Susa. South-east of this is a great platform of 60 acres, the eastern face of it being 3000 feet long. A third platform, north of the other two, is a square of 1000 feet each way. These three mounds together form a space pointing almost due north, 4500 feet long by 3000 feet wide. Remains have been found belonging to the great palace built by Darius, the father of Xerxes, as appears from inscriptions on the pedestals, written in three languages. The central hall was 343 feet long and 244 feet wide, and this was probably used for the great state ceremonies. The bases of four of the immense columns and the position of all the seventy-two pillars of the original palace have been discovered. It was in the great palace and the surrounding buildings that the principal scenes of the book of Esther took place. The '• King's Gate." where
SHIT
SIT)
Mordecai sat, Esth. 2 : 21, was probably a hall 100 feet square, supported by pillars inthecentre, standing 150 feet from the northern portico. Between these two was probably the inner court, where Esther appeared before the king. The royal house and the house of the women were behind the great hall, toward the south, or between the great hall and the citadel, communicating with it by a bridge over the ravine. The''court of the garden of the king's palace" was in front of the eastern or western porch, and in it Ahasuerus made a feast " unto all the people seven da^-s, , . . where icere white, green, and blue hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings and pillars of marble." Esth. 1: 5, 6. The feast was evidently out of doors, in tents put up in one of the palace courts. The effect of such a group of buildings, including a stately central palace standing high above the plain. u])on an elevated plateau interspersed with trees and shrubs, must have been very magnificent. The tracing out of these ruins in detail has furnished the most interesting corroboration of the Scripture histor}'. On the low ground near the river is a building believed b}"^ the natives to be the tomb of Daniel.
SHU'SHAN-E'DUTH, Ps. 80, title, the same with Shoshannim. See Shoshanxim.
SHU'THALHITES, the descendants of Shuthelah. Num. 26 : 35.
SHU'THELAH {noise of break-ing), a son of Ephraim. Num. 26 : 35, 36; 1 Chr. 7:20, 21.
SHUT'TLE, a well-known instrument used by weavers for throwing the thread of the woof across the warp. Job 7:6. As it moves with great swiftness from one side to the other, so as scarcely to be seen in its passage, it is used figuratively to denote the rapid flight of time.
SI'A, SI'AHA {congrer/nfio})), the ancestor of some who returned. Ezr. 2 : 44: Neb. 7:47.
SIB'BECAT, SIB'BECHAI {thicket of Jehornh), one of David's mighty men. 2 Sam. 21 : IS: 1 Chr. 11 : 29; 20:4: 27 : 11 ; called Mebunnai in 2 Sam. 23 : 27.
SIB'BOLETH. See Shibboleth.
SIB'MAH {coolness, or fragrance^, 800
a city east of the Jordan, built or fortified l3y the Reubenites: called also She-bam and Shibmah. Josh. 13 : 19; Num. 32 : 3, 38. It is not noticed again until the prophet's lament over Moab. Isa. 16 : 8, 9 ; Jer. 48 : 32. At that time it was a Moabite town noted for its grapes. Jerome says it was 500 paces from Hesh-bon. A trace of the name is found in the ruins es-Sameh, 4 miles east of Hesh-bon.
SIB'RAIM {twofold hope), a landmark in the northern boundary of Palestine between Damascus and Hamath. Eze. 47 : 16.
SI'CHEM. Gen. 12 : 6. See She-
CHEM.
SICK'LE. Deuf. 16 : 9. We have preserved in Egyptian monuments the form of the ancient sickle, which bore a very close resemblance to our implement. The scythe was unknown in Bible times.
SID'DIM, THE VALE OF. The name is variously interpreted. FUrst and Stanley render it " the valley of the open " or "well-cultivated fields;" Gesenius and Kalisch, as "a valley filled with rocks and pits" or a "plain cut up by stony channels;" Conder renders it "the valley of cliffs;" others as "the A'alley of gypsum." The place is mentioned in Scripture only in connection with the battle between Chedorlaomer and the five confederated kings of Sodom and the adjacent cities. The vale is said to have been full of slime-pits. Gen. 14 : 3-10. The "slime" means bitumen, which abounds in the neighborhood of the Dead Sea, and especially at the southern extremity. The site of the vale of Siddim is connected with that of the destroyed cities of the plain. The theory has long prevailed that these cities were at the southern extremity of the Dead Sea, and were submerged in it. In that event the southern part of the Dead Sea, below the Lisan Peninsula, is taken as their site, and this would correspond with the vale of Siddim; and thus it is indicated upon many maps. Many scholars, however, are now of the opinion that the cities were not at the south end of the sea, but jirobably at the north end, and hence that the vale of Siddim must be found in that region also. The sea is not of recent origin, as the theory of the submergence of those
STT)
SIL
cities would indicate, but the lake is Jfnly the remains of a larger and more ancient sea. Dr. Merrill, who favors the northern sites for the lost cities, describes a series of singular pits extending across the Shittim plain, which local tradition declares are very old and were used for military purposes. For a more full treatment of these disputed sites see Sodom, Salt Sea, and Zoar.
SI'DON. Gen. 10 : 15, 19. See Zinox.
SIDO'NIANS, inliabitants of Sidon.
SIEGE. Dent. 20 : 19. See War.
SIEVE. Isa. 30 : 28. The bolter, or sieve, which is so necessary an article in our day in the preparation of meal for bread, etc., was in ancient times made of rushes and papyrus. Ancient writers say that only the Gauls had sieves of horsehair. AVhat was left in the bolter was put into the mill a second time. Sieves of various degrees of fineness were no doubt used, for the same authors tell us of four different qualities of meal.
SIGI'OIVOTH. See Shigionoth.
SIG'NET. Gen. 38 : 10. See Seal.
SIGNS, John 4 : 48, and WON'-DERS (as they are usually connected), sometimes denote those proofs or demonstrations of power and authority which were furnished by miracles and by other tokens of the divine presence, as in Acts 2 : 22, and at other times those unusual appearances which betoken the approach of a great event, as in Luke 21 : 11, 25.
SI'HON [siceepiiuj au-aji), a king of the Amorites who lost his dominions in consequence of his refusal to permit the Hebrews to pass through them on their tvay from Egypt to Canaan. Sihon himself was slain in battle, his army was routed, Heshbon, his capital, was taken, and his country distributed between Reuben and Gad." Xum. 21: 21-30 ; Deut. 1:4: 2 : 24-32 ; Josh. 13 : 15-29.
SI'HOR. Isa. 23 : 3 ; Jer. 2 : 18. See Nile.
SI'HOR-LIB'NAH, the name of two separate valleys, according to the Septuagint, Josh. 19 : 26, now called Shofjhur and el-lielnt, which run into each other. See SniiiOR-LiBNATii.
SI'LAS, Acts 15 : 40. contracted from SILVA'NIJS (wondi,), 2 Cor. 1 : 19, is called one of the chief of the brethren. Acts 15 : 22, and a faithful brother. 51
] Pet. 5:12. He is supposed to have been a native of Antioch, and a member of the Christian church there. Acts 15 : 37-41. He was the associate of Paul in several of his missionary tours, and his fellow-prisoner at Pliilippi. Acts 15 : 40; 16 : 25, 29; 17 : 4. 10, 15. He is called a prophet, Acts 15 : 32, but what was the precise nature of this office in the days of the apostles is not clear.
SILK. The only nndonbted reference to silk occurs in Rev. 18 : 12. It is a question whether the Hebrews knew anything about it, although there are two passages in which a word so translated is employed. Prov. 31 : 22; Eze. 16 : 10, 13. The "silk" of the A. V. is rather byssus, or fine linen. But in N. T. times silk was common.
SIIj'LiA (« fioHj), a place near which King Joash was slain. 2 Kgs. 12 : 20. It was evidently in the valley below Millo.
SILO'AII, THE POOL OF, properly "the pool of Shelach"—that is, "the dart." Neh. 3:15. See SiLOAir.
SILO'AIW, OR SHILO'AH {sent), the name of a pool and of a tower.
1. A pool near Jerusalem, referred to as "the waters of Shiloah that go softly," and as "the pool of Siloah by the king's garden." Isa. 8:6; Neh. 3 : 15. It is also called "the pool." John 9 : 7-11. These texts give us no clue to the location of the pool. .Josephus mentions it as a fountain and says it was at the mouth of the Tyropoeon valley, and there is no doubt as to its identity with a pool now existing at the mouth of this valley, about 450 yards south of the Haram wall and 60 yards west of the southern po'nt of Ophel at Jerusalem. There are really two pools, of which the smaller may be properl}' the pool of Siloain. It is 52 feet long, 18 feet wide, and 19 feet deep. A flight of steps leads to the bottom, and the pool has yet a good supply of water, generally somewhat salt to the taste, perhaps from the soil through which it percolates, and it is, moreover, polluted by the washerwomen and tanners by whom it is constantly used. The pool is partly hewn out of the rock, partly built with masonry, and columns extend along the side walls from top to bottom. The water is supplied from the Fountain of the Virgin, with which the ])ool is connected by a zigzag tunnel, cut in the solid rock,
SIL
SIL
1708 feet long. Robinson, Barclay, and Warren crawled through this passage, which is 1() feet high at the entrance, and only 16 inches at its narrowest jiart. In this tunnel a remarkable inscription was discovered in 1880. It is Hebrew, and narrates the completion of the tunnel. The inscription is reputed to belong to the age of Hezekiah or possibly of Solomon. See p. 2. The
Pool of Siloam.
Arabs call it Birl-pt el-Hamra, or the '• red pond." Warren supposes this to have been the pool dug by King Hezekiah. the " king's pool" of Nehemiah and the Siloam of Josephus. It was to the pool of Siloam that a Levite was sent with a golden pitcher on "the last day, that great clay of the feast" of tabernacles. To this Jesus alluded when, standing in the temple, he cried, " If any man thirst let him come unto me and drink." John 7 : 37-39. To this pool the blind man was sent to wash, and returned seeing. John 9 : 7-11. Its waters now refresh the gardens below, making them the greenest spots about Jerusalem, and abounding in olives, figs, and pomegranates.
2. The tower of Siloam, which killed eighteen men in its fall. Luke 13 : 4. There is nothing in the text to determine the spot where the tower stood. The name is preserved in a wretched 802
little village among the tombs on the east side of the Kedron, and now called A'e/r Si/waii. The village is at the foot of the third height of Olivet, near the spot where Solomon built the temples to Chemosh, Ashtoreth, and Milcolm, known as " the Mount of Corruption."
SILVA'NUS {ti-oody). See Silas. SIL'VER, a well-known precioiis metal. The Tarshish whence it was obtained was probably in Spain, as silver is still brought from the same region which furnished it in the days of Solomon, 1 Kgs. 10 : 22, as well as from many countries then unknown. That llie value of this metal was recognized \ erv earlv in human historj^ is evident, (^en. 13": 2: 44 : 2: Job 28 : 1. The reason probably is that, like gold, it is (ilten I'ound in a state of purity in the earth, and therefore easily discovered. It was used in the construction of the tabernacle, Ex. 26 : 19, 32, for the furniture of the temple, 1 Chr. 28 : 14-17, and also for musical instruments, Num. 10 : 2, and for adorning idols. Is-a. 40: ]'.<. And that it was abundant in that (lay appears from 1 Kgs. 10 : 27.
Silver constituted the chief medium of trade, though it was not coined, but used by weight, Gen. 23 : 10, and the Hebrew word for this metal denoted money in general, as does the French word rnujent. The ''pieces of silver" (thirty of which were given as the price if innocent blood. Matt. 26 : 15 ; 27 : 3) were probably shekels of silver, worth fifty cents each. The " silverling," Isa. 7 : 23, is supposed to have been of like value.
In Mai. 3: 2, 3 there is manifest reference to the " cupellation " of silver by means of lead, the process of purification employed before the discovery of quicksilver.
'* 'A very beautiful phenomenon, known as the fulguration of the metal, attends the removal of the last portions of lead from the silver. During the earlier stages of the process the film of oxide of lead, which is constantly forming over the melted mass, is renewed as rapidly as it is removed: but when the lead has all been oxidized, the film of litharge upon the silver becomes thinner and thinner as it flows off". It then exhibits a succession of the beautiful iridescent tints of Newton's rings; and at length
1. Pool of fSiloam. 2 Pian of the tunnel, leading from the Virgin's Fount, or Well, to the Pool of Siloani. 8. Fac-simile of the aueieut Inscription found (1881) in the tunnel, about 15 feet from the Pool of Siloam.
SIL
SIM
the film of oxide suddenly disappears, and reveals the brilliant surface of the metallic silver beneath.'— Miller'n Chemistry. The brilliant tints of the film of oxide in its later stages, and the sudden flashing forth of the metal in its full pure glory, form a striking illustration of the olTering of righteousness wliitdi the refining and purifying intluenoe of the Christum faith produces."— Prof. Deane. SIL'VERLING. Isa. 7 :'23. See
SlLVKR.
SIH'EON" {a hearhxj). 1. Son of Jacob and Leah. Gen. 29 : 33. According to the prediction of Jacob, Gen. 49: 5-7, and as a punishment for his offence in the matter of the Shechemites, Gen. 34 (see Dinah), his posterity dwindled, comp. Num. 1 : 22, 23 : 26 : 14, and their inheritance was only a dismembered portion of the terrritory of Judah. Josh. 19:1.
2. A man of singular piety residing at Jerusalem. Luke 2 :2.3. lie had been favored with a divine intimation that he should live to see the incarnate Redeemer, the Lord's Christ, and, being led by the Spirit into the temple at the particular time when the infant Jesus was brought thither by his parents, according to the requirement of the Law, Ex. 13 : 12 ; 22 : 29, he took him up in his arms and uttered the most devout thanksgivings to God, accompanied with a remarkable i>rediction respecting the various eff"ects of his advent.'
3. A man of this name was among the prophets and teachers of the Christian church at Antioeh. Acts 13:1. Some have supposed (though without warrant) that he is the same with Simon the Cy-renian. Matt. 27 : 32.
4. **Simeon" is a Hebrew name, and in Acts 15 : 14 is the same with " Simon."
5. A name in our Lord's genealogy. Luke 3 : 30.
SIM'EOiV, THE TERRITORY OF, the south-western portion of the Promised Land. The ilistrict assigned to Simeon lay within tlie inhei'itance of Judah, and included eighteen cities in the South of Palestine around the well of Beer-sheba. Josh. 19 : 1-9 ; 1 Chr. 4 : 28-33. On its entrance to the Pronrised Land, Simeon was the smallest of all the tribes, having at that time only 22,200 able-bodied men. Num. 26 : 14. At a later date some of the towns within its
territory were possessed by Judah, as Hormah and Beer-sheba, while Ziklag became a Philistine, and then a Juihean, town. 1 Sam. 27 : 6 ; 30 : 30 ; 1 Kgs. 19 : 3. After the division of the kingdom the territory of this tribe appears to have been subject to many changes, as the population was partly in fellowship with the northern kingdom, though it seems to have shared in the reformation under Asa and Josiali. 2 Chr. 15 : 9 : 34: (5.
SIM'EOIVITES, the members of the tribe of Simeon. Num. 25 : 14 ; 26 : 14. No eminent person is recorded as of this tribe save Judith, a heroine of a story in the Apocrypha, although there is a Jewish tradition that it furnished schoolmasters to the other tribes.
SI'MOiV (rt heariiKj), contracted from SIM'EON, a native of Samaria, and a famous sorcerer, who professed to be a convert to the Christian faith, and was baptized as such by Philip, but was severely rebuked by Peter as a hypocrite because, under the influence of mercenary motives, he desired apostolic gifts. Acts 8 : 9. Hence the buying and selling of ecclesiastical rights, benefits, or privileges is called niinonj —a high offence against the purity and integrit}' of the Christian faith, and one of which the seller and buyer are equally guilty.
2. Simon Peter. Matt.4: 18.SeePF.TER,
3. Simon the Canaanite, Matt. 10 : 4, or Simon Zelotes (or the zealous), one of the twelve apostles; was one of the party called Zealots, hence his name. The epithet " Canaanite" is properly ''Kananite," the Chaldee for ''zeal," and has no reference to locality,
4. The brother of our Lord, Matt. 13 : 5.5; Mark 6:3; not to be confounded with the preceding, nor with Symeon, who succeeded James as bishop of the church in Jerusalem.
5. A Pharisee. Luke 7 : 36.
6. A leper. Matt. 26 : 6.
7. The father of Judas Iscariot. John 6 : 71.
8. The man of Cyrene who was compelled to bear our Saviour's cross when the latter was no longer able. Matt. 27 : 32; Mark 16:21; Luke 23:20; John 19 : 17.
9. The tanner at Joppa with whom Peter lo.lged. Acts 9 : 43.
SIM'RI (watrli/,,1), a Merarite Le-vite in the time of David. 1 Chr. 26 : 10.
SIN
SIN
SIN", Gen. 4:7, is the transgression | of the law of God. 1 John 3 : 4. All unrighteousness is sin. 1 John 5:17. The word is sometimes used for a sin-otfering, as in Hos. 4:8: Rom. 8 : .3 ; 2 Cor. 5 : 21. In the text first cited reference is had to the eating, either from greediness or in violation of the Law, of that which was brought as a sin-ofFering.
The Bible traces the introduction of sin to the fall of our first parents. There is none sinless. But sins differ in enormity. John distinguishes the " sin not unto death " and " the sin unto death." I John 5 : 16. The verse teaches that j a man can drive out God's Spirit from his heart and cut himself off" from all intercession. There is also an " unpardonable " sin. Matt. 12 : 31, 32. This ; is the result of absolute resistance to the operation and influence of the Holy Spirit upon the heart; it is final im- '. penitence, excluding the possibility of \ conversion, and hence of forgiveness. I
SIN {mire), a city of Northern Egypt, known to the Greeks as Pelusium. It j was "the strength," or stronghold, ''of } Egypt." Eze. 30 : 15, 16. The city was ' situated upon the most easterly mouth of the Nile, only a few miles from the ', sea. A Sallier papyrus records a great battle at Sin between Barneses and the j Sheta, and the reputed wonderful de- ^ liverance of Sethos from Sennacherib— when mice gnawed the Assyrian bow- , strings and shields by night, rendering ' the arms of the Assyrians useless—took place near this town. Herodotus reports a statue of Sethos with a mouse in his hands standing in Vulcan's temple, probably in commemoration of this deliverance by mice. Ezekiel's prophecy, " Sin shall have great pain," was fulfilled by the great cruelty inflicted upon the Egyptians by Camb3'ses, who conquered them near this city. The site of Sin, or Pelusium, may be marked by some mounds at el-Forma, though some suppose it is at Ahon KJiceyar, west of the old Pelusiac branch of the Nile.
SIN, WILDERNESS OF, a region between Elim and Rephidim. Ex. 16:1: 17:1; Num. 33:11, 12. Here the Israelites were first fed with manna and quails. The wilderness extends 25 miles along the east shore of the Red Sea, from Wudy Taiytheh to 804
Wddy Feiran; it is now called the plain of el-Marl-ha. It is barren, but has a little vegetation, and when the rainfall was larger and the drainage from the mountain descended more gradually, instead of sweeping everytliing before it as now. it may have afforded fair ])astur-age. Travellers report seeing numerous quails upon this plain in modern times.
SI'NA, the Greek form of " Sinai." Acts 7 : 30, 38.
SI'NAI {bunu'iifj hush f). a name of a peninsula and of a mountain, or group of mountains.
1. The peninsula of Sinai is a triangular region lying between the two arms of the Red Sea. On the west it extends along the Gulf of Suez for about 190 miles, and on the east along the Gulf of Akabah about 130 miles, while the base of the triangle, on a line from Suez to the north end of Akabah, is 150 miles long. It includes an area of about 11.500 square miles, or a little less than that of Massachusetts and Connecticut.
Physical Features. —This district consists largely of sterile ranges of mountains, furrowed by uuilies, or valleys with watercourses, which are scantily filled only after a rain. Projecting into it wedgewise from the north is the desert of Tib, or " wilderness of wandering," of limestone formation. South of the hills of the Tih plateau is a broad belt of sandstone, extending nearly from Suez to Akabah. South of this is a great cluster of granite mountains, in such a rugged, tumbled chaos as scarcely to admit of classification, the highest peaks reaching to an elevation of between 8000 and 9000 feet. Between the mountains are deeply-cut valleys, through which a large company might march into the very heart of the mountain-region. The mountain-ranges extend down the east side of Suez and down the west side of Akabah, the two ranges meeting in an angle at the southern portion of the peninsula, where the mountains are the most precipitous and elevated, and where they often assume fantastic shapes and take on gorgeous colors. This huge range is composed of gneiss and granite, or, more exactly, of colorless quartz, felspar, green hornblende, and black slate, with
SIN
sm
considerable outcropping of limestone. Tt is rich in mineral wealth of iron, copper, and turquoise, so that the Eg3-ptians called it the " land of copper." Mines were once extensively worked in this region by the ancient Egyptians and others, but they have been long neglected. The most important were probably the mines of Maghara, situated on the slope of a precipitous mountain, about 145 feet from the bottom of the valley. The opening is broad but low, and the shaft penetrates the rock to a considerable depth, numerous pillars having been left to support the roof. From these a turquoise of a beautiful green color was taken, and copper was found together with a species of malachite. The miners were condemned criminals and prisoners of war. See a striking account of this mining in Ebers' Uarda.
Hiatori/. —This region was known and settled nearlj'^ as early as Egypt itself. The first Pharaoh, having conquered the mountain-tribes, claimed to have discovered the mines. The region was dependent on the Pharaohs until the time of the Hyksos kings ; after their expulsion the region was again subdued by Egypt, but possesses its chief interest from the journey of the Israelites, who wandered in it for forty years previous to their entrance into Canaan. Christianity was planted here very early, perhaps by Paul; the peninsula was annexed to the Roman empire, A. D. 10a. In the fourth century it was peopled by anchorites and various brotherhoods of hermits and monks, their principal settlement being on Mount Serbal and in the Wddi/ Feiraii. They suffered terrible massacres from the Saracens, A. D. 373 to A. D. 411. In the reign of Justinian a church of the Virgin was founded on Mount Sinai. Later, the Mohammedans overran the peninsula, and its lonely valleys have been, and are still, traversed by hosts of Mecca pilgrims.
Numerous inscriptions have been found in several of the valleys of the peninsula, but chiefly in the Wdd>/ Mu-Icatteb, or the " written" valley. Ebers counted more than a hundred inscriptions, chiefly in groups, occurring quite frequently in a few hours' travel. Most of them are on the western side of the valleys. They were once 806
regarded as very mysterious, some supposing them to have been made by the Israelites. The inscriptions are mostly in the Xabattean character, but some are in Greek, and a few in Coptic and Arabic. They are roughly engraved on the rock, which was seldom smoothed for the purpose, and the little figures are often extremely rude and inartistic. They represent armed men, travellers and warriors, camels, horses with and without riders, goats, stars, crosses, and ships ; a priest with raised arms and an equestrian performer are also among the figures worthy of notice. They are now believed to be not older than the second century before Christ, while some are not older than the fourth century of the Christian era.
Among the highest summits in the peninsula are Jebel (the Arabic word for "mount") Serbal, 6734 feet; Jebel Musa, 7363 feet; Jebel Umm Shomer, 8449 feet; Jebel Katharina, 8536 feet; Jebel Zebir, 8551 feet.
2. "Sinai "is also used to designate the range of mountains from which the Israelites received the Law. The attempt to decide which of the numerous peaks in this extended range is the true Mount of the Law has been a source of protracted and animated discussion. In determining its identity with any existing peak several conditions must be met: (1) The mountain must have before it an open space within sight of the summit, Ex. 19 : 11 ; 20 : 18, large enough to contain at least two millions of peojile ; (2) It must rise sharply from the plain, since the people "came near and stood under the mountain," Deut. 4 : 11 ; it " might be touched," Heb. 12 : 18; and Moses was commanded to " set bounds . . . round about," Ex. 19 : 12 ; (3) As the Israelites remained in the neighborhood for a year, they must have found a suflRcient supply of water and pasturage.
At least five mountains have been at different times identified with the Mount of the Law, but two of these, Jebel el-Ejnieli and Jebel Umm Alawi, do not at ail fulfil the conditions, and must be set aside. Josephus says that Mount Sinai was the highest of the district, and this led to its identification with Jebel K<tth-arlnn (8536 feet high), and its twin peak Jebel Zebir (8551 feet). But the moun-
SIN
SIN
tains surrounding these summits so hem them in that they are not visible from any place in the neighborhood where a large number of people could be asgem-bled. The question was thus narrowed down to Jebel SerhaL Jcbd Musa, and Ras Sufsdfch.
Jehel Serial is described by Wilson {Bible Eihicator, iv. p. 186) as "perhaps the most striking mountain in tlie peninsula. It rises abruptly to a height of more than 4000 feet above the valley at its base [6734 feet above the sea-level], aad its summit, a sharp ridge about '.^
^^Cxx'^f^t^^^
JCLfr L
,'") /; .,
I CON veNTi -:nuiNs.
', "re > K"^
U/i<A'- "
. - OrTIICZU\
iMOUNT ///
to -
Outline Map of Mount Sinai
miles in length, is broken into a series of peaks, varying little in altitude, but rivalling each other in the beaut}' and grandeur of their outline." There are ** some ten or twelve peaks, which vary so little in altitude that when seen from lower ground or from a distance the eye fails to distinguish the highest." Evidently the true Sinai is not to be sought
{After the Ordnance Survey.)
in such a confusion. Nor is there any place in the neighborhood for the encampment of a large host. Holland {Bccoren/ of Jentsafem,}). 410) describes the valleys at its base as "a wilderness of boulders and torrent-beds," and the space between the valleys as " a chaos of rugged mountains."
The members of the Ordnance Survey
SIN
SIN
unanimously reached the conclusion that I the real Sinai was to be found in Jebel Mitsa, including its peak Jias Su/xd/eh, ' which is situated a little north-west of | the centre of the Sinaitic group, and ; some 20 miles east by south of Jebel ] Serhal.
"Jebel Musa" is the general name applied to a mountain-mass, 2 miles long and 1 mile broad, which extends northeast and south-west. At its southern extremity is a peak 7363 feet in height, to which the name of ''Jebel Musa" ("Mount of Moses") has been for ages applied. This is the traditional mount of legislation.
lias Sii/sd/ch, which was formerly thought to be a separate mountain, is now known to be only a northern peak of this mass of Jebel Mnsa. This northern peak, 0937 feet in height, is now regarded as the place of the actual giving of the Law. To avoid confusion arising from this double use of the name" Jebel Musa," Wilson suggests " Musa-Sufsa-feh " for the whole mountain, thus limiting the name of "Jebel Musa" to the southern peak. Many writers—Ritter, the great German geographer, among them—supposed that this southern peak was the scene of the giving of the Law, and that there was to the south of it a plain of great extent; but Dean Stanley describes the valley as " rough, uneven, and narrow," and the surveyors found no plain which would accommodate the hosts of Israel.
At the northern end of the mountain, however, all the conditions are met in the peak of Ras Snfudfeh.
This whole block is isolated from the surrounding mountains by deep valleys, so that boundaries might have been set completely around it. Ex. 19 : 12, 23. To the north of Rnn Snfsdfeh, and extending to its very base is the plain of Er Rdkali, 2 miles long and half a mile wide, embracing 400 acres of available standing-ground, directly in front of the mountain. The plain, with its branches, contains 4.293,000 square yards, in full view of the mount, affording more than sufficient standing-ground for the two millions of the Israelites. Here they might stand "at the nether part of the mount," Ex. 19 : 17, which rises so abruptly from the plain as to answer the description of " the mount that might 808
be touched." Heb. 12 : 18. This fulfils all the conditions of the Scripture narrative; and the conclusion is that this stately, awful-looking, isolated mass Ras Snfsdfeh is the very mountain where "the Lord came down upon Mount Sinai, on the top of the mount," Ex. 19 : 20, and where " Uod spake all these words" of the ten commandine)its. Ex. 20 : 1-17. The southern summit (Jebel Mus(i) is completely hidden from the plain, and Palmer suggests that it may have been to this secluded spot Moses went when the Lord called him up to the top of the mount. Ex. 19 : 20. There, too, perhaps, he was " with the Lord forty days and foi'ty nights." Ex. 34 : 28. Near the base of Ras Snfsdfeh is the Harun, or " hill of the golden calf." On the eastern declivity is the convent of St. Katharine, founded by the emperor Justinian in A. D. 527, where Tischendorf discovered the famous Codex Sinaiticns, one of the oldest and best manuscripts of the N. T. in existence. Four running streams are found in the vicinity, and there is no other spot in the whole peninsula which is nearly as well supplied with water as the neighborhood of Jebel Mnsa. Besides, there is no other district in the peninsula which affords such excellent pasturage as the neighborhood of .Jebel Musa. We add the testimony of modern travellers. Dr. Robinson, on his visit in 1838, first ascended Ras Snfsdfeh, and pointed it out as the true locality of legislation. In his account he says ( Biblical Res. I. 107): "The extreme difficulty, and even danger, of the ascent was well rewarded by the prospect that now opened before us. The whole plain Er Rdhah lay spread beneath our feet, with the adjacent n-ddifs and mountains; while Wddi/ esh-Sheikh on the right, and the recess on the left, both connected with and opening broadly from Er Rdhah, presented an area which serves nearly to double that of the plain. Our conviction was strengthened that here, or on some of the adjacent cliffs, was the spot where the Lord ' descended in fire ' and proclaimed the Law. Here lay the plain where the whole congregation might be assembled; here was the mount that could be approached and touched, if not forbidden ; and here the mountain-brow where alone the lightnings and the thick
SIN
SIP
cloud would be visible, and the thunders and the voice of the trump be heard when the Lord 'cauie down in the sight of all the people upon Mount Sinai.' We gave ourselves u]) to the impressions of the awful scene, and read, with a feeling that will never be forgotten, the sublime account of the transaction, and the commandments there promulgated, in the original words as recorded bv the great Hebrew legislator. Ex. 19 : 9-25 ; 20 : 1-21." Dr. Schaif, who visited Mount Sinai in 1877, gives the following description (T/iroiKjh Bible //«»(/*■, p. 177): ''Then we climb with difficulty, and some danger, over granite blocks to the giddy height of Ras Safsdfeh. Here, on a projecting rock, we rest an hour, looking down on the vast plain of Er Rdhah and the adjoining tvddi/s of esh'Sheikh and Lejah, and looking beyond to the amphitheatre of mountains which wall them in and meditating over the past, which here assumes the character of a present overpowering reality, we are lost in amazement at the panorama of terrible sublimity of nature, and the immeasurable significance of that historic event which is felt to this day all over the world as far as the ten commandments are known and read. It is difficult to imagine ^, more solemn and impressive sight. We then descend a steep ravine (imagining that we follow the track of Moses, Ex. 32 : 17, 19), over confused heaps of rocks, to the valley Er Rdhah, and return to our camp near the convent. It was the most fatiguing, as well as the most interesting, day's work of mountain-climbing I can remember. I fully satisfied my mind that Ras- Siifsd/eh is the platform from which the Law was proclaimed. Here all the conditions required by the Scripture narrative are combined. Moses may have received the Law on the higher Jebel Miisn, but it must have been proclaimed to the people from RdH Sii/sd/eh, which can be seen from every part of the plain below. For Er Rdhah is a smooth and gigantic camping-ground, protected by surrounding mountains, and contains, as has been ascertained by actual measurement, two millions of square yards; so that the whole people of Israel could find ample room and plainly see ami hear the man of God on the rocky pulpit above. Dean Stanley relates that * from the highest
point of Mas Sufsdfeh to its lower peak, a distance of about 60 feet, the page of a book, distinctly but not loudly read, was perfectly audible, and every remark of the various groups of travellers rose clearly to those immediately above them.' Descending from that mount through a ravine between two peaks, Moses and Joshua might have first heard the shouts of the people before they saw them dancing round the golden calf. Ex. 32: 17, 19. In one word, there is the most complete adaptation of this locality to all the circumstances of the Sinaitic legislation as described by Moses. Tradition is for Jehel Musa, the Bible for Ran Snf-sd/eh. But, after all, they form but one mountain (as do the five peaks of Serial), and tradition in this case is at least very near the truth."
SINCERITY stands opposed to dissimulation or hypocrisy', and implies the entire correspondence of the heart with the expressions of the lips. 2 Cor. 1: 12. The original word refers to the bright and penetrating light of the sun, and denotes such things as, on being examined by the brightest light, are found pure and unadulterated.
SI'NIM. This geographical term occurs only once in the Bible, in Isa. 49 : 12. The country meant is generally considered to be China, though some would leave it an open question.
SIN'ITE, a tribe descended from Canaan. Gen. 10 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 15.
SIN-MONEY, money sent by persons at a distance, with which to buy the required offerings, 2 Kgs. 12 : 16; and, as there was usually some surplus, it was the perquisite of the priest, and was called '' sin-money," or " sin-offering monev." Num. 18 : 9.
SIN-OF'FERINGS. Num. 18 : 9. See Offkking.
SI'ON (lo/h/), the name of two mountains in Palestine.
1. One of the various names of Mount Hermon. Deut. 4 : 48: See Hekmon.
2. The Greek form of the Hebrew name '• Zion." Matt. 21 : 5 ; John 12 : 15. See ZioN.
SIPH'MOTH (fruitful places), a place in the South of Judah frequented by David when an outlaw. 1 Sam. 30 : 28.
SIP'PAI (threshuhlf), a Philistine giant, 1 Chr. 20 : 4; called also Saph.
SIR
SLA
SI'RAH, THE WELL OF (retreat), the place from which Abner was recalled by Joab, who put him to death at Hebron. 2 Sam. 8 : 26. It is now called 'Ain Sarah, a spring about 1 mile from Hebron, and a little to one side of the main road.
SIR'ION (breastplate F), a Zidonian name of Mount Hermon. Deut. 3:9,-Ps. 29 : 6. Perhaps this name was applied to a part of Hermon only.
SISAM'AI (distinguished.^), a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 40.
SIS'ERA (battle-array). 1. The general of Jabin's army. Jud. 4 : 2. See Barak, Deborah, Jael.
2. The ancestor of some who returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 53 ; Neh. 7 : 55.
SIS'TER'S SON. In Col. 4:10 the term should be " cousin." In biblical usage, this word is not limited to our sense, but, like " mother," " father," " son," " daughter," has a far wider application. Thus, in 2 Sam. 13 : 2, it means a step- or half-sister, in Matt. 13 : 56 a cousin, and in Rom. 16 : 1 merely a fellow-believer.
SIT'XAH (strife), the name of the second of two wells dug by Isaac in the valley of Gerar, and for which the herd-men disputed. Gen. 26:21. It is between Rehoboth and Eeer-sheba, in a small valley called Shutnet er-Raheibeh, names in which are doubtless preserved both the Sitnah and Rehoboth of the Scripture.
SI'VAN. Esth. 8 : 9. See Month.
SKINS. Ileb. 11: 37. See Clothing.
SLAVE, SLAVERY. Slavery is contrary to the constitution and destination of man and to the spirit of the Bible, which begins and ends with freedom, and represents man as made in the image of God, and places him, as lord, at the head of the whole creation. God gave Adam an equal and only partner in Eve. Slavery, like polj^gamy and war, was the consequence of sin, and spread with sin among all ancient nations. The Bible tolerates, regulates, moderates, and restrains this abnormal institution, but provides also for its ultimate extinction. "The manner in which Christ and the apostles dealt with an institution so universally prevalent in its worst forms, and so intimately interwoven with the whole public and private life in the Roman empire, is a strong proof of their 810
divine wisdom. Christianity accomplished what no other religion has even attempted before or since. Without interfering with slavery as a political and economical question, without encouraging any revolution or agitation, without denouncing the character or denying the rights of the slave-holder or creating discontent among the slaves, without disturbing the peace of a single family, without any appeal to the passions and prejudices of men on the evils and abuses of slavery, without requiring, or even suggesting, immediate emancipation, in one word, without changing the outward and legal relation between the two parties, but solemnly enforcing the rights and duties arising from it to both,— Christ and the apostles, nevertheless, from within, by purely spiritual and peaceful means, by teaching the common origin and common redemption, the true dignity, equality, and destiny of men, by inculcating the principles of universal justice and love, and by raising the most degraded and unfortunate classes of society to virtue and purity, and to spiritual freedom in Christ, produced a radical moral reformation of the system, and prepared the only effectual way for its gradual, legitimate, and harmless extinction."— SiCHAFF: Slavery and the Bible (1861).
A.Hebrew Slavery. — There were only two conditions known among the Jews — independence and servitude. Whenever a man was too poor or otherwise unable to be independent, he became a slave. Slaves, among the Hebrews, were of two general classes: 1. Hebrews; 2. Non-Hebrews.
1. Hebrews. —There were three ways whereby liberty could be taken from a Hebrew: (I) Poverty. He might sell himself in default of payment of debt. Lev. 25 : 39. (2) Theft, when he could not pay the auiount required. Ex. 22: 1, 3. According to Josephus, he could onlj' be sold to a Hebrew. (3) Parents could sell their daughters as maid-servants, but they were ultimately to be their masters' concubines. Ex. 21 : 7. There were three ways by which the servitude might end : (1) When the debt or other obligation was met: (2) When the year of Jubilee had come. Lev. 25 : 40; (3) At the conclusion of six years of service. Ex. 21 : 2; Deut. 15 : 12, Indeed, no servitude
SLA
SMY
could last longer than six years. In case, however, the slave did not wish to go at the expiration of the time, either because he loved his master or his wife —presumably a foreigner—and cliildren, who must be left behind, as they were the master's property, the master announced this fact to the judges, and then bored his ear through with an awl. Ex. 21 : (5 ; Deut. 15 : 17. That this was done speaks volumes for the mildness of Hebrew shivery. Indeed, the Law made the condition of a slave very tolerable. The owner was expressly forbidden to '' rule over him with rigor." Lev. 25 : 43. Nor was he suffered to go away empty, but must be furnished liberally out of the fluck, out of the floor, and out of the wine-press. Deut. 15 : 14. A slave might even marry a daughter of his master. 1 Chr. 2 : 35. In the ease of a female Hebrew slave, there was not the release at the end of six years; but if marriage with the owner or his son did not take place, she was not to be sold to a foreigner, but" he shall cause her to be redeemed "— i. e., he should return her to her father or find her another Hebrew master, or else free her absolutely. Ex. 21:7-n. When Hebrews became the slaves of non-Hebrews, they might be redeemed or redeem themselves, or else go free at the year of jubilee. Jewish Hebrew slavery terminated at the Captivity.
2. Non-Hebrews. —These constituted the majority of the slaves among the Hebrews. They were mostly captives made in war from the neighboring tribes, but besides were purchased of dealers. Lev. 25 : 45, foreigners reduced to this condition, or else the children of such slaves. Gen. 14 : 14; Eccl. 2 : 7. This sort of slavery survived the Captivity, but was opposed by the Pharisees. Tiiirty shekels seems to have been the average price of a slave. Ex. 21 : 32. The slaves' lot was comparatively happy. Their persons were protected against violence; for if they lost an eye or a tooth from rough handling, they got their liberty. Ex. 21 : 26, 27. To kill one was murder. Lev. 24 : 17, 22. They had full religious privileges, since they were circumcised. Gen. 17: 12.
Slavery at best is bondage, and hence we find the service of these slaves was menial. They ploughed the fields, did the housework, ground the corn, took
oflF and put on their master's sa.nda1s, washed his feet, and performed all the services expected of those in their condition. But slaves, by their industry and ability, could raise themselves to positions of trust, becoming stewards, as was Eliezer, Gen. 15 : 2, or independent freemen, as was Ziba. 2 Sam. 9 : 2, 10.
B. RoArAN Slavery. —The Gospel of Jesus Christ, declaring freedom from the slavery of sin, was preached unto them who were literally bound. The early Christian Church was largely composed of slaves, and around them were thrown none of the protections which rendered a Hebrew slave so safe. On the contrary, the Roman master regarded his slaves as his absolute property. He might treat them kindly—and doubtless many did—but no law compelled him to do so. The Roman proverb,'' So many slaves, so many foes," tells a pitiful story of wrong. This was the sort of slavery mentioned incidentally in the N. T. It is remarkable that nothing is said about its abolishment. On the contrary, the slaves were enjoined to be obedient to their masters, and to prove their Christian character by their patience under suffering.
The Bible has furnished the defenders of slavery with proof-texts, but yet the study of the Bible has led to the abolishment of the system. The Mosaic legislation on the subject induced such mildness that the very idea could not be tolerated, and so, in Christ's day, Hebrew slavery of both kinds was utterly extirpated. The N. T. directions had a similar result. A Christian could not hold souls in bondage for whom the blood of Christ was shed. And so slavery ended in the empire among Christians. Today it is acknowledged throughout Christendom as a crime; while Mohammedanism holds fast to slavery and polj'gamy —the two twin-sisters of barbarism. The liberty in Christ Jesus extends to the body as well as to the soul. The gospel, in emancipating from the bondage of sin, breaks the backbone of every other kind of bondage, and substitutes for it the service of God, which is perfect freedom.
SLIME. Gen. 11 : 3. See Pitch.
SLING. See Arms.
SMYR'NA {»i,/rrh), a city of Asia Minor named in Scripture as containing
SMY
SMY
one of the seven churches of Asia. Rev. 1:11; 2:8-11.
Situation. —Smyrna is on the ^gean Sea, at the bottom of the Hermajan Gulf, the entrance to which is opposite the island of Mitylene. The modern town is situated 2^ miles from the ancient one of the same name, partly upon the slopes of Mount Pagus, and partly on the low ground at its foot. The city was about •tU miles north of Ephesus.
Histori/. —Some piratical Greeks built a fortification on Mount Pagus about B. c. 1500 : Theseus built a city and called it Smyrna, after his wife, B. c. 1312. It was on the border-line between Ionia and ^olia, and was possessed by both parties alternately in the times of the Trojan war. The king of Sardis destroyed it, B. c. 628 ; Alexander the Great built a new city, b. c. 320. From this time Smyrna became an important commercial place. It was subject to the Romans and was famous for its beauty, Antigonus calling it " the beautiful." Christianity was early planted there, and the church is commended in the Revelation of John. Polycarp, a pupil of St. John, suffered martyrdom at Smyrna, a. d. 1o5, in extreme old age, perhaps illustrating the prophecy, "Behold, the devil shall cast some of you into prison, that ye may be tried; and ye shall have tribulation ten days: be thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life." Rev. 2:10. His grave, with a plain monument, is shown on a hill. The city sent a bishop to the Council of Nice, A. d. 325 ; it was captured by the Turks, A. D. 1313, and is still in their possession. It has several times suffered from fires and earthquakes.
Present Condition. —The modern city of Smyrna has a population of about 180,000 to 190,000, of which not a fourth are Turks. There are many Europeans, and several Greek, Roman Catholic, and Protestant churches are sustained. Prof. A. H. Sayce, of Oxford, England, speaks of the new quay of the city, in 1880, as a busv centre of trade, and when its cafes are lighted up at night the traveller may imagine himself in fairy-land. '' The enchantment is rudely dispelled if we turn down one of the narrow alleys which lead into the back streets of the town. Dark, dirty, and noisome, full of uptorn 812
stones and deep holes into which the unwary passenger may fall at any moment, they produce an impression of cheerless insecurity. And the impression is not diminished by the sight of the few wayfarers that timidly and hurriedly pick their way through them. Each man is armed to the teeth, and seldom walks through the streets at night except in company with two or three friends. In fact, Smyrna, with all its trade, its wealth, and its prosperity, is an eminently unsafe place. Police, in the true sense of the word, there are none, and the number of desperadoes that crowd to it from all parts of the Levant makes midnight wanderings extremely dangerous. During the day it is possible to pass from the quay to the principal street, which runs parallel with it, through a number of passages and arcades. The gates of these, however, are closed at nightfall, and the courts and houses within them made secure from the intruder. Even during the day, except on the quay, walking in Smyrna is not an agreeable pastime. The streets are so wretchedly paved—or, rather, unpaved—that it is as fatiguing to walk through them as over a bed of granite boulders. . . . The shops of Smyrna, however, are good and numerous : and if we wander on to the bazaar in the Turkish quarter, Ave may purchase in abundance Turkey carpets and Persian rugs at higher prices than we should have to give for them at home, or antiqviities of all kinds, especially coins, which are mostly local forgeries."
Concerning the people Prof. Sayce adds: " Creeds and nationalities of all kinds jostle one against the other at every turn. There is the stately Turk, in baggy trousers, scarlet waistband, and blue jacket, his head covered with a fez, or, if he claim descent from the prophet, with a green turban; the consular kavass, strutting along in the proud consciousness of self-importance, his yataghan clashing behind him ; the Egyptian, in a long gown of colored silk ; the Arab, in cotton robe and white head-dress; the Armenian, with keen eye and dark visage: or the multitudinous swarm of Europeans, of every country and race, among whom the Greek naturally predominates. Presently there is a pressure of the crowd toward one side of the road as a long
SMY
SMY
train of camels, tied to one another by a rope and led by a donkey, comes solemnly along, their heads bent stupidly down and their backs laden with the wares of the East."
Jiiiinsn/theCiti/. — A graphic description of the interesting ancient ruins of Smyrna is given by Prof. Sayce in 7'he Xew York Independent, 1880, which we condense:
" At the foot of Mount Pagus are the remains of the seats of the Greek theatre, though their place has been taken by Jewish graves, and the marble blocks which once clothed them have been converted into Jewish tombstones. The whole side of the hill, in fact, has become a vast Jewish cemetery. The ancient temple of Zeus and a ruined watch-tower are also found on the side of the hill, and extensive fortifications crown the top of Pagus. Court after court of ruined masonry, crumbling towers, and broken walls are seen along the ridge. Here we come across a huge vaulted chamber of Roman brickwork, there solid walls of Macedonian construction, there again the irregular building of the Middle Ages. In one spot is a ruined mosque, once a Christian temple, in which, according to the legend. Poly-carp preached. Below flows the thin anti narrow stream of the Meles, spanned bj'two aqueducts, one of Pioman, the other of Turkish, workmanship.
'' Perhaps even more famous among guides and tourists than the fortifications with which the mount is crowned are the beds of oyster-shells which are passed on the way back into the town. Speculations have been various about them, but a morning's examination was sufficient to reveal their origin. Plentifully mixed with the shells I found fragments of Macedonian and Roman pottery and the bones of animals. These beds, therefore, are the kitchen-middens, or refuse-heaps, belonging to the houses of wealthy Greeks and Romans which once occupied the slope of the hill. The oyster-shells are the remains of banquets enjoyed, it may be, two thousand years ago."
Such is Smyrna, the home of that little band of Christians to whom the writer of the Apocalypse promises a crown of life in spite of tribulation and poverty. The city was not more than four hundred years old when St. John the 814
Divine saw his vision in Patmos. It had been built by Lysimachus, the general of Alexander the Great, of whom the Macedonian wall on Mount Pagus is a lasting memorial. Of the other structures which adorned the Greek city—the temples of C^ybele and Nemesis, the town-hall, the public library and public hospital, the Homerium, or monument of Homer—not a vestige remains.
As already noted, the city was once destroyed and rebuilt. The more ancient ruined town is thus described :
*' There was an older city than the Smyrna of the Apocalypse. It was the quick eye of Alexander the Great that chose the present site. For four hundred years previously no Smyrna had existed. The ancient city had been destroyed by the Lydians, and its inhabitants scattered through the villages of the plain. That ancient city stood on the steep hill which forms part of the range of Sipylus and rises above Burna-bat. on the northern side of the bay. It was discovered by the French explorer Texier, who imagined he had found in it the relics of the half-fabulous Tantalus. Here he uncovered some remarkable tombs, built of Cyclopean masonry and hidden under A'ast cairns of unshaped stones. The largest of these, erected on one of the points of the hill, he surnnm-ed the Tomb of Tantalus. It is built of large stones, beautifully cut and fitted together without cement, in the shape of an arched corridor, the arch being formed by the gradual overlapping of the successive layers of stones. Still higher, through the prickly shrubs and dry grass, is the ancient Acropolis, surrounded by a wall of Cyclopean workmanshij), and entered by a gateway whose lintel and posts are single blocks of stone. Below, on the western side, are the foundations of a temple, probably that of the great Asiatic goddess Cybele. From time to time new tombs are found on this steep and rocky site. Sometimes they are cut in the rock, like rectangular couches; sometimes they consist of terra-cotta sarcophagi, into which the bodies of the dead have been made exactly to fit. Some tombs of the latter kind were discovered lately, and in them several archaic ornaments of gold which take us back to an early period in the history of Greek art. ... It was this primeval
SNA
SOA
city which was besieged in vain by Gyges, the founder of the last Lydian dynasty, the Gog of the 0. T., and its origin was traced back to the Amazons —the mythical companions of the Asiatic goddess. I believe that the legends of the Amazons in Asia Minor mark the presence of Hittite conquest and culture and the worship of the Assyrian goddess of love and war which the Hittites brought with them from their capital, Carche-mish. If so, we may see in Old Smyrna an ancient Ilittite outpost, or, at all events, a city which owed its origin to the civilization carried, in a remote epoch, by Hittite chieftains fromthe banks of theEuphrates to the far West."
SNAIL. The word thus rendered in Lev. 11 : 30 may denote some species of
Snail.
lizard—perhaps the sand-lizard, which is found in the desert of Sinai and in many parts of Palestine. These creatures are eaten by the Arabs, but ai'C esteemed unclean by the Jews.
In Ps. 58 : 8 the common snail or the slug is doubtless meant. The former is eaten by the Jews, as by most Orientals. These creatures, of many species, exceedingly abound in Bible lands. Snails seem to waste themselves by covering their path with a thick shining slime. Though they secrete themselves in crevices of the rocks, yet during the long, dry summer multitudes of them perish from the heat, being utterly shrivelled and wasted away in their shells. The melting away spoken of in Psalms is doubtless to be taken in one or the other of these senses.
SNOW, vapor congealed in the air, and often falling in large, broad flakes
resembling wool. 2 Sam. 23 : 20 : Ps. 147: 16. The allusions to snow in the sacred writings, especially to its whiteness, are frequent. Ex. 4:0: Num. 12 : 10; 2 Kgs. 5 : 27 ; Ps. 51 : 7 ; Isa. 1:18. The comparison in Prov. 25 : 13 has reference to the use of snow brought from the mountains to cool the drink of the reapers in the heat of harvest, as we use ice. Snowwater is softer and more detergent than common water; hence the allusion in Job 9 : 30. Snow is found on Mount Lebanon, and it lies in the ravines of Ilermon and other peaks throughout the year. Robinson states, "Snow often falls in Jerusalem in January and February to the depth of a foot or more, but does not usuallv lie long."—Bib. Res. I. 429.
SNUFF-DISHES, SNUFFERS. Ex. 25 : 38 ; 37 : 23. See Candlestick.
SO, the king of Egypt, mentioned once in the Bible, 2 Kgs. 17 : 4: probably identical with Sevechus, the second king of the twenty-fifth dynasty. He reigned ten or twelve years. Hosea made an alliance with him after Israel had become the vassal of Assyria. The discovery of this led to the imprisonment of Hosea and the captivityof the ten tribes.
SOAP. Jer. 2 : 22 ; Mai. 3 : 2. Several kinds of shrubby alkaline plants, one of which is figured, grow very-abundantly in the vicinity of the Dead
Salsola Kali.
and Mediterranean Seas. The Arabs dry and burn these, and obtain a largo proportion of potash from their ashes.
soc
SOD
With this, from oil and other fatty substances, a soft soap has been made by the Jews from very early times. They used it not onl}' for washing their persons and their clothes, but in smelting metals as a flux, or substance which cleansed them and made them flow more readily. In Isa. 1: 25 the reading should be, instead of "purely," ''as with alkali.'' Making hard soap from olive oil is the only important manufacturing business of modern Jerusalem. There is considerable exportation from Palestine of the alkali mentioned above. See
SO'CHO, AND SO'CHOH
(branches). 1 Chr. 4:18; 1 Kgs. 4 : 10. See SocoH.
SO'COH [branches), a name of two towns in Judah.
1. A city in the plains of Judah. Josh. 15 : 35. It is also called Shoco, 2 Chr. 11 : 7, Shoeho, 2 Chr. 28 : 18, and Shochoh. 1 Sam. 17 : 1. At this place Goliath was slain and the Philistines were defeated. The town was included in one of Solomon's commissariat districts ; was fortified by Rehoboam ; was seized by the Philistines in the time of Ahaz; and in the time of Eusebius and Jerome was called Soechoth, and lay between 8 and 9 Roman miles from Eleu-theropolis, on the road to Jerusalem. It is identified with the ruins eih-Shnirei-keh and the Wddy Sumt, or "valley of Elah," about 3^ miles south-west of Jerusalem.
2. A town in the mountains of Judah. Josh. 15 : 48. It has been identified with esh-Shuweikeh, about a mile to the north of Jattir and 10 miles south-west of Hebron, in the Wddii cl-KhallL
SOD, SOD'DEN, the preterite and past participle of " seethe." Gen. 25 : 29 : Ex. 12 : 9.
SO'DI [a ronfiflant), the father of the spy from Zebulun. Num. 13 : 10.
SOD'OM (burniiiff?), the principal city in a group of cities in the vale of Siddim, which were destroyed on account of the great wickedness of their inhabitants. Gen. 10 : 19 ; 13 : 3, 10-13 : 19 : 1-29. Sodom is first mentioned in describing the Canaanitish border: it was afterward chosen by Lot as his home, the country around it being fertile, well watered everywhere, " even as the garden of the Lord." It was plundered by 816
Chedorlaomer and his allies, but the captives and booty were recovered by Abraham. The history of its great Avicked-ness and its terrible punishment is given in Gen. 18 : 16-33 : 19 : 1-29. Sodom is often held up as a warning to sinners to escape the terrible vengeance of God. Deut. 29 : 23 : Isa. 1 : 9. 10 : 3 : 9 : 13 : 19 j Jer. 23:14: 49:18; Eze. 16:49, 50; Am. 4 : 11; Zeph. 2:9: Matt. 10 : 15; 11:23, 24; 2 Pet. 2:6-8: Rev. 11: 8.
Situation. —The overthrow of the cities of the plain, including Sodom, was so complete that their sites have never been certainly determined. It was formerly a common opinion that the Dead Sea covered the place occupied by these cities, and early travellers fancied that they could discern broken columns and other relics of the doomed cities in the waters of the lake. The southern part of the Dead Sea, below the " tongue," or Lisan Peninsula, is very shallow, having an average depth of not more than 13 feet, and here some would place the sites of the lost cities. There is no scWptural evidence, however, that the cities were submerged, but the whole drift of the history, as well as the geological character of the region, is directly opposed to such a theory. There are only two possible localities for these cities—the lower end of the lake, or the upper end of the same. Tradition, from the time of Josephus and Jerome, has pointed to the southern site. This view has been further urged from the name Jebel Usditin, the latter word having a supposed resemblance to Sodom, and Uxdnin being at the south end of the lake. Some also have believed that it was favored by the fact that pillars of salt, detached from the great salt clifi's at the southern end, have borne the name of " Lot's Wife." A stronger argument in favor of the southern site is drawn from the fact that Abraham, standing near Hebron, beheld the smoke of the country. Gen. 19 : 27, 28. Another argument is found in the numerous "slime-pits," or wells of bitumen or asphaltum, found in great masses on the southern shore. Gen. 14 : 10. This view has been advocated by Robinson, Woolcott, and Lynch, and favored by Porter. Baedeker, Schatf, and others. The arguments in favor of the northern site
SOD
SOL
are : that Lot chose the "jihvin of Jordan," | vvhicli mus!t ha\e been at the north end of the Dead Sea. Gen. 13: 11.12. Thi.-^ jjlain j of Jordan would be visible to Abraham j and Lot standing at Bethel, while they would not be able to see the south end of the lake from that jtoint. It is also [ argued that the hill near Hebron from \ ■ whence Abraham belield the burning cities, being about midway between the north end and the south end of the lake, would enable him to see the smoke arising from the northern end quite as clear- | ly as from the southern end of the sea. It is also claimed that the northern site better suits the details in the account of the attack of Chedorlaomer. Dr. Merrill further asserts that there are numerous slime-pits in the vale of Shittim. at the northern end of the lake, and that there are several sites upon the plain which might harmonize with those of the lost cities. Tristram proposed a site for Zoar at the northern end of the sea. but this has not been satisfactorily [ established. The argument against the ; northern site, based on the fact that pil- ; lars of salt have been found at the south : end named " Lot's Wife," is of little value, | since these pillars are constantlychanging I by the action of the weather, and to sup- ' pose that a pillar of salt of the size of a person would stand for four thousand years is simply absurd. The northern site has been strongly advocated by , Grove, Tristram, Thomson, and olhers, | but the question is one which is undecided, since able scholars strongly ad- i vocate each of the locations. See Salt Sea and Gomorrah. !
SOD'OIA. Rom. 9 : 29. The Greek \ name for Sodom, which see.
SOD'OMITES. The word has no ; reference to Sodom, but is the biblical term for those who practise sodomy—a sin to which the inhabitants of that city ' were addicted. Gen. 19 : 5. I
SOL'DIERS. See Armies. j
SOL'OMON {peaceful), from E. C. ! 1021-981 king of Israel, was the son and successor of David. Soon after the birth of Solomon, the prophet Nathan was sent by divine authority to give him the name of ".Jedidiah," signifying '' beloved of the Lord." ;
Toward the close of David's life a conspiracy was detected to place Adoni-jah on the throne. To settle the gov-52
eminent in the order of the divine appointment, David caused Solomon to be invested with the robes of roj'alty and resigned to him voluntarily the sceptre of government, giving him a solemn charge respecting the administration of it.
The early part of his reign was exceedingly prosperous, and was marked by several public acts which displayed his wisdom and piety. 1 Kgs. 2:19, 27, 31: 3 : 1, 9, 16-28. *IIis court was distinguished for its magnificence, his dominions and revenue were vast, his personal character exalted, his wisdom proverbial, and his cajjital and palace renowned for wealth and splendor. 1 Kgs. 4 and 10. During his reign, for the only time in Jewish history, there was a flourisliing commerce. The great event of his reign was the erection of the temple in Jerusalem (hence called Solomon's temple}, begun in his fourth and finished in his eleventh year, which was designed by David, his father. 1 Chr. 21 : 1-11. The plan and materials of the house and the furniture, as well as of the royal palace, are minutel_v described, 1 Kgs. 6, 7 (see Temple), as are also the services at the dedication of it. 1 Kgs. 8. After this, Solomon received a renewed assurance of the divine favor and of a gracious answer to his prayers and supplications, and at the same time one of the most fearful denunciations of wrath in case he should forsake God's law. 1 Kgs. 9 : 1-10.
In the latter part of Solomon's reign he was led by his numerous foreign wives and concubines into the practice of idolatry and other abominable sins, which drew upon him and the country heavy judgments. 1 Kgs. 11. From the height of wisdom he sunk to the de))th of foll^'. We are told that the Arabs call the southern side of the Mount of Olives the "Mount of Solomon," because his idolatrous altars were built here. It is called the "Mount of Corruption," 2 Kgs. 23 : 13, from the same cause. He reigned forty years, and was succeeded by his son Rehoboam. 1 Kgs. 11 : 42, 43.
" Solomon," wrote his biographer, "s])ake three thousand proverbs, and his songs were a thousand and five." 1 Kgs. 4 : 32. Thus he was a voluminous author and handled many topics. His repentance after his long course of folly is thought to be expressed in Ec-
SOL
SOX
clesiastes, which teaches the sad but wholesome lesson of the vanity of all things and the paramount importance of "fearing God and keeping his commandments."
The life of Solomon is very simply and truthfully told in the Bible. No excuse is made for him, no sin is glossed over. This is in itself a strong proof of the genuineness of the record, and a great contrast to the legends in which he is a hero of unparalleled splendor, to whom all power upon earth is committed. His life, so brilliant in its promise, so prosperous in its course, so disastrous in its close, albeit his sins were forgiven, is not alone in history. Two characters are recalled—Seneca, the tutor of Nero, who combined great wisdom with low avarice, and Lord Bacon, "the wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind." These instances show us that there may well be great elevation of sentiment with great laxity of life; that the pearls of wisdom can be cast before the swine of selfishness and folly. There is, however, this difference—that Solomon was endowed with divine wisdom, and that his folly belongs to the later period of his life and cannot impair the authority of the inspired writings of his youth and manhood.
SOLOMON'S POOLS. The three pools of Solomon are in a narrow valley south-west of Bethlehem, on the road to Hebron, and still supply Jerusalem with water through an aqueduct. See Eeel. 2 : 6. They are partly hewn in the rock and partly built with masonry, are all lined with cement, and are formed on successive levels, one slightly above the other, with conduits leading from the upper to the lower, and with flights of steps from the bottom to the top of each pool. The waters, gathered from the surrounding country into a large fountain or reservoir near the upper pool, are from thence conducted by an underground passage into the pools. The main supply of the water, however, comes from the spring, or fountain. The upper pool is 380 feet long. 236 feet broad at the east and 229 feet at the west end, is 25 feet deep, and 160 feet above the middle pool. This middle pool is 423 feet long, 250 feet broad at the east and 160 feet at the west end, is 39 feet deep, and 248 feet above the 818
lower pool. The lower pool is 582 feet long, 207 feet broad at the east and 148 feet at the west end, and is 50 feet deep. Dr. Thomson says, "When full of water, it would float the largest man-of-war that ever ploughed the ocean." These pools were built to supply Jerusalem with water.
SOLOMON'S PORCH, a cloister or colonnade on the east side of the temple and of the court of the Gentiles. John 10 : 23 : Acts 3:11; 5 : 12. The ceiling, finished with cedar, was 40 feet above the floor and supported by a double row of white marble Corinthian columns. Sec Jeiusalem and TI•:^tPLE.
SOl/OMON,PROVERBS OF. See Proverbs.
SOLOMON'S SER'VANTS. Their descendants are mentioned in Ezr. 2 : 55, 58 ; Neh. 7 : 57. 60. These "servants " were probabh' his slaves, but they had been converted, and their connection, although enforced, with the construction of the temple and the other s]ilendid structures of Solomon, gave their children a certain standing.
SON. The Hebrews used all terms of relationship in a much looser way than we do. " ' Son' implies almost any kind of descent or succession. ' Son of a year'— i. e., a jear old; 'son of a bow' — i. e., an arrow." " Son," when it expresses human connection, is used for grandson— e. g.. Gen. 29 : 2—and for remoter descendants—e. f/.. Matt. 22 : 42.
SONG OF SOLOMON. The book is entitled the "Song of Songs"— i. e., the most beautiful of songs—also, after the Latin, the " Canticles." It has always formed part of the canon, and has been held in the highest esteem. The Rabbins have a saying : " Proverbs are the outer court of Solomon's temple; Ecclesiastes, the holy place; Canticles, the holy of holies." There are many theories in regard to its authorship, its object, and its proper character. There are three principal interpretations, and each appears under difl'erent forms.
1. The Literal. —It was written by Solomon on the occasion of his marriage either with the daughter of Pharaoh or with a beautiful shepherd-maiden. Its dialogues and monologues introduce these characters: a lover, Shelomoh (Solomon); a bride, the Shulamite (perhaps Abishag, the Shu-
'' ii! " ^''h,^^^m'ii^'isim
SON
SOO
nammite); and a chorus of virgins, daughters of Jerusalem.
2. lite Typical. —It was written to set forth the Hebrew ideal of pure conjugal love, and throughout expresses t.vpically the love of Christ for his Church. This interpretation commends itself by the fact that the 0. T. frequently represents the union of Jehovah to his people as a marriage relation, and by the further fact that St. Paul speaks of husband and wife as reflecting the sacred union of Christ and his Church, which is his Bride. Eph. 5 : 38.
3. The Alleijoricrd. —It is in no sense historical. The persons and objects described are mere figures or names for spiritual persons and objects, which latter are alone contemplated by the inspired writer. The Song is thus a description of the love of Jehovah for Israel, or of Christ for his Church. This is the view advocated by Jewish and by the majority of orthodox Christian commentators. Thus interpreted, the book has held its place in the heart of Christendom.
The general use of the Canticles has been prevented by their supposed indelicacies, but these can easily be explained and removed by a fuller understanding of Oriental customs and by a more correct translation. Our present Version needlessly increases their number, while prudery and custom find them where they are not. A revised translation and a healthier mind would entirely banish them. For instance, in 5 : li the reference is to the clothed, and not to the naked, body; for the '"sapphires" are a figure of the dress of sapj)hire blue, or of the girdle of such gems which bound it, and in V. 15 the mention of legs is harmless. Dr. Kitto aptly reminds us that Oriental women keep their faces covered, but are " perfectly indifferent" to a display of their bosoms. Hence, as those parts habitually uncovered with us are free subjects of description, it is no shame for them to dwell upon the beauty of that part habituallv uncovered with them.
SON OF GOD. Dan. 3 : 25. This is one of the titles of our divine Redeemer, and is applied to none else except in a connection which shows the sense. It is applied to angels, Job 38 : 7, and to Adam, Luke 3 : 38, as created immediately by God's hand, and to be-820
lievers, Rom. 8 : 14, 15 ; 2 Cor. 6 : 18, as
adopted into God's spiritual family; but when applied to Christ, it is in a peculiar and exalted sense which cannot be mistaken. It signifies his divine nature, as the term " Son of man " signifies his human nature. He is the Son of God, the eternal, the onli/ hetjotten Son. Comp. John 1:18: 5 : 19-26: 9 : 35-38 ; Matt. 11 : 27 ; 16 : 16 ; 21 : 37, and many passages in the Epistles. While he directs us to address (jod as " our Father," he himself never addresses him thus, but always as ** vry Father," or *' Father" simply, because of his peculiar intimacy with God, far above the level of human children of God, who are made such only bv regeneration and adoption.
■ SON OF MAN. Matt. 8 : 20. This title is given to our Saviour eighty times in the N. T. It is also applied to him by Daniel. 7 : 13. The Jews perfectly understood it to denote the Messiah. It sets forth his peculiar and intimate relation to mankind in his incarnate state, as the phrase " Son of God " denotes his peculiar relation to the divine Being.
The phrase "the Son of man," however, does not express simply the humiliation and condescension of Christ, who became bone of our bone and flesh of our flesh, but also his exaltation above the ordinary level of humanity. He calls himself, not a son of man (among other children of men), but the Son of man (above all others)—the ideal, the universal, the perfect Man. So. on the other hand, he calls himself not a, but the, Son of God—the only-begotten and eternal Son of the Father. Compare such passages as John 1 : 51 : 3 : 13 : 6 : 53 ; Matt. 9:6; 12 : 8; 18 : 11: Mark 2:10, 28.
The term son of man is applied to Eze-kiel and Daniel, meaning merely " man," as it does in Num. 23 : 19; Job 25 : 6 : Ps. 8 : 4, etc.
SONS OF GOD. Thus the angels are called in Job 1 : 6 : 2 : 1 ; 38 : 7. But in the verse Gen. 6 : 2 this designation is not allowable. The best interpretation is that it refers to the race of Seth, who intermarried with the race of Cain, the daughters of men acv.ursed.
SOOTH'SAYER was one vrho pretended to foretell future events. Dan. 2 : 27. The original word comes from tht>
SOP
SPA
verb to "divide," because the soothsayer dissected the entrails of animals for the purpose of telling from their apj)earanee what would come to pass. The Pliilis-tines appear to have been notorious for their practice of this magic imposition. Isa. 2: 6. This was a common mode of divining among the Romans.
SOP. John 13 : 2(3. Our ordinary table-utensils were unknown among the Hebrews. Hence, in eating broth or milk, it was either taken with the hollow of the hand or the bread was dipped into it. This is at present the usage in all the Oriental countries—even at the table of the Persian king. Thus the reapers of Boaz dipped their " morsel in the vinegar," Ruth 2:14, and thus our Saviour " dipped the sop," or morsel, and gave it to the traitor Judas.
SOP'ATER {father saved), a Be-ranin who was Paul's companion. Acts 20 :4.
SOPH'ERETH {scribe), one whose descendants returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 55 : Neh. 7 : 57.
SOR'CERY, one of the arts of the magicians, Ex.7: 11—hence called "sorcerers "—by the use of which they pretended to predict future events, cure diseases, work miracles, etc. Acts 8:9; 13 : 6. The practice of sorcery, or any confidence in it, is threatened with the severest judgments. Mai. 3:5; Rev. 21 : 8 • 22 •15
'SO'REK, VALLEY OF {a clwlce vine), the home of Delilah, whom Samson loved. Jud. 16 : 4. Conder identifies it with the present Wudj/ Sitrar, which has a broad flat valley, in the neighborhood of Beth-shemesh and Zorah. On the northern side of this valley is a ruin called S'lirik. Perhaps it was along this same valley that the lowing kine drew the ark. See Beth-shkmesh.
SOSIP'ATER (preservation of a f(itlicr), a native of Berasa, and a kinsman of Paul. Rom. 16:21.
SOS'THENES {safe iu .sfrevf/th), a ruler of the Jewish synagogue at Corinth. He was seized and beaten in that city by a party of Greeks, who were thus excited to acts of violence by what they thought the unjustifiable and malicious persecution of Paul. Acts 18 : 17. It is thought that he afterward became a convert to the Christian faith. 1 Cor. 1 : 1,2.
SO'TAI (« devtaior), one whose descendants returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 55 ; Neh. 7 : 57.
SOUL. Gen. 2 : 7. The Scriptures evidently distinguish between the soul and the spirit. 1 Thess. 5 : 23 ; Heb. 4: 12. The word which we call "soul" is used to denote mere animal life—the seat of sensations, appetites, and passions. Gen. 1 : 20. Here the word translated "life" is the same with that which is elsewhere translated " soul." Hence it may be inferred that, as we have our bodies and animal life in common Avith brutes, it must be the spirit which was created in the likeness or image of God. and which raises man above the brutes that perish and makes him a rational and accountable being. Very often, however, the word " soul" is used in a wider sense, and designates the whole immaterial or spiritual nature of man ; as when we say that man consists of bodj' and soul.
The immortality of the soul is a fundamental doctrine of Christianity, which brought life and immortality to light; so what the ancients hoped or guessed we know. Even among the Jews the truth was only partially revealed. Much more is said about the grave than of the life beyond, and the prevailing tone, in view of death, is one of great sadness. In Christ, however, we are made alive, and can never die. To the Christian, death is robbed of its sting; it is converted into a friend who ushers the soul into the company of the blessed.
It is the immortal soul which is the subject of future reward or punishment.
SOUTH RA'MOTH, a place to which David and his outlaws resorted. 1 Sam. 30 : 27. It bordered on the desert south of Judah.
SOW, SOWER. Matt. 13 : 3. See AfiKicT'i/miE, Season.
SPAIN, a well-known country of Europe, though the name ancientl}' included the whole peninsula now occupied by Spain and Portugal. The Hebrews, in the time of Solomon, were acquainted with the position and wealth of Spain. Paul desired to preach the gospel there. Rom. 15 : 24-28. Whether he ever visited Spain is a, question in dispute among scholars. Those who hold that Paul was fivire imprisoned at Rome think that ho visited Spain between his first and
SPA
SPl
second imprisonments. Christianity was introduced into that country at a very early period, as Irenjeus and Tertullian testify. See Tarshish.
SPAN. Isa. 40 : IL'. See Measures.
SPAR'ROW. The original word might properl}' have been alwa\'s translated, as it is generally, ^' bird" or "fowl." It denotes, indefinitely, some of the sparrow-like (passeyiiie) species, which in multitudes inhabit the Holy Land. In the East such little birds have
Tree
always been sold at the merest trifle for food. Matt. 10 : 29. The blue thrush of Palestine is peculiarly a solitary species, and in all its habits exactly meets the description of Ps. 102 : 7. Birds of the sparrow kind often build their nests in the mosques and public buildings of the East. The writer, during service in the English church at Nazareth, observed a house-syjarrow enter through a broken pane of glass and fly to its nest, high overhead, illustrating Ps. 84 : •'').
SPEAR. 1 Sam. 13:22. See Arms.
SPEAR'MEN. The word so translated in Acts 23 : 23 is of rare occurrence and of doubtful meaning, but it most probably refers to light-armed troops. 822
SPECK'LED BIRD. Jer. 12 : 9.
See Hy.exa.
SPI'CERY, SPICES. The
former word occurs in Gen. 37 : 25, and should be the rendering instead of "spices" in Gen. 43 : 11. It is believed to denote gum-tragacanth, the product of several species of Astrayalii-i, shrubby and exceedingly thorny plants very abundant in Palestine. This gum had medicinal value.
The term ''spices," the translation of two other words, as used by the sacred writers, is much more comprehensive than the modern use of it. With them it includes not only fragrant gums, as myrrh, and also roots and barks, as cassia, cinnamon, cane, etc., but the odors of flowers and various perfumes. Cant. 4 : 14. Spices were imported into Judaja chiefly from Southern Arabia. Sweet spices, Mark 16 : 1, are merely aromatic substances used in eaibalming. The word '• spices " fully expressed the meaning of the original word, without the adjective.
S P I' D E R , a well-known little creature of very singular structure and habits. The thinness and frailty of its web are made emblematic of a false hope and of the schemes of wicked men. Job 8 : 14: Isa. 59 : 5.
Another word thus rendered in Prov. 30 : 28 has been thought by some of the best authorities to refer to the <jecku, a kind of lizard which is able to run on perpendicular walls, or even on an inverted surface. See Ferret. But so skilfully does the spider use her fert in making her web and climbing upon it and upon walls th;it they may well be termed handf,', and thus our present translation is rendered very plausible. The spider's spinning-organs serve as both
SPI
SPO
hands and eyes. Spiders are abundant in Palestine, as elsewhere in the world.
SPIKE'NARD, an aromatic plant from which Avas made the costly ointment poured on Jesus' head and feet. Cant. 1 : 12; 4 : 13, 14: Mark 14 : 3 ; John 12 : 3. There is little question that the spikenard was the dried stem of an herb of the valerian family {Nar-doHtachys jatcuiiansi), which grows exclusively in India and was once very precious. If the penny {denarius) was
Spikenard (Nardostachys Jataniansi).
equal to "fifteen cents, the pound with which Mary anointed our Saviour was valued at a sum equal to forty-five dollars. This ointment was evidently enclosed, like other unguents or perfumes, in a slender-necked and closely-sealed flask or bottle of alabaster. It is not agreed whether breaking this box was merely opening the seal or was the fracture of the frail neck, but probably it was the latter.
SPIN, SPIN'NING. The nations of antiquity placed great stress upon this womanly occupation—indeed, it was a necessary duty, since the preparation of the materials, no less than the making of the dress itself, fell upon the women. In the Bible there are only two direct notices of the art, Ex. 35 : 25, 26 : Prov. 31 : 19 ; but, since it is spoken of as a matter of course, we infer the custom was universal. Distaff-spinning was the mode, as is now the case
in the East, wheel-spinning being apparently unknown. The Hebrew women spun wool and flax from the distaff" and twisted the thread by means of the spindle, and made up camel and goat-hair into sackclotli for mourning, girdles, and tent-covers. The women also made rope and cord. Tlie men did not engage in such work. See Distaff.
SPIR'IT. Both in Greek and Hebrew the word for this implies a " blowing " or '' breathing ;" its primary sense is " wind." In 2 Thess. 2 : 8 it is used for breath, in Eccl. 8 : 8 for the vital principle; while in other places it denotes the soul. Angels, both good and bad, souls without bodies, are thus designated. Matt. 14 : 26; Luke 24 : 39. Metaphorically, the tendency or inclination is similarly called; hence we have a spirit of grace and of supplication, Zech. 12 : 10, a spirit of infirmity. Luke 13 : 11, etc.
The Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is the third Person of the Holy Trinity, of one essence or nature with the Father and the Son, yet distinct from them. He is the Author of regeneration and sanctifi-cation. He applies the work of redemption to VIS, and makes us partakers of all the benefits of Christ, of his righteousness, life, and death. He is our Advocate, who pleads our cause, who strengthens and comforts us and prepares us for glory in heaven. Matt. 1 : 18, 20 : 28 : 19 : John 1 : 33 ; 14 : 26 ; 16 : 7, 8 ; 20 : 22 : Acts 2:4: Rom. 5 : .5 ; 2 Cor. 13 : 14 ; 1 Thess. 4 : 8. Our English Version uses, in most passages, the term Holy Ghont; in four passages, Holv Spirit, which is better.
SPIRITUAL BODY. Paul so calls the resurrection body, 1 Cor. 15 : 44, which will be divested of all sensual and animal appetites, and be perfectly fitted for pure spiritual exercises and enjoyments, in perfect unison with the redeemed and completely sanctified soul.
SPOIL. Ex. 3 : 22. The original word in this passage means "to recover propertv taken away by violence." 1 Sam. 30 : 22.
SPONGE, a submarine substance, composed of fibres interwoven in a surprising manner, and surrounded by thin membranes, which arrange themselves in a cellular form. Matt. 27 : 48. It ab-
SPO
vSTA
sorbs a great quantity of fluid, and parts with it upon a strong pressure. Drink could be easily conveyed in this form where cups could not be used. This substance is inhabited by animals, like the coral, who use the 0})cnings of the sponge to suck in and throw out water.
SPOUSE. See Mahuiaof:.
SPRINKLING, BLOOD OF. Heb. 12 : 24. The Jewish high priest, on the great day of atonement, carried blood into the inner sanctuary and sprinkled it upon the mercy-seat. It was by this sprinkling of blood that an ''atonement" was made ''for the holy place, because of the uncleanness of the children of Israel." Lev. 16:16. The blood of sprinkling was typical of the atoning blood of Christ. When this has been applied to the soul of the believer, he may approach the presence of a holy God in the name of the great Advocate and Redeemer, confident of a gracious reception. The blood of Abel, alluded to in the above passage from Hebrews, called only for vengeance, Gen. 4 : 10, 11, but the blood of Christ speaks of pardon, peace, and eternal life.
STA'CHYS [mi ear of corn), a Roman Christian friend of Paul's. Rom. 16:9.
STAC'TE (a drop), prescribed in Ex. 30 ; 34 as one of the ingredients of the sacred dncense. Stacte was either myrrh flowing spontaneously from the balsamodendron, or it was a gum from the storax tree {Stjjrax officinale). This latter is a large shrub which grows abundantly on the lower hills of Galilee and on Tabor and Carmel. Its oval, dark-green leaves are white beneath, and in March its twigs are profusely hung with sweet-scented, snow white flowers, which resemble the flowers of the orange in color, size, and perfume, making it a shrub of rare beauty. The styrax of modern commerce has an entirely diff"er-ent origin. See Myurh.
STAR OF THE WISE MEN. Matt. 2 : 1-21. There are two theories in regard to this episode in our Lord's infancy.
Th^ first theory is that the star which the wise men saw was a miraculous star beyond astronomical calculation, probably a meteor, and, having attracted their attention in their native country, it actually served as their guide to Pal-824
estine and " stood over where the young child was." Matt. 2 : 9. This theory is in entire keeping with a literal meaning of the text, and is the one certain to occur to the ordinary reader. Nor need there be any objection on the score of improbability. Our Lord's birth was a most stupendous event. In honor of it the angelic host openly revealed themselves, and many circumstances remarkably conspired to render it possible. That the heavens should be laid under contribution and one of the heavenly bodies be the appointed, the silent leader of the magi, whose coming prophesied the ingathering of the learning and the treasure of the Gentiles, was in itself a probable event. The earth felt the tread of his blessed feet; why should not the sky lend one of its jewels to light the path of his seekers ?
The second theory asserts that the "star" of the wise men was a conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn, in the sign of Pisces, with the later addition of Mars and probably an extraordinary star of uncommon brilliancy. Jewish astrologers ascribed to this conjunction a special signification, and connected it with the birth of Moses and with the coming of the Messiah. This theory rests upon astronomical proof, and was the suggestion of Kepler (1571-1630), the eminent and devout astronomer, who on Oct. 10. 1604, observed a star of uncommon brilliancy enter the conjunction of Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars. This excited his interest, as it seemed to give an explanation of the star of the wise men. By careful calculation, he discovered that a similar conjunction had taken place three times, b. c. 7 or 6. This puts the first appearance of the star one or two years before the birth of Christ, and allows time for the journey of the magi from the far East. Kepler's calculation has been verified by modern astronomers—Schubert at Petersburg, Ideler and Encke at Berlin, and Pritchard at Greenwich—and is pronounced to be "as certain as any celestial phenomenon of ancient date." This is a remarkable verification of Scripture from an unexpected quarter. " The star of astrology has become a torch of chronology," as Ideler says. The magi, with their astrological ideas and widespread Messianic expectations,
STA
STE
must have been attracted by such a constellation in the highest degree. Divine Providence usually acts through natural agencies and adapts revelation to the capacity, and even the weakness, of men. But if we take this theory, it is necessary' to give the description of Matthew a liberal construction, remembering that the Bible, in alluding to astronomical phenomena, iises popular, not scientific, language, derived from their appearance to our eye, as we all now speak of the rising and setting sun, moon, and stars.
STARS. Under the name of stars the Hebrews comprehended constellations, planets, and heavenly bodies— indeed, all luminaries except the sun and moon. The Psalmist, to exalt the power and omniscience of God, Ps. 147 : 4, describes him taking a review of the stars as a king takes a survey of his army and knows the name of every one of his soldiers. To express a very extraordinary increase and multiplication, the sacred writers use the similitude of the stars of heaven or of the sands of the sea. Gen. 15: 5; 22 : 17; 26: 4; Ex. 32 : 13, etc.
No part of the visible creation exhibits the glory of the Creator more illustriously than do the starry heavens. Ps. 19 : 1. When we seriously contemplate the moon and stars, the work of the fingers of God, we cannot but be astonished that he should condescend to pay any attention to man. Ps. 8 : ?>. The celebrated philosopher Kant declared: "Two things fill my mind with evergrowing reverence and awe—the starry heavens above me, and the moral law within me.''
Stars are sometimes symbolically put for rulers and princes, Dan. 8:10; sometimes, also, for pastors and ministers. Rev, 1 : 16, 20. The angels, too, appear to be intended by the term, Job 38 : 7, and sometimes it points prophetically to the Lord of angels. Num. 24: 17.
Jesus Christ is called the *' Morning Star," Rev, 22 : 16, as he introduced the light of the gospel day and made a fuller manifestation of the truths of God than the prophets, whose predictions are now accomplishpd.
STA'TER. This coin, mentioned in the margin of Matt. 17 : 27, in the text vaguely spoken of as '■ a piece of
money," was in value equal to four drachmas or a shekel.
STEEL. Ps. 18 : 34. This word occurs four times in our English Bible, and should in every instance be rendered " copper." It is not certain that the ancient Hebrews were acquainted with steel, though it seems to have been known to the Egyptians.
Iron from the north. Jcr. 15 : 12, may denote a superior kind of the metal, or that which had been unusually hardened.
STEPH'ANAS (cromi) was one of the earliest converts to Christianity in Corinth, 1 Cor. 16 : 15, and received baptism at the hands of Paul. 1 Cor. 1 : 16.
STE'PHEN (crojrn), usually known as the first martj'r, was one of the seven men of honest report who were elected, at the suggestion of the twelve apostles, to relieve them of a particular class of their labors. Acts 6:5. He was a forerunner of the apostle Paul. He is described as a man full of faith and of the Holy Ghost. Acts 6 : 8. 10. He argued for the new faith with convincing power. It was to stop lips so eloquent that he was arrested and placed before the "council," the Sanhedrin. But as he realized his position the prospect of testifying in that assemblage of the chief of his people to the love and work of Jesus so wrought upon him that his spirit rose within him, and his face had such beauty and purity, such thoughtfulness and manliness, that he awed his judges, for on him, their victim, they beheld the angel-face. His defence was a calm historical proof of the two points: 1. God had not limited his favor to the Holy Land or to the temple; 2. The Jews had always opposed to this free spirit of their God a narrow, bigoted spirit. How long he would have spoken none can say, but the manner in which these quiet and truthful words were received caused him to break off" abruptly into fierce invective and reproach ; but so direct was its appeal to the consciences of the populace that they were excited to madness, Acts 7 : 54, and fell upon Stephen like wild beasts, shouting and sto])])ing their ears; and after they had forced him beyond the walls of the city, they stoned him to death, Saul being present and conspicuous in this tumultuous transaction. The
STE
STO
last breath of the martyr was spent, like that of his divine Master, in prayer for the forgiveness of his murderers. It is worthy of remark that this prayer of Stephen is directed to the Lord Jesus, or rather it seems to be a continuation of the prayer respecting himself which was addressed immediately to Christ, as the word " God " in v. 59 of our translation is an interpolation.
The date of Stephen's martyrdom was about A. D. 37. His blood was the seed of the Church, and was soon followed by the conversion of his bitterest persecutor.
STEWARD, the chief overseer of the household, as Eliezer, Gen. 15 : 2, and Chusa. Luke 8 : 3. Ministers, 1 Cor. 4:1, 2 ; Tit. 1: 7, and Christians generally, 1 Pet. 4 : 10, are by a natural metaphor called stewards.
STOCKS, the name of a machine or instrument by which the feet of prisoners are secured. Job 13 : 27; 33 : 11. It is said that the jailer at Philippi, to whose custody Paul and Silas were: committed with a strict charge to keep them safely, not only put them in an inner prison or dungeon, but made their feet fast in the stocks. Acts 16 : 24.
The upper half being removed, each leg is placed, just above the ankle, in the groove of the lower half, and then the upper part is so fastened down as to confine them inextricably.
Ancient Stocks.
The " stocks " used on Paul and Silas could be turned into an instrument of torture by widely separating the legs. The " stocks" used on Jeremiah, Jer. 20 : 2, were, properly speaking, the pillory, because the neck and arms as well as the legs were confined, and so the body was bent. 826
STO'ICS were a sect of heathen philosophers, much like the Pharisees, who took their rise from one Zeno, a Cyprian of Citium, the name coming from the stoa, or porch, in which he taught, in the third century b. c. While in some respects there is a similarity between their opinions and those of Christians, there is yet the broad difference that Stoic morality was based on pride; Christian, on humility. They generally taught that it is wisdom alone that renders men happy, that the ills of life are but fancied evils,i,nd that a wise man ought not to be moved with either joy or grief; and in their practice they affected much patience, austerity, and insensibility. The Stoics were known for many ages, especially at Athens. where some of them encountered Paul. Acts 17 : 18. The most distinguished members of the school were Epictetus, who died about A. b. 115, and the emperor Marcus Aurelius, a. d. 121-180.
Of all the ancient sects, the Stoics were most strict in their regard to moral virtue. They believed in the unity of the divine Being, the creation of the world by the Logos or Word, and a superintending providence administered in conformity with the will and purpose of God.
STONE. Gen. 35 : 14. Houses of stone were common among the Hebrews, as they are now in Palestine. The more elegant structures were built of hewn and squared stones. Amos says to the luxurious Israelites, " Ye have built houses of hewn stone, but ye shall not dwell in them." Am. 5:11. When Solomon was about to raise the temple, he " commanded, and they brought great stones, costly stones, ronl hewed stones, to lay the foundation of the house." 1 Kgs. 5 : 17.
Stones were often used as we use knives, Ex. 4 : 25; Josh. 5 : 2, and we are told that stone knives were used by j the Egyptians in preparing dead bodies for the process of embalming. The disciples of Christ are called stones, or lively (living) stones, 1 Pet. 2 : 5, in allusion to their connection with Christ, upon whom they are built up compactly together, as upon the one only foundation which God has laid, the living Stone, 1 Pet. 2 : 4, or the Source of life.
A '' heart of stone" is a figurative expression, importing great hardness and impenitency, A stone is sometimes put
STO
STO
for an idol. Hab. 2 : 19, Heaps of stones were raised to mark some signal providence of God in the way of either deliverance or puni.shnient. Josh. 4 : 4-7. The weights of the Hebrews were also called stones.
STONE, WHITE, is supposed by many to be an allusion to the practice of some ancient nations of passing judgment on an accused person. Rev. 2 : 17. Those in favor of acquitting him cast a white ball into an urn, and those who adjudged him guilty cast in a black ball; and if the number of the former exceeded that of the latter, the prisoner was discharged. Others think reference is made to the white stones which were given to conquerors in the Olympian games with their names written upon them, and the value of the prize they won. So the new name mentioned in Isa. 62 : 2 raaj^ denote the adoption of the individual into the family of God, by which he is admitted to privileges and blessings known only to him who possesses them. Archbishop Trench brings out what is probably the best interpretation. He repudiates the idea that this symbol was borrowed from heathen antiquity, and maintains it was a diamond, the Urim and Thunimim.
STONES, PRE'CIOUS. About twenty different names of such stones are found in the Bible. In many instances it is at present impossible to determine precisely what gem was intended by these names. This whole subject is one of great difficulty, for the mineralogy of ancient times was very vague and imperfect. The same word was often used for different gems or substances possessing some common property. Thus, ''adamant" ("unconquerable") might mean steel, quartz, corundum, or any other very hard substance; "crystal" {kerach) meant either ice or transparent quartz. The same ancient names were applied differently by different authorities, and even by the same writer. Even where a word has passed unchanged in form from Hebrew through Greek or Latin into modern use, it cannot be certainly concluded that the present application is the early one.
The stones of the high priest's breastplate were engraved with the names of the tribes, E.\. 28:21, but it is certain that at that time the art of cutting the
harder gems was unknown. According to Professor Maskelyne, a recognized authority, we must for this reason exclude from the breastplate the diamond, sapphire, emerald, and topaz. In ])lace of these there may be substituted, respectively, rock-crystal (or chalcedony), lapis-lazuli, garnet, and chrysolite. The ruby and chrysoberyl would be too hard to claim a place in this list. Few diamonds Avere ever known of the size of these stones, which Joscjihus tells us were large, and which probably reached at least an inch square. If the diamond is mentioned in the Bible, it is probably only in the N. T. Sec Jasper.
The sacred ornament of the high priest was probably broken up early in our era, but the gems which composed it are doubtless somewhere in existence in the Turkish empire or in Persia. It is not probable that all of these large engraved precious stones will always remain in obscurity. " What a source of rejoicing, both to archaeologists and, above all, to the religious world, will be the identification of even one of these venerable relics!—a contingency by no means to be pronounced chimerical in an age which has witnessed the resuscitation of Sennacherib's own cup, signet, and queen's portrait." (See C. W. King's Precious Stones and Metals; art. " Urim and Thummim.")
In the very earliest times men set a high value on some of these minerals. Gen. 2:12; 1 Chr. 29 :2. The Tyrians traded in precious stones, which they obtained from India, Arabia, and Syria. Eze. 27:16, 22.
Figuratively, the various gems are used in the Bible to emphasize such ideas as value, beauty, and durability, in Cant. 5 : U ; Isa. 54": 11, 12 ; Lam. 4:7; Rev. 21 : 18-20 ; and passages already mentioned.
STON'ING was the most general punishment inflicted on notorious criminals, and is usually meant where no other description of capital punishment is expressly mentioned, as in Lev. 20 : 10. Idolaters, blasphemers, Sabbath-breakers, incestuous persons, and stubborn or rebellious children were liable to it. The culprit was led out of thecit)'^ and, as some have supposed, was bound. The witnesses against him were required to commence the work of death, and
STO
STO
probably they divested themselves of clothing that it might be done more effectually. Acts 7 : 58. At the murder of Stephen they committed the custody of their clothes to Saul, who was not improbably, from his talents and ardor, a ringleader of the mob and one of the most violent of the persecutors, and the multitude followed the example of the leaders until the victim was beaten to death. The Rabbinical writers say that the first stone was cast by one of the witnesses on the chest of the convict; and if
this failed to cause death, the bystanders proceeded to complete the sentence.
Some think that the frequent taking up of stones by the Jews to throw at our Saviour, and the stoning of Stephen, Acts 7 : 59, and of Paul, Acts 14 : 19, were vestiges of a punishment called the '•rebels' beating," inflicted bj^ the mob, with fists, staves, or stones, on the excitement of the moment.
STORK {the pious), a bird of passage, much like the crane, but larger. It feeds on insects, snails, frogs, and
The Stork. (Ciconia Alba. After Tristram.)
offal, and was reckoned among unclean birds. The common stork {Ciconia (ilba) stands nearly 4 feet high, and is white except the extremities of the wings, which are black. Its long legs enable it to seek its food in the water as well as on the land, and its bill is so formed as to retain its slippery prey. In Palestine it builds its nest on trees, Ps. 104: 17, or 828
on lofty ruins, but in Europe it everywhere appropriates chimney-tops and the eaves of houses.
In Hebrew as in Latin the stork is "the pious bird," and its English name comes, indirectly at least, from the Greek storye, which signifies "natural affection." Unquestionably, these birds exhibit unusual tenderness toward their
STR
STR
young and their mates, but the ancient opinion that the otlspring recognize their parents all through life and (carefully tend them in age, it is a pity to say, is probably apocryphal.
Storks are singularly regular in their migrations to and from Africa. They pass over S^'ria in vast flocks, which sail high in the heaven, and as their legions wheel in the sky and even dim the sunlight the most stupid mind is awakened to admiration. Jer. 8 : 7.
"In various parts of Holland the nest of the stork, built on the chimney-top, remains undisturbed for many succeeding years, and the owners return with unerring sagacity to the well-known spot. The joy which they manifest on again taking possession of their deserted dwelling, and the attachment which they testify toward their benevolent hosts, are familiar in the mouths of every one. " In all the countries where the stork breeds it is protected : boxes are provided on the tops of the houses, and he considers himself a fortunate man whose roof the stork selects. There is a well-authenticated account of the devotion of a stork, which at the burning of the town of Delft, after repeated and unsuccessful attempts to carry off her young, chose rather to remain and perish with them than leave them to their fate. Well might the Romans call it pin an's !
"The beauty and power of the stork's wings are seized on as an illustration by Zechariah : ' The wind icas in their wings, for they had wings like the wings of a stork.' 5 : 9. The black pinions of the stork, suddenly expanded from their white body, have a striking effect, having a spread of nearly 7 feet, and the bird on the wing, showing its long bright-red bill and steering itself by its long red legs, stretched out far behind its tail, is a noble sight. The stork has no organs of voice, and the only sound it emits is caused by the sharp and rapid snapping of its bill, like the rattle of castanets."— Tristram.
This bird seems to be fond of the society of man, is often seen stalking in the crowded street, and is supersti-tiously protected in the East. Its marked preference for Muslims over Christians is, howev/3r, not due to special attai-h-ment to the faith of Islam, as the Turks boast, but to the greater amount of oll'al
to be found about Mohammediin dwellings, and, what is more creditable, to the kinder treatment the bird receives at their hands.
The black stork {(W-tiuin in'ifnt) is abundiint about the waters of Palestine. It builds its nest in trees, is somewhat smaller and darker-colored than the white species, and is unlike it in shun niiig the societv of man. See PKArocK.
STRAIN AT, misprint for "strain out." Miitt. 23 : 21.
STRANC'KR. (^.en. 15 : 13. This word has a variety of significations in the sacred writings, as—
1. One who is in a foreign land, at a distance from the place of his nativity. Gen. 23:4.
2. One who is not a Jew. Ex. 20 : H> ; Isa. 14:1.
3. One not of Aaron's familv. Num. 3 : 10; 16:40.
4. One that is not of the royal stock and family. Matt. 17 : 25, 2G.
5. Unknown, disregarded. Ps. 69 : 8. But usually the " strangers" were like
our "naturalized citizens"—persons from foreign parts who come to reside per-manentlj' among us, and who are in all respects one with us. This element was very numerous in Israel, owing to the presence of the "niixed multitude" during the Exodus, and also because so man,y Canaanites continued to reside in the land. Among both these classes there would be iiroselytes. and with them marriage was permitted. This is the Rabbinic opinion. Cai)tives were accounted strangers. Jewish law held them, etjually with the Jews, under control. They amassed property, and were able to share in the worship ])rovided they were circumcised. By this act they became one with the chosen ])eo]ile, an<l all offices were open to them save the kingshijt. Deut. 17 : 15. It is d-oubtful whether they could be landowners, although they might hold mortgages. Xeh. 9:2; 13 : 3 prove that after the Caj.tivity the Jew.s were more exclusive. Our Lord, by his parable of the (Jood Samaritan, rebukes this narrow spirit.
In the X. T. "proselyte" takes the place of the 0, T. term " stranger." The strangers were generally foreigners, occasionally in its more technical sense, as ()it))osed to a citizen.
STRAW. (Jen. 24 : 25. The straw
STE
SUP
wanted by the Jews for bricks, Ex. 5 : 7-18, was to lay them on when fre?h moulded. For want of it their mould fell in ])ieces. and their work Avas vain.
STREET. Gen. 19 : 2. The streets of Oriental cities are usually narrow. Mats are sometimes spread across from roof to roof to shade the streets from the sun. Some streets were named as in modern times, Ezr. 10 : 9 ; Acts 9 : 11, but it is supposed that in other passages, 2 Chr. 32 : 6; Neh. 8 : 1, 3, 16, the word translated " streets " means squares or open places around the gates. " Each street and bazaar in a modern town is locked up at night, and hence a person cannot pass without being observed by the watchman. The same custom appears to have prevailed in ancient times." Cant. 3 : 3. To make " streets " was to secure commercial accommodations. 1
Kgs. 20 : :u.
SU'AH (sweepiiifj/s), an Asherite chieftain. 1 Chr. 7 : 3f).
SUB'URBS. Lev.25:34. See City.
SUC'COTH {booths), a name for two places.
1. The place to which Jacob journeyed after leaving Esau, and where he built him a house and made booths for his cattle. Gen. 33 : 17. It was given to the tribe of Gad. Josh. 13 : 27. From this fact it would appear to be on the east side of the Jordan. Gideon severely punished the people of the y)lace for not aiding him against the Midianites. Jud. 8 : 5-8, 14-16. At this town were the brass-foundries for casting the metal-work for the temple. 1 Kgs. 7 : 46 ; 2 Chr. 4 : 17. In the valley of the Jordan, about a mile from the river, and 10 miles south of Beisan. is a ruin called Sdkuf, which is identified by Robinson and others as Succoth. But the position of this place is on the wrong side of the Jordan for Succoth. The Talmud calls Succoth, Darafa, and Dr. Merrill discovered a site on the east side of the Jordan, called Tell Danila, which is 1 mile north of the Jabbok. This may be the ancient Succoth. The principal mound is thickly covered with broken ])ottery.
2. The first camping-place of the Israelites in the desert. Ex. 12 : 37 ; 13 : 20 ; Num. 33 : 5, 6. It was a day's journey from Rameses, and must have been 12 or 15 miles east of that place. Some would identify it with Birket Timseh, or