PSA

PTO

private devotion in all parts of the world, and will continue to be to the end of time. There is something exceedingly elevating and comforting in the idea that our religious feelings have moved the saints of God in all ages— that Moses and David and Asaph gave utterance to our own spiritual experiences.

Authors of the Psalms. —The composition of the Psalms embraces a period of nearly a thousand years, from Moses to the return from the Captivity or the time of Ezra, but most of them belong to the reigns of David and Solomon. About two-thirds of them are ascribed in the titles to specific authors, as follows : (1) To David, eighty—viz., 1-41 (including

1 and 2, which are anonymous). 51-71, 101-103, 108-110, 122, 124, 131-133, 138-145. He is the. largest contributor and the master-singer of Israel; hence the whole collection is frequently called " The Psalms of David." The general characteristics of these eighty Psalms are simplicity, freshness, vigor, and a rare combination of childlike tenderness with heroic faith; and, viewed as a whole, they present a picture of a man severely struggling, through internal and external obstacles, toward the city of God. (2) To Asaph, twelve Psalms— 73-83 and 50. Asaph, of the tribe of Levi, was one of David's musicians and leader of the choir, 1 Chr. 15:17,19;

2 Chr. 29 : 30, and his Psalms have a more didactic character. (3) To the sons of Korah, a family of poetical priests of the age of David, 1 Chr. 6 : 16; 9:19; 26 : 1, 2 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 19. fourteen Psalms, corresponding to the fourteen classes of singers of that family—viz., 42-49, 84, 85, 87, 88. Seven of them belong to the age of David and Solomon. But, properly speaking, only eleven Psalms belong to the sons of Korah. Psalms 42 and 43 are reckoned as one, and 88 and 89 bear also the names of Heman and Ethan. These Psalms are generally distinguished by poetic vivacity and bold flight of imagination. (4) To Solomon, two : 72 and 127. (5) To Moses one: 90.

Classification of the Psalms according to

their Contents. I. Psalms of Adoration and Praise : Ps. 8,19, 24, 33, 34,36, 96,100,103, 712

107,121, and the Hallelujah Psalms, 146-150.

II. Psalms of Thanksgiving for mercies: To individuals, Ps. 9, 18, 22, 30.

To the people of Israel, Ps. 46, 48, 65, 98.

III. Penitential Psalms:

Ps. 6, 25, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, 143|

IV. Pilgrim Psalms for festive journeys to Jerusalem (''Songs of Degrees" — i. e., steps, ascension):

Ps. 120-134.

V. Historical Psalms, recording God's

merciful and righteous dealing with his people in time jjast; Ps. 78, 105. 106.

VI. Prophetic and Messianic Psalms, based upon the promise to David and his house (2 Sam. 7 : 12-16) :

Ps. 2, 8. 16, 22, 40, 45, 68, 69, 72, 97,110, 118.

VII. Didactic Psalms :

(o) On the character and fate of the righteous and the wicked : Ps. 1, 5, 7, 9-12, 14, 15, 17, 24, 25.

{b) On the excellency of God's law: Ps. 19,119.

id) On the duty of rulers : Ps. 82,101.

VIII. Imprecatory Psalms, mostly by David:

Ps. 35, 52, 58, 59, 69, 109,137.

PSAL'TERY was a stringed instrument with ten strings, like a harp, but its shape is much disputed. See Harp, Musical Instruments.

PTOLEM.E'US, OR PTOL'-EMY, is the common name of the Egyptian kings of the Greek dvnasty.

1. Ptolemy I. Soter, b. c. 3"23-28"5, the founder of the dynasty; probably an illegitimate son of Philip; served as a general in the army of Alexander; seized Egypt in 323, and maintained himself there against Perdiccas, 321, Demetrius, 312, and Antigonus, 301. When invading Syria, in 320, he swept down upon Jerusalem on a Sabbath-day, occupied the city, and carried away a number of Jews as prisoners to Egypt. But he treated them well, and founded a flourishing Jewish colony in his kingdom. It is commonly supposed he is meant, in Dan. 11 : 5, by " the king of the south."

PTO

PUD

285-247, son of the preceding; reigned in peace after the marriage of his daughter, Berenice, with Antiochus II. of Syria, Dan. 11 : f) ; founded the great library and museum in Alexandria; attracted to that city such men as the poet Theocritus, the geometer Euclid, the astronomer Aratus, etc. : is said to have given the first impulse to the Septuagint translation of the 0. T.; and was prominent in bringing about that amalgamation of East and Wes^t, of Jewish wisdom and Greek philosophy', which left so deep traces in the history of both Judaism and Christianity.

3. Ptolemy III. Euergetes, b. c. 247-222, son of the preceding ; invaded Syria to avenge the repudiation and murder of his sister: conquered the country as far north as Antioch and as far east as Babylon ; offered sacrifices in the temple of Jerusalem, according to the custom of the Law ; and brought back to Egypt the gods and their molten images, which Cambyses had carried to Babylon. Dan. 11: 7-9.

4. Ptolemy IV. Philopator, b. c. 222-205, son of the preceding; defeated the army of Antiochus the Great at Raphia, near Gaza, 215, Dan. 11 : 10-12; offered sacrifices of thanksgiving in the temple of Jerusalem ; but when he attempted to penetrate into the sanctuary, he was suddenly sti'uck by paraly^-sis.

5. Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, b. c. 205-181, son of the preceding; was only five years old when his father died. During his minorityAntiochus the Great conquered Coele-Sj^ria, Phoenicia, and Judaea, and a great number of Jews who remained true to the Ptolem^an dynasty fled to Egypt, where the high priest, Onias, founded the temple at Leontopolis. By the mediation of the Romans, Ptolemy and Antiochus were afterward reconciled, but the Egyptian power was now rapidly decreasing. Dan. 11 : 13-17.

6. Ptolemy VI. Philometor, b. c. 181-140, son of the preceding; was a mere infant when his father died. Up to her death, in 173, his mother, Cleopatra, reigned in his stead, and she kept peace with Syria. But, in 171, Antiochus Epiph-anes sought and found an occasion to attack Egypt, defeated Ptolemy VI., and carried him away a prisoner. Again it was the interference of the Romans which

saved Egypt, 168; but the power of the country was now really broken, and it gradually glided into the position of a Roman province. Dan. 11 : 25-30. Under the reign of Ptolemy VI. the Jewish temple at Leontopolis was completed; and thus there existed a Judaism independent of Jerusalem and in intimate contact with the classical civilization.

PTOLEMA'IS (from one of the Ptolemies of Egypt), the city called Accho in Jewish annals, and Ptolemais under Macedonian and Roman rule. It is often mentioned in the Apocrypha. 1 Mace. 5:15, 22, 55; 2 Mace. 13: 24, 25, etc. Paul, on returning from his third missionary-tour, visited Ptolemais, and abode there one day. Acts 21: 7. The place is now called Akka, or St. Jean d'Acre, the name given to it by the Knights of St. John, who settled there soon after the conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin. A. d. 1187. See Accho.

PU'A. See Phuvah.

PU'AH {mouth). 1. Of the tribe of Issachar, who judged Israel after Abimelech. Jud. 10 : 1.

2. One of the two midwives whom Pharaoh ordered to kill all Hebrew male children at their birth. Ex. 1 : 15-21.

PUB'LICAN, an inferior collector of the Roman tribute. Matt. 18 : 17. The principal farmers of this revenue were men of great credit and influence, but the under-farmers, or publicans, were remarkable for their rapacity and extortion, and were accounted as oppressive thieves and pickpockets. Hence it is even said that the Jews would not allow them to enter the temple or the synagogues, to partake of the public praj'ers or offices of judicature, or to give testimony in a court of justice.

There were many publicans in Judaea in the time of our Saviour. Zacchaeus was probably one of the principal receivers, since he is called "chief among the publicans," Luke 19 : 2 ; but Matthew was only an inferior publican. Luke 5 : 27. The Jews reproached Jesus with being a "friend of publicans and sinners " and eating with them. Luke 7 : 34.

PUB'LIUS, the governor of Melita, who received St. Paul when he was shipwrecked off that place. Acts 28 : 7,8.

PU'DENS, a Christian in Rome

PUH

PUN

who sent a salutation to Timothy through St. Paul. 2 Tim. 4 : 21.

PU'HITES, the name of a family descending from Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 53.

PUIi {lord?), the first king of Assyria, who invaded Canaan, and by a present of 1000 talents of silver (equivalent to nearly $2,000,000 in our day) was prevailed on by Menahem to withdraw his troops and recognize the title of that wicked usurper. 2 Kgs. 15 : 19. This is the first mention of Assyria in the sacred history after the days of Nimrod, and Pul was the first-mentioned Assyrian invader of Judtea.

PUIi, a region mentioned in Isa. 66: 19. The name is the same as that of Pul, a king of Assyria, which signifies "elephant " or " lord." The country is named with Tarshish, Lud, Tubal, Javan, and " the isles afar off." Bochart, Henderson, Michaelis, and others suppose it to be the island of Philse and the surrounding regions. Porter, Grove, Poole, and other authorities make it some distant province of Africa. It is identified by the Septuagint with Phut, which is joined with Lud in Eze. 27 : 10; 30 : 5, and perhaps therefore denotes Libya. See Phut.

PUL'PIT, in Neh. 8 : 4, was a platform set up in the open air for the accommodation of Ezra.

PULSE {seeds). Our English word means peas, beans, lentiles, and the produce of similar podded plants, but in Dan. 1 : 12, 16 the Hebrew probably denotes vegetable food in general, and in 2 Sam. 17 : 28 parched peas, which are still a favorite food in the East.

PUN'ISHMENT. The principle of punishment prevalent in all modern criminal codes is simply to protect society against crime. In the penal enactments of the Mosaic Law this principle is present, but only as a modification or qualification of the supreme principle of the Law—to do justice. Both capital and secondary punishments were inflicted chiefly from a regard to what justice demanded, but in cases which lay absolutely outside the pale of human justice, and had no connection with society beyond the bad example set, the off"ender was "cutoff"" from the people and left to the direct handling of God.

1. Capital punishment was executed in various ways—by stoning, Ex. 17 : 714

4; Luke 20 : 6 ; John 10 : 31 ; Acts 14 : 5; hanging. Num. 25 : 4 ,• 2 Sam. 21 : 6, 9; burning. Gen. 38 : 24; Lev. 21 : 9 ; shooting, Ex. 19 : 13 ,• sword, 1 Kgs. 2 : 25; 19 : 1; 2 Chr. 21 : 4 ; strangling (though mentioned onl}' by the rabbins); drowning, com p. Matt. 18 : 6 ; Mark 9 : 42; sawing asunder, 2 Sam. 12 : 31; pounding in a mortar (though hardly a legal punishment), Prov. 27 : 22 ; 2 Mace. 6 : 28 : precipitation, 2 Mace. 6:10; Luke 4:29; and Crucifixion, which see. Of these, stoning was the most common form of execution. It was inflicted not only for murder, but also for striking or reviling a parent, Ex. 21 : 15 ; for blasphemy, Lev. 24 : 14, 16, 23 ; adultery. Lev. 20 : 10; Deut. 22 : 22; rape, Deut. 22 : 25; idolatry. Lev. 20 : 2 ; Deut. 13 : 6, 10, 15,17; false witness in capital cases, Deut. 19 : 16, 19; but a verdict of stoning could only be given on the testimony of two witnesses, and these were required to cast the first stones, directly on the chest of the offender. Deut. 13 : 9; 17 : 7. Several of the other forms of execution, such as hanging and burning, were seldom used except after death by stoning had taken place.

2. Secondary punishments were regulated chiefly after the idea of retaliation —" breach for breach, eye for eye, tooth for tooth." Ex. 21 : 23-25: Deut. 19 : 18-21. But there was on this point a remarkable difference between the Mosaic Law and the old Frankish or Anglo-Saxon or Scandinavian laws. According to the Mosaic Law, the retaliation was never given into the hands of the offended, but took effect only after judicial procedure. In some cases retaliation was simple restitution with a fine added ; thus, he who stole a sheep was to restore four sheep, and he who stole an ox five oxen. Ex. 22 : 1. In other eases it meant compensation for loss of time or power, Ex. 21 : 18-36; Lev. 24 : 18-21 ; Deut. 19 : 21, or even for loss caused by accident. Ex. 22 : 6. When restitution or compensation could not take place—as, for instance, in the case of slander— whipping, and even scourging, were employed. But the Law forbade to give more than forty stripes, Deut. 25 : 3, and the Jews took great care not to give more than thirty-nine, the punishment being inflicted by means of a whip with three thongs, and thirteen strokes being dealt.

PUN

PUT

Imprisonment was not prescribed by the Law, but was known in the times of the kings. 2 Chr. 16 : 10 ; Jer. 37 : 15.

3. Finally, the Pentateuch mentions some thirty-five cases in which the penalty incurred is that of being " cut off from the people," but the exact meaning of this expression is disputed. Some commentators hold that it means death, while others, and among them the rabbinical writers, explain it as a kind of excommunication. It probably stood in some connection with the punishment of banishment, which consisted in confinement to a certain locality or exclusion from the presence of the king. 2 Sam. 14: 24; 1 Kgs. 2 : 26, 36, 37.

PU'NITES, THE, the descendants of Pua, or Phuvah, the son of Issachar. Num. 26 : 23.

PU'NON {(iarlcDess), one of the stations of the Israelites, Num. 33 : 42, 43, between Zalmonah and Oboth. According to Jerome it is identical with Phenoi}, celebrated for its copper-mines, in which convicts were sentenced to labor, between Petra and Zoar. Palmer suggests its identity with 'Auezeh, one of the three stations, on the Darb el-Hajj. — Desert of the Exodus, p. 430.

PURIFICA'TIONS formed a very conspicuous feature among the ritual observances of the Jews, and were performed in various ways, though generally by means of water. Besides their spiritual meaning, referring to the purity of the heart, they had often also a sanitarj' purpose. After the Captivity, however, they were carried into extremes, especially by the Pharisees. Mark 7 : 3, 4.

PU'RIM {Jots), a Jewish festival instituted to commemorate the preservation of the Jewish people, by means of Mordecai and Esther, from the massacre ordered by Haman, Esth. 9 : 20-32, received its name from the circumstance that Haman sought to ascertain by lots the day on which to execute the massacre. The festival was celebrated on the fourteenth and fifteenth of the month Adar (March). The book of Esther was then read aloud in the synagogue, and whenever the name of Haman occurred the whole congregation answered, "Let his name be blotted out." After the service on the fifteenth, the festival generally ended with great merry-making.

Purim is not mentioned in the N. T., unless it be the feast spoken of in John 6:1.

PUR'PLE. The purple dye so famous among the Orientals of ancient days was produced from a species of shellfish peculiar to the Mediterranean Sea. It was highly esteemed also among the Hebrews. The hangings of the temple and some of the })riests' garments were of this color. Ex. 25 : 4; 35 : 6; 39 : 29; 2 Chron. 3 : 14, also the robes of royalty and distinction were of purple. Judg. 8 : 26,; Esth. 8:15. It would seem, however, that the Hebrews used the term "purple" with considerable latitude, applying it in general to every color into the composition of which red entered.

PURSE, a sort of girdle, such as is often found at the present day in Eastern countries. One part of the girdle, sufficient to encompass the body, was sewed double and fastened with a buckle. The other was wound around above or below the first fold, and tucked under. The first fold had an opening, closed with a leathern cover and strap, through which the contents of the purse were passed. Matt. 10 : 9 ; Mark 6 : 8.

PUT. 1 Chr. 1:8; Nah. 3:9; elsewhere Phut, Phud, Libya, which see.

PUTE'OLiI {snljjhurotis wells or spriiKjs), a seaport of Campania, in Italy, situated upon the northern shore of a small bay running northward from the Bay of Naples, and now called Pozzuoli Bay. The town was originally confined to a rocky promontory, but afterward extended to a considerable distance eastward and northward. Puteoli was the great port of Rome, and through it passed the immense exports and imports of the imperial city. Especially was it the port for the Alexandrian corn-ships, which were allowed the peculiar privilege of entering the bay with all their sails set. Its ancient Greek name was Dicaearchia. It was a favorite watering-place of the Romans, its hot springs being considered efficacious for the cure of various diseases. Puteoli is connected with many historical personages. Scipio sailed hence to Spain; Cicero had a villa near the city; here Nero })lanned the murder of his mother; Vespasian gave to this city peculiar privileges ; and here Hadrian was buried,

PUT

PYT

The Castor and Pollux landed the apostle Paul there, Acts 28 : 13, 14, and he tarried in the place, where there were Christians, for a week before setting out for Rome, 141 miles distant. The modern name of Puteoli is Pozzuoli. There are considerable remains of ancient structures, including an aqueduct, reservoirs, baths, and a building called

the temple of Serapis. Thirteen arches can still be counted of the twenty-five which originally supported the great pier, thrown out for protection against the waves and for convenience in landing passengers and merchandise.

PU'TIEL [affiicted of God), the father-in-law of Eleazar, the son of Aaron. Ex. 6 : 25.

The Addax or Py^arg

PY'GARG. Deut. 14 : 5. This is believed to have been some species of antelope, perhaps the addax {Antilojje addax).

PYR'RHUS, father of Sopater of Berea, mentioned in Acts 20 : 4; a genuine name, found in the best Greek texts, though not in the A. V. The father was 716

doubtless a Berean as well as the son, but whether he was a Christian cannot be determined.

PY'THON, occurring Acts 16 : 16, margin, was a surname of Apollo, the god of divination in the Greek mythology, and hence applied to all oracular and divinatory spirits. See Divination.

QUA

QUAILS. Ex. 16 : 13: Num. 11 : 31. After much criticism of this translation, the verdict of etymology, zoology, history, and of most of the important ancient versions, is strongly in favor of the above rendering. At the season when the Israelites gathered them, quails still migrate from Africa northward in immense numbers. Such facts as that 160,000 were taken in one season on the small island of Capri, near Naples, and 100,000 in a single day near Nettuno, attest their present abundance on the coasts of the Mediterranean, and travellers tell us that they still cross Arabia in clouds.

All the conditions of the above passage in Numbers are met by the habits of these birds. Following up the Red Sea, they would naturally cross the narrow gulfs which enclose the Sinaitic

Quail. (Coturnix vulgaris.)

peninsula, and. being weak of wing and according to their custom flying be/ore the wind and at night, they would come "from the sea" exhausted, and be easily taken by hand, as they are still often caught under similar circumstances. In their flight quails skim along the ground, which seems to be the meaning of the expression, " two cubits hujh." Prudent-

ly making provision for the future, the Israelites would spread out their flesh to dry, as Herodotus tells us the Egyptians were accustomed to do. It is believed that the " homers '' in Num. 11: 32 does not denote the measure of that name, but rather " a heap," which is sometimes the meaning of the Hebrew Avord. It is evident that in the feeding of the multitudes of Israel for more than a month with these birds there was a miraculous employment of the provisions of Nature.

The quail (Coinrnix vidr/nn'n) abounds through almost the entire Old World. It resembles the bird called by the same name in New England {Ortyx Yirgini-anus), but its note is like peek-whit-whit rapidly repeated.

QUARANTA'NA, a mountain about 7 miles north-west of Jericho, which tradition points out as the scene of the temptation of Christ. It rises abruptly from the plain to the height of 1200 to 1500 feet, resembling a perpendicular wall of rock. Upon its sides are numerous grottos and caverns, where hermits once dwelt in numbers, and which were also the retreat of robbers. On the top of the mountain are ruins of a chapel. The mountain is not named in the Bible.

QUARRIES, THE. The Hebrew word thus translated in Judg. 3 : 19, 26 is elsewhere rendered by " graven" or " carved image."

QUAR'TUS ifonrfl). a Christian who lived at Corinth and sent, through Paul, his salutations to the Christians in Rome. Rom. 16 : 23. QUATER'NION. When Peter is said to have been delivered to four quaternions of soldiers, and to have passed through a first and second watch, Acts 12: 4,10. it is to be understood that he was guarded by four men at a time—viz., two in the prison with him, and two before the doors—and that they were relieved every three hours, or at each success-

QUE

QUO

QUEEN OF HEAVEN, the

title of the goddess of the Moon among the Assyrians, from whom her worship spread into Asia Minor. To the Shemites she was generally known under the names of Astarte, Ash-taroth, etc. Cakes having the image of the moon stamped on them are supposed to have been presented in sacrifice as a part of her worship. Jer. 7 : 18 ; 44 : 17, 18, 19, 25.

QUICK'SANDS are referred to

in Acts 27 : 17, and were known as

Bound between two Soldiern.^ (From an old Moman ^^^ Greater Syrtis and the Lesser

Syrtis, two sandy gulfs on the north-

Brawing.)

ive watch of the night, by four others, making in all sixteen men.

QUEEN is the rendering of three different Hebrew words, of which the first is applied to a queen-regnant—as, for instance, the queen of Sheba, 1 Kgs. 10 : 1, and Athaliah, who usurped the throne of Judah, 2 Kgs. 11; the second to a queen-consort—that is, to the wives of first rank in the royal harem, as distinguished from the concubines, Esth. 1: 9; 7:1; Cant. 6:8; and the third to a queen-mother—as, for instance, Bath-sheba, 1 Kgs. 2 : 19; Maachah, 1 Kgs. 15 : 13; 2 Chr. 15 : 16; Jezebel. 2 Kgs. 10 : 13. It was a natural result of the practice of polygamy that the queen-consort never attained that dignity which in our times such a position confers, while the queen-mother came to occupy one of the most dignified and powerful positions in the state. The following is a list of queen-mothers through the successive reigns of the monarchs of the kingdom of Judah:

Kings. Qneen-moihers.

Solomon Bathsheba.

Rehoboam Naauiah.

^g^J^^-1 Maachah or Michaiah.

Jelioshaphat Azubah.

Jehoram Not mentioned.

Ahaziah Athaliah.

Joash Zibiah.

Aniaziah Jehoaddan.

Uzziah Jeeoliah.

Jotham Jerusha.

Ahaz Not mentioned.

Hezekiah Abi or Abijah.

Manasseh Hephzibah.

Anion Meshullemeth.

Josiah Jedidah.

Jehoahaz Harautal.

Jehoiakira Zebudah.

Jehoiacliin Nehushta.

Zedeklah Hamutal.

718

ern coast of Africa. The Greater Syrtis was near Cyrene, and is the "quicksands " probably intended in the narrative of Paul's voyage.

QUIRIN'IUS. See Cyrenius.

QUIT is used in 1 Sam. 4 : 9 and 1 Cor. 16 : 13 in the sense of "acquit."

QUIVER, the box or case for arrows. Gen. 27 : 3. The word is often used figuratively. Isa. 49 : 2 ; Lam. 3 : 13. In Jer. 5 : 16 the slaughter and desolation which should be brought upon

Egyptian Quivers with Bows.

the Israelites by the invasion of the Chaldasans is expressed by the calling their quivers " an open sepulchre," or their arrows certain death. See Armor. QUOTA'TIONS from the 0. T. in the N. T. are very numerous, but vary both with respect to the method of quoting and with respect to the application of the words quoted. The Greek translation, the Septuagint, is generally used,

QUO

and how widely ditfused and how closely followed this version was among the Jews of the time of our Lord may be seen from the circumstances that, in cases in which no fault of meaning is involved, even its incorrectnesses are retained in the quotations such as Matt. 15 : 9 ; Luke 4 : 18 ; Acts 13 : 41 ; 15 : 7-10 ; Rom. 15 : 10, etc. J in Heb. 1 : G is found a quotation from Deut. 32 : 43 which is an interpolation of the Septuagint. In cases, however, in which the errors of the version involve a discrepancy of meaning, the N. T. writers invariably correct the Septuagint by the Hebrew, such as Matt. 21: 5 ; 1 Cor. 3:19, etc. Often the quotations are directly from the Hebrew without any reference to the Septuagint, such as Matt. 4 : 15, 16; John 19 : 37; 1 Cor. 15 : 54. In Mark 12 : 30; Luke 10 : 27 ; Rom. 12 : 19, the Septuagint and the Hebrew are combined. Besides these direct quotations, the books of the N. T. are crowded with allusions to and suggestions from the 0. T., both conscious, with appropriate adjustment, and unconscious. To this difference in the method of quoting corresponds a different method of application. When the N. T. writer ascribes something prophetical or typical to the passage quoted, he generally introduces it with the word " fulfil," such as Matt. 2:15, 18. 23, etc., and the application is authoritative. But in other cases the application may be considered optional, referring to the generally prophetical and typical character of the 0. T. in its relation to the N. T., and a natural result of the force

with which the 0. T. book had impressed the minds of the N. T. writers.

The precise relation of the N. T. quotations to the Hebrew Scriptures and to the (ireek Scj)tuagint is not yet sufficiently cleared up, but has been much investigated of late. Mr. D. C. Turpie, in his book, The Old Testament in the Neio (Lond., 1868), establishes the following result:

Passafres in which the Septuagint version is correctly accepted 53

Passages in which the Septuagint version is correctly altered 10

Passages in which the Septuagint version is incorrectly accepted 37

Passages in which the Septuagint version is incorrectly altered 76

Passages in which the Hebrew, the Septuagint, and the New Testament all differ 99

Many of the differences are, however, exceedingly minute, and "correct" and " incorrect " merely mean accurate agreement or disagreement with the original Hebrew. Prof. Bohl of Vienna, in his books Forschnnrien nac.h einer Volksbibel zur Zeit Jesu (Wien, 1873) and Die Alt-test amentlich en Citate im N. T. (AVien, 1878), maintains that the N. T. writers quoted directly and correctly from a current Aramaic version, which has indeed perished, but which was in Christ's day read and memorized by all classes among the Jews as the people's Bible. Hence the N. T. quotations are incorrect in the same way and to the same degree as are the quotations from the present A. V.

EAA

EAB

RA'AMAH {trembling), a commercial country which traded with Tyre. Eze. 27 : 22. This land furnished spices, gems, and gold, and was probably named after a son of Cush, whose descendants are believed to haVe settled upon the south-western shore of the Persian Gulf. The Septuagint renders Raamah by Regma, a place mentioned by Ptolemy in the territory of the Nariti, an Arabian tribe settled in the above locality.

RAAMI'AH {ichom Jehocnh makes iremb/e), Neh. 7 : 7, OR REELAI'AH [id.), Ezr. 2 : 2. one of the chiefs who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel.

RAAM'SES. 'Ex. 1:11. See Ram-

ESES.

RAB'BAH (greatness). 1. The chief city and capital of the Ammonites. Jos. 13 : 25. Its full name is " Rabbath of the children of Ammon." Deut. 3:11. It is also called " Rabbath of the Ammonites." Eze. 21 : 20. Greek and Roman writers call it " Philadelphia," a name given by Ptolemy Philadelphus, by whom it was rebuilt. Its modern name is Amman. Rabbath was situated in the valley of the upper Jabbok and between two mountains, about 22 miles east of the Jordan, 14 miles north-east of Heshbon, and 19 miles south-east of Es Salt.

History. —Rabbah is first mentioned as the place of the '* bed," or sarcophagus of Og, king of Bashan. Deut. 3:11 Joab besieged it, and, by order of David Uriah was here slain. 2 Sam. 11 : 1-17 Joab took the '' city of waters "—that is probably, the lower city, through which the stream flowed—while the citadel held out until David came with reinforcements. 2 Sam. 12 : 26-31; 1 Chr. 20 : 1-3. Afterward, when David fled from Jerusalem to Mahanaim, a citizen of Rabbah gave him provisions. 2 Sam. 17 : 27-29. At a later period the Ammonites regained their independence, but the overthrow of Rabbah was predicted. Jer. 49:23; Eze. 21:20; 25:5; Am. 1 : 14. Under the Ptolemies it continued to be a city of importance, having a garrison for repelling the at-720

tacks of BedouinSj and it supplied water for travellers across the desert. In N. T. times Rabbah was one of the cities of Decapolis, under the name of " Philadelphia," and it continued as an important town until the fourth century, being the seat of a Christian bishopric; it was finally overthrown by the Saracens. Earthquakes have contributed to its ruin.

Present Appearance. —The ruins of Rabbah are among the most imposing on the east side of the Jordan. Among them are those of a theatre—the largest known in Syria—capable of holding 6000 spectators, a smaller theatre, or odeum, baths, a beautiful Grecian temple, large basilicas, or Greek churches, a vast public building with arches still standing, and the citadel on a hill; the remarkable ruins are strewn over a space of several acres. Most of them, however, belong to the GrjBco-Roman period. A paved Roman street is quite perfect, the wheel-ruts being distinctly visible. Eight Corinthian columns of the theatre remain. The coins of the city bear the image of Astarte and the word " Heraeleion," from " Hercules," the idol which followed Moloch. Immense flocks and herds of the Arabs come to Rabbah for water and for shelter from the noonday heat, giving to the place the appearance and odor of a farm-yard, strikingly fulfilling the prophecy, " I will make Rabbah a stable for camels, and the Ammonites a couch-ing-place for flocks." Eze. 25 : 4, 5.

2. A town of Judah in the hill-country, noticed with Kirjath-jearim. Jos. 15 : 60. Conder suggests that it may be identified with the present ruin Jiabba, in the hills near Beit Jibriu.

RABBATH-AM'JUON. Deut. 3:11. See Rabbah.

RAB'BATH-MO'AB. See Ar.

RAB'BI, a title of dignity, literally signifying " my master." It was given by the Jews to distinguish teachers of their Law, and frequently applied to our Lord by the disciples and the people. Matt. 23 : 7, 8: 26 : 25, 49 ; Mark 9:5; 11 : 21; 14 : 45; John 1 : 38, 49; 3 : 2, 26, etc. The usual Greek word in the

RAB

RAC

Gospels as the title of Christ is " teacher." Matt. 8 : 19; 9 : 11, etc. The Jews distinguished between Rah, "master," Bahhi, ''my master," and liabboni, "my great master." The last was the most honorable title of all.

RAB'BITH [multUude), a town of Issachar, apparently in the southern limit of the tribe, Jos. 19 : 20. Drake would identify it with Arrabeh, but Conder locates it at the present village liaba, on the watershed south of (xilboa.

RABBO'NI. John 20 : IG. See Rabbi.

RAB'-MAG (perhaps the master of the magi) signified an officer of great power and dignity at the Babylonian court. Jer. 39 : 3, 13.

RAB'SARIS {chief eunuch), the

title of a high Assyrian or Babylonian officer. 2 Kgs. 18 : 17 ; Jer. 39 : 3, 13.

RAB'SHAKEII seems to be the name, not of a person, but of an officer— the chief butler or cupbearer—who was sent with Rab-saris, the chief of tlie eunuchs, and Tartan, messengers of the king of Assyria, to Hezekiah, summoning him, in the most indecent and blasphemous manner, to surrender his capital. 2 Kgs. 18 : 17-37.

RA'CA {irorlhless), a term of contempt. Matt. 5 : 22.

RACE. Ileb. 12 : 1. See Games.

RA'CHAB, the Greek form of "Ra-hab." Matt. 1 : 5.

RA'CHAL {traffic), a place in Judah to which David sent some of his spoils. 1 Sam. 30 : 29. Its site is unknown.

Tomb of Rachel, near Bethlehem. {After a Fhotograph.)

RA'CHEL (a ewe), the daughter of Laban, the wife of the patriarch Jacob, and the mother of Joseph and Benjamin. Her history is given in Gen. 29-35. The incidents of her life—her beauty, the passion with which she was loved, etc.— are of a charming impressiveness, but 46

her character—her theft of Laban's idols, her shrewdness in concealing the fact —does not command our respect. She died after giving birth to Benjamin, and on her grave, near the road from Bethlehem to Jerusalem, Jacob set up a pillar. Gen. 35 : 19. At the time of

EAC

RAI

Samuel and Saul the pillar was still standing. 1 Sam. 10 : 2. At present a small white mosque, erected by the Mohammedans, indicates the place. Jeremiah, 31 : 15-17, represents Kachel as weeping in her grave when her children pass by on their way to Babylon, and Matthew, 2:17, 18, applies this to the massacre of the innocents.

RACHEL'S TOMB. Gen. 35 . 19, 20. The traditional site of the tomb of Rachel is on the road from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, about half a mile from the latter place. An insignificant building with a dome in the Muslim style marks the spot. The building has been repeatedly restored, and is not older than the fifteenth century. The tomb is revered by Muslims, Christians, and Jews and visited by pilgrims. (See cut, p. 721.)

RAD'DAI {treading down), a brother of David, the fifth son of Jesse. 1 Chr.

2 : 14.

RA'GAU, the same person as Reu, one of the ancestors of our Lord. Luke

3 : 35 ; Gen. 11 : 20, 21. RAGU'EL (friend of God), the

father of Jethro, Num. 10 : 29; called Reuel in Ex. 2 : 18.

RA'HAB, a woman of Jericho who kept a public-house, and. as most suppose, was of depraved character. She had heard of the Israelites and of the favor of God toward them. Josh. 2 : 8-11; and when the two spies sent out by Joshua came to Jericho to explore the land of promise, she concealed them from the officers who were sent in search of them, and at a convenient time let them down by a cord upon the outside of the city wall, to which her house joined. It was agreed between her and the spies that she should take a scarlet thread and fasten it in the window or aperture through which they had escaped, and when the city was destroyed her house and all that were in it should be protected. Josh. 2 : 17-23. When the city was taken and burnt, Rahab and her family were preserved. Josh. 6 : 17-25, and it is supposed she married into a noble family of the tribe of Judah. She is called Rachab, Matt. 1 : 5, and her faith is commended among the worthies in Heb. 11 :31.

RA'HAB (violence), a symbolical term for Egypt. Isa. 51: 9, 10, 15. It may also apply to its king. Eze. 29 : 3 : 32 : 2. 722

In Job 26 : 12 the same word is translated '' the proud," and there is a similar reference in Isa. 30 : 7, translated " strength," but rendered by Gesenius " violence."

RAIN. The force of the various allusions to this subject cannot be apprehended without some knowledge of the natural conditions of Palestine. Rain falls very frequently during what we call the cold months, from November to April. Sometimes it rains powerfully for several days, with thunder and lightning and a strong wind. In the summer season, from May to October, the earth is parched, verdure is destroyed, and vegetation languishes. The first rain after the summer drought usually falls in October, and is called the former or autumnal rain, because it precedes seedtime and prepares the earth for cultivation. The latter rain falls in April, just before harvest, and perfects the fruits of the earth. Deut. 11: 14 ; Hos. 6:3; Joel 2 : 23. Storms after this time were regarded by the Jews as unseasonable, and even miraculous. Prov. 26 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 12 : 16-19. The average present rainfall at Jerusalem is 61.6 inches, which is greater than that of almost any part of the United States. See Palestine.

RAIN'BOW, a seven-colored semicircle produced by the reflection of the sun's rays from the drops of falling water, and appearing in its greatest brilliancy when the spectator is placed between the shining sun on the one side and a raining cloud on the other. It may be formed in waterfalls, fountains, etc., but when formed in the atmosphere it always shows that the rain has passed away. The same laws by which this effect is produced were probably in operation before the Deluge. The rainbow, which had hitherto been a beautiful object in the heavens, was appointed as a sign of the covenant that the earth should not be again destroyed by a flood. The meaning of the covenant would be in substance, " As surely as that bow is the result of established laws which must continue as long as the sun and atmosphere endure, so surely shall the world be preserved from destruction by a deluge." Gen. 9 : 12-17.

RAI'SINS, or grapes dried in bunches, are mentioned 1 Sam. 25 : 18; 30 : 12; 2 Sam, 16 : 1; 1 Chr. 12 : 40.

RAK

RAM

RA'KEM {Jlower-gardening), a descendant of Manasseh. 1 Chr. 7:16.

RAK'KATH {xlwre), a fortified city of Naphtali. Josh. 19 : 35. According to the Rabbins, it stood where Tiberias afterward stood, but there seems little authority for this statement, and no trace of that name has been found in the neighborhood. See Tiberias.

RAK'KON {thinness), a city of Dan, probably not far from Joppa. Josh. 19 : 46. Conder claims to have recovered the site of Rakkon at Tell. er-Rakkeit, on the shore north of Joppa. It is a high point covered by an accumulation of blown sand, and situated near the mouth of the turbid river Anjeh, or " yellow water."

RAM {high, exalted). 1. A descendant of Judah, and son of Hezron, 1 Chr. 2:9, 10 ; called Aram in Matt. 1 : 3, 4; Luke 3 : 33.

2. A descendant of Judah, and son of Jerahmeel. 1 Chr. 2 : 25, 27.

3. One to whose kindred Eliphaz belonged. Job 32 : 2: identified by some with Aram. Gen. 22 : 21.

RA'MA, a Greek form of " Ramah." Matt. 2 : 18.

RA'MAH (high place), the name of several towns in Palestine.

1. A city of Benjamin near to Gibeah, and occupied once by Saul. Josh. 18 : 25 ; Jud. 19 : 13 ; 1 Sam". 22 : 6. It was on a site naturally strong ; was fortified by Baasha, but the king of Judah stopped the work through the co-operation of the Syrians. 1 Kgs. 15 : 17-22 ; 2 Chr. 16 : 1-6. At the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar the captives were placed under guard at Ramah ; among • them was the prophet Jeremiah. Jer. 39:8-12; 40:1. It was here his prophecy was fulfilled, " A voice was heard in Ramah, lamentation and bitter weeping." Jer. 31 : 15. This prophecy was again illustrated and fulfilled by the slaughter of the innocents at Bethlehem when Jesus was born. Matt. 2:17, 18. Ramah was re-occupied after the Captivity. Ezr. 2 : 26 : Neh. 7 : 30. The town has been identified with er-Knni, about 5 miles north of Jerusalem, where broken columns, many large hewn stones in the houses, and other ancient remains are to be found. The village is a small and miserable one, having only about

fifteen families, but the view from it is very extensive.

2. The birthplace, home, and burial-place of the prophet Samuel, the word being a contraction of " Ramathaim-zophim." 1 Sam. 1:1; 2 : 11 ; 7 : 17 ; 8:4: 15 : 34; 16: 13; 19 : 18; 25 : 1;

28. Stanley says that the position of this Ramah is the most complicated and disputed problem of sacred topography. The place was on an eminence south of Gibeah, the birthplace of Saul, and is also said to be *' of Mount Ephraim," a district, however, without defined boundaries. 1 Sam. 1 : 1, 19. The following sites for Ramah have been proposed: (1) Nehy-Samvnl, 4 miles north-west of Jerusalem, where it is placed by the common tradition of Muslims, Jews, and Christians, and Grove is inclined to favor it; (2) Er-Ram, which is the same as Ramah, No. 1 ; (3) Ramleh, 2 miles south-west of Lydda; (4) Ramah, a short distance above Bethlehem ; (5) the " Frank mountain," 3 miles south-east of Bethlehem, a site favored by Ge-senius; (6) Ramet el-Khalil, a group of ruins a little north of Hebron, favored by Walcott and Van de Velde; (7) Rama, a village 3^ miles west of Sanur, favored by Schwarze: (8) Ram-allah, 5 miles north of Nehy-Samwil, favored bj' Ewald; (9) Seba, 6 miles west of Jerusalem, proposed by Robinson. In the seventeenth century Nehy Samioil was pointed out as the site of Ramathaim-zophim, which would connect it with this Ramah, but in the fourteenth century Ramathaim-zophim was shown at Ramleh.

3. A place on the border of Asher, probably not far from Tyre. Josh. 19 :

29. Robinson places this Ramah at the modern village Rameh, about 13 miles south-east of Tyre, which the Pal. Memoirs call Rdmin, and accept it as the site of Ramah.

4. A fortified place of Naphtali. Josh. 19 : 36. It may be identical with the modern village of Rameh, 10 miles north-west of the Sea of Galilee and on the road to Akka.

5. A name for Ramoth-Gilead, which see. 2 Kgs. 8 : 28, 29.

6. A place mentioned in Neh. 11 : 33 as reinhabited by Benjamites after their return from exile.

RAMATHAaM-ZO'PHIM {double height of the watchers), the full

EAM

RAP

name for Ramah, No. 2, which see. 1 Sam. 1:1.

RA'MATHITE, a native of Ramah. ] Chr. 27 : 27.

RA^^IATH-LF/HI {hm of Lehi), the place where Samson slew a thousand Philistines with a jaw-bone. Jud.15 : 17. Probably 'Ai/un Kara. 8ee Lehi.

RA'MATH-MIZ'PEH {height of the watch-tower), a frontier-town in Gad. Jos. 13 : 26. Dr. Merrill identifies it with Knlat er Rabad, a ruin on Wady 'Ajldn, about 10 miles east of the Jordan and between the two seas.

RA'MATH OF THE SOUTH, a place in the southern border of Simeon. Josh. 19 : 8 ; 1 Sam. 30 : 27. In the latter passage it is called " South Ramoth " to distinguish it from Ramoth beyond Jordan. It has been identified with Jehel Bnruhir, a hill 45 miles south-west of Beer-sheba, and also with Kiirmul, 20 miles south-east of Beer-sheba; and lastly, with Tell el-Lekitjeh, near Beer-

RAM, BATTERING. Eze. 4:2; 21 : 22. See Battering-ram.

RAME'SES {Hon of the sun), a province and citv in Egvpt; called also RAAM'SES. Gen. 47: 11; Ex. 12: 37; Num. 33 : 3, 5. It was without doubt identical with Goshen as a district. If a city, Rameses was in the valley which extends from the Pelusiac branch of the Nile to the Red Sea or the Bitter Lakes of Suez, and was probably the capital of Goshen. See Gen. 45 : 10. Its precise location has not been determined. It has been proposed to identify it with— (1) Letopolis, now Baboul, a few miles south of On; (2) with On; (3) with Heroopolis, about 20 miles north-west of the Bitter Lakes ; (4) at Zoan, or the modern Saii, a theory maintained by Dr. Brugsch; (5) with a ruin near Ahhafi((h.

RAMI'AH {Jehovah exalted), one who had married a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 25.

RA^TIOTH {heights), one who had married a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 29.

RA'MOTH. 1 Sam. 30 : 27. See Ramath and Remeth.

RA'IVIOTH-GIL'EAD {height of Gilead), a city of the Amorites, and afterward a chief city of Gad, east of the Jordan, and given to the Levites, and also made a city of refuge. Deut. 4 : 724

43; Josh. 20 : 8. It was also called Ramah. 2 Kgs. 8 : 29 ; 2 Chr. 22 : fi. It was the headquarters of one of Solomon's commissariat-ofiicers. 1 Kgs. 4 : 13. It came into possession of the Syrians, and Ahab and Jehoshaphat formed an alliance to recover it, but Ahab was mortally wounded. 1 Kgs. 22 : 2-36: 2 Chr. 18. Later, Joram was wounded at the same place, and the city was taken. Jehu was ip command, and anointed king of Israel by order of Elisha. 2 Kgs. 8 : 28; 2 Chr.

22 : 5, 6. Ramoth-gilead has been identified by many travellers with Es-Sdlt, though this has been questioned. Es-Salt is situated about 25 miles east of the Jordan, and 13 miles south of the Jabbok. It is now the most important and populous place in that district, and is the capital of Belka and the residence of a Turkish governor of the third rank. The place lies 2740 feet above the level of the sea, has a healthy climate, and a large population, given chiefly to agriculture, among which are 300 to 400 Arab families and a few nominal Christians. There are some ruins of the Roman period, and a castle on the top of a hill. The hills around it bear many traces of ancient rock-tombs. Three miles to the north-west is Jehel Jilad, 3650 feet in height, and said to be the highest eminence in Gilead. Dr. Merrill, however, identifies Ramoth Gilead with Gerosh, about 25 miles north-east of Es Salt.

RAMS' HORNS. See Trumpet. RANG'ES, 2 Kgs. 11: 8. 15 : 2 Chr.

23 : 14, means " ranks of soldiers." RAN'SOM, the price paid to purchase the freedom of a captive or slave. Matt. 20 : 28; Mark 10 : 45 ; 1 Cor. 6:19, 20 ; 1 Tim. 2 : 6. Under the Levitieal law, an offering was required of every Israelite over twenty years of age at the time the census was taken. This offering is called a ransom or atonement-money. Ex. 30 : 12-16. It amounted to half a shekel, or about twenty-five cents. It was to be made upon penalty of the plague; and every person, rich or poor, was required to give that sum, and neither more nor less. 1 Pet.l: 18, 19.

RA'PHA {tall). I. A descendant of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8 : 2.

2. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 37.

RA'PHAEL {the divine healer) is, according to Jewish tradition, one of the four angels who stand around the

EAP

KEA

throne of God (Michael, Uriel, Gabriel, Raphael). The name is not in the Bible.

RA'PHU (healed), father of the Benjamite spv. Num. 13 : 9.

RA'VEiV (black). Cant. 6 : 11. Under this term are evidently included the various birds of the crow family, some eight or more species of which are found in Palestine.

The raven, like most of its congeners, feeds principally on carrion. It resembles our crow in size, shape, and color, and

is ceremonially unclean. Lev. 11 : 15. When about to feed upon a dead body, it is said to seize first upon the eyes. Hence the allusion, Prov. 30 : 17, implying the ex])0sure of the body in the open field, than which nothing was regarded as more disgraceful. See Burial. Ravens live in desolate regions, Isa. 34: 11, and it is only by restless flight over large areas that they are able to obtain even an uncertain living. Job 38 : 41: Ps. 147 : 9 ; Luke 12 : 24. But

Eaveu. (Corvus Corax

they do not, as has been believed, turn their young from the nest before they are able to supply themselves with food.

Whether the raven sent out of the ark by Noah ever returned to him is not agreed : according to the literal reading of the Hebrew, also of the Samaritan text, and the Chaldee, it did; but a different opinion is supported by the LXX., the Syriac, the Latin, and most of the Fathers. Gen. 8 : 7.

There is no reason for questioning the simple statenients of 1 Kgs. 17 : 4-7 concerning the miraculous feeding of Elijah at the brook Cherith by these birds.

RA'ZOR. The usage of shaving the head after completing a vow must hav'e

After Houghton.)

established the barber's trade quite early among the Hebrews. The instruments used were exactly the same as in our days—the razor, the scissors, the basin, and the mirror. Razors are mentioned in Num. 6:5; Jud. 13 : 5; 16 : 17; 1 Sam. 1:11: Eze. 5 : 1, and figuratively in Ps. 52 : 2 ; Isa. 7 : 20. See Hair.

REAI'A (ivhom Jehovah cares for), a descendant of Reuben, and son of Micah. 1 Chr. 5 : 5. The name is identical with—

REAI'AH. 1. A descendant of Judah through his son Shobal. 1 Chr. 4:2.

2. One whose children returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 47; Neh. 7 : 50.

REA

EED

REAP'ING, See Agriculture.

RE'BA {the fourth), one of the five Midianite kings whom the Israelites slew. Num. 31 : 8 ; Josh. 13 : 21.

REBECCA. Rom. 9:10. See Re-

BEKAH.

REBEK'AH (« cord with a noose, enchainiiti]), the daughter of Bethuel, sister of Laban, and wife of Isaac. The circumstances of her marriage with Isaac constitute one of the most charming and beautiful passages of the sacred history. Gen. 24. After she had been married twenty years without children, she became the mother of Jacob and Esau. When they grew up Jacob became the favorite of his mother, and this undue partiality was the source of much mischief. She persuaded him to obtain his father's blessing by practising a deceit, and he had to flee for fear of his brother's revenge. She died before Isaac, and was buried in Abraham's tomb. Gen. 49 : 31.

RECEIPT OF CUS'TOM. Matt. 9 : 9. See Publican.

RE'CHAB {horseman). 1. The father or ancestor of Jehonadab. 2 Kgs. 10 : 15, 23 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 55 ; Jer. 35 : 6-19.

2. One of the captains who conspired to murder Ish-bosheth. 2 Sam. 4 : 2.

3. One who assisted in repairing the walls of Jerusalem. Neh, 3 : 14.

RE'CHABITES, THE, were a tribe of Kenites or Midianites, 1 Chr. 2 : 55, descended from Jonadab, or Jehonadab, the son or descendant of Rechab, 2 Kgs. 10 : 15, from whom they derive their name. They were worshippers of the true God, practised circumcision, and stood within the covenant of Abraham, but they were not reckoned as children of Israel, and perhaps they did not feel themselves bound by the Mosaic Law and ritual. The introduction of the worship of Baal by Jezebel and Ahab was a horror to them.

Jonadab appears to have been very zealous for the pure worship of God, and was associated with Jehu in the destruction of the idolatrous house of Ahab. He established a rule for his posterity that they should possess neither land nor houses, but should live in tents, and should drink no wine or strong drink. In obedience to this rule, the Rechab-ites continued a separate but peaceable people, living in tents and removing from place to place as circumstances re-726

quired. When Judsea was first invaded by Nebuchadnezzar they fled to Jerusalem for safet}', where it pleased God, through the prophet Jeremiah, to exhibit them to the wicked inhabitants of Jerusalem as an example of constancy in their obedience to the mandates of an earthly father. Jer. 35 : 2-19.

Some highly-interesting facts are known respecting the present condition of the Rechabites. They still dwell in the mountainous tropical country to the north-east of Medina. They are called Beni Khaihr, " sons of Heber," and their land is called Khaibr. They have no intercourse with their brethren, the Jews, who are dispersed over Asia, and are esteemed as ''false brethren " because they observe not the Law.

RE^CHAH {utmost part), a place, apparently in Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 12.

RECONCILE, Eph. 2 : 16, RECONCILIATION. Heb. 2 : 17. These terms imply the restoration of man to the favor and grace of God through the atonement made by Jesus Christ. Reconciliation is a change of relation of two parties from enmity to peace. It is twofold—man-ward and God-ward. God is reconciled to man by the satisfaction of his justice through the atoning sacrifice of Christ; man is reconciled to God as his loving Father, as exhibited in the sacrifice of his Son, which removes distrust and creates gratitude and love. Both sides are combined in 2 Cor. 5 : 18-20 ; comp. Rom. 5 : 11, where the English Version renders the Greek word by " atonement" (which is etymologically correct, but not according to modern theological usage).

RECORD'ER, the annalist of the king, and also his councillor, and an ofiicer who stood thus very high in the kingdom, as is manifest from the commissions entrusted to him, such as representing the king and superintending temple-repairs. Compare 2 Sam. 8 : 16; 20 : 24; 1 Kgs. 4 : 3; 2 Kgs. 18 : 18,37; 2 Chr. 34: 8.

RED HEIF'ER. See Offering.

RED SEA, a long, narrow arm of the ocean separating Asia from Africa. It was called by the Hebrews " the sea," Ex. 14 : 2, 9, 16, 21, 28; 15 : 1, 4, 8, 10, 19; Josh. 24 : 6, 7, etc.; the " Egyptian Sea," Isa. 11: 15, but especially the " Sea

RED

of Snph," apparently so named from the wool-like weeds growing in it. Ex. 10 : 19 ; 13 : 18 ; 15 : 4, 22 : 23 : HI ; Num. 15 : 25; 21 : 4, etc. The Greeks applied " Enithra ThalaHsa" or "Red Sea" to it in common with the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean; in the N. T. it is applied to the western gulf, now known as the " Red Sea." Acts 7 : 86 ; Heb. 11: 29. This name is derived, perhaps, from the red coral or zoophytes in the sea, or, as some conjecture, from Edom, which signifies " red." The Egyptians called it the "Sea of Punt" or Arabia, and the Arabs " Bahr el Hejaz," or " El-bahr el-Ahmar." See Map of Sinai, at the end of this volume.

Physical Features. —The Red Sea consists of a long, narrow arm of the Indian Ocean, projecting north-west inland a distance of 1450 miles. It is connected with the ocean by the narrow strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, only 18 miles wide. The sea, at its greatest breadth, is 221 miles; toward its northern end it gradually contracts, and then divides into two arms—the Gulf of Akabah on the east, and the Gulf of Suez on the west, the latter extending to within 70 miles of the Mediterranean. Between these two arms is the Sinaitic peninsula. The Red Sea covers an area of about 180,000 square miles, and is at some places 1000 fathoms deep, but its average depth is from 400 to 600 fathoms. The shores are flanked by a network of submerged coral-reefs and islands extending a long way from the coast and rendering the navigation of the sea perilous, especially in its narrower parts. The western of the two arms, now called the Gulf of Suez, is 150 miles long, and about 20 miles in average breadth. An ancient canal once connected the Nile with this arm of the Red Sea. It was built, as some suppose, by the Pharaohs, and is certainly known to have been in use for navigation in the fourteenth century before Christ. It was about 62 Roman miles in length, 54 feet wide, and about 7 feet deep. It has been recently utilized in the construction of a modern canal. A greater ship-canal, opened in 1869, now connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea at Suez. The eastern arm, called the Gulf of Akabah, is 105 miles long and about 15 miles wide.

No rivers fall into the Red Sea, but a large number of rain-torrents run into it. The water is a blue color, remarkably clear, and changing to green near the shoals or reefs. Notwithstanding assertions to the contrary, the sea has been shown to be subject to the tides, the diiference between high and low tide being from 3 to 7 feet. The north wind prevails in summer in the northern part of the sea; the south-east wind in winter, especially in the southern part of the sea ; but the north-west is mot^t prevalent in this part of it in winter.

The coasts of the Red Sea are chiefly barren rock or sand, and therefore generally destitute of inhabitants. A short distance inland the mountains are from 4000 to 7600 feet high. There are only two or three towns of consequence in the entire 1400 miles of its African side. Suez, a town of 14,000 inhabitants, Koser, the harbor of Upper Egypt, with 1200, Sanakim, a seaport of Soudan, with 10,000, and Masau'a, a port of Abyssinia, with 5000, are the only towns of any size on the African shore. There are few also on the Arabian side, the most important being Jedda, where the Muslims point out a stone structure called " Eve's Tomb," a building of comparatively recent times. The mother-of-pearl shells were once very abundant, but have diminished of late, from the eagerness of fishermen in prosecuting their trade. Many curiously-colored shells are also gathered and sold as curiosities to travellers—among them the mnrex, the "jDorcelain shell," the pink icardam —and black, purple, and white coral is very abundant.

One of the most important questions in regard to the physical features of the Red Sea is the extent of its northern extremity. Formerly it was maintained that the land at the head of the Gulf of Suez had gradually risen and the sea retired. How much farther north it extended in historic times was not definitely determined, but it was estimated at not less than 50 miles, which would narrow the land at the isthmus to about 20 or 25 miles in width. The repeated explorations of the isthmus seemed to show that in the times of Moses the sea included the " Lake of the Crocodile " and the more southern of the "Bitter Lakes," as then the northern

RED

end of the Red Sea, but this is now sharply disputed.

Scripture lieferencen. —The grand event associated with the Red Sea is- the passage of the Israelites and the overthrow of the Egyptians. Ex. 14, 15. This miraculous event is frequently referred to in the Scriptures. Num. 33 : 8 ; Deut. 11: 4; Josh. 2:10; Judg. 11 : 16 ; 2 Sam. 22 : 16 ; Neh. 9 :9-11 ; Ps. 66 : 6 ; Isa. 10 : 26 ; Acts 7 : 36 : 1 Cor. 10 :1, 2 ; Heb. 11 : 29, etc. The place of the crossing has been a matter of much controversy. It should be remarked, as preliminary to this discussion, that the head of the gulf is probably at least 50 miles farther south than it was at the time of the Exodus. If the Red Sea then included the Bitter Lakes of Suez and the Birket el- Timsnh ("Lake of the Crocodile"), the crossing may have been farther north than would now appear possible. Thus the predictions of Isaiah, 11 : 15 ; 19 : 5, " The Lord shall utterly destroy the tongue of the Egyptian Sea," " The waters shall fail from the sea," are fulfilled.

Stanley says that the place of passage has been extended by Arab tradition down the whole Gulf of Suez.

The following are the principal theories respecting the place of crossing of the Red Sea:

1. The modern theory of Schleiden, revived by Brugsch, that the Israelites did not cross the Red Sea, but the Ser-bonian bog. This conflicts with the plain narrative of Scripture, which says they crossed the Red Sea. And it also requires that Rameses be transferred to Zoan, about 40 miles farther north than Brugsch had positively fixed it from the inscriptions, in his earlier works.

2. The tradition of the peninsular Arabs, which places the crossing south of Jebel Atnkah. But the physical features of the country are against this place, for the mountains shut down to the sea, leaving only a foot-path impracticable for such a host to pass, and this mountain extends for about 12 miles.

3. M. de Lesseps puts the passage between the Crocodile Lake and the Bitter Lakes, while M. Ritt finds it along the dike at Chaloof. If the Red Sea extended to these points, its depth and breadth then have not been proved sufficient to meet the scriptural conditions,

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4. Others, as Niebuhr, Laborde, Well-sted, Robinson, Hengstenberg, Tischen-dorf, Ewald, Kurtz, Keil, Schaff, Bartlett, place the crossing in the neighljorhood of Suez. This general locality seems to meet the requirements of the narrative. Robinson made a thorough investigation, and concluded that the place of passage was near the small arm of the sea which runs up from Suez. A strong north-east wind, acting upon the ebb-tide, would drive out the water from the shallower part, while the deeper portions would still remain covered, thus constituting a wall (or defence) to the Israelites on the right hand and on the left. Others insist upon the likelihood of the crossing from Wudy Tawdrik, farther south, since it is argued that a sea at least 12 miles broad would have been needed to overwhelm the whole army of the Egyptians.

But so many have been the changes of this region in the lapse of ages that it will not probably be possible to decide with certainty upon the exact spot. Either of the two points last suggested, in Robinson's opinion, " satisfies the conditions of the case; in either the deliverance of the Israelites was equally great and the arm of Jehovah alike gloriously revealed."

After crossing, the Israelites marched down and encamped on the east side of the Red Sea (Gulf of Suez). Num. 33 : 10. From the way of the Red Sea came locusts, Ex. 10 : 12-19, and the quails which supplied them with food came from the same source. Num. 11 : 31. They journeyed by the way of the Red Sea (the eastern arm or Gulf of Akabah) to compass Edom. Num. 21 : 4. In the prosperous reign of Solomon he "made a navy of ships" at Ezion-geber and Elath, which were ports at the head of the Gulf of Akabah. 1 Kgs. 9 : 26; 10 : 22: 2 Chr. 8 : 17, 18.

RED SEA, PASSAGE OF. See Exonrs, Route of, and Red Sra.

REDEEMS REDEEMER, REDEMP'TION. In the 0. T. these terms are specially applied to the repurchase of an estate, a field, which had come into some stranger's possession. According to the Mosaic Law, the original owner of such an estate or his descendants, or even his nearest kinsmen, still retained a right of proprietorship, which

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they could enforce after ransoming the estate—that is, by paying back the sum for which it had been sold. Hence arose a number of metaphorical a])plications of the terms referring to this relation between God and his people, the children of Israel, whom he redeemed from the bondage of Egypt. Ex. 6:0; Isa. 43 : 1 ; 44 : 22 ; 48 ': 20.

In the N. T. the terms generally refer to the repurchase of the freedom of a person. To purchase a person's liberty for him is to redeem him, and the price paid is called the ransom. Siuners are in bondage to sin, but Christ, having given bis blood or his life as a ransom for them, redeems them, and is therefore called their Redeemer. Matt. 20 : 28; 1 Pet. 1 : 18. This ransom has an infinite value, being the work of the God-man, and is sufficient to redeem all men from captivity; but it is efficient and available only for the redemption of such as accept and appropriate it by a living faith in Christ Jesus, and walk not after the flesh, but after the Spirit.

REED, used generically for various tall plants of the grass or sedge order. See Bulrush, Flag, Rush. Fishpoles, canes, and rods, Matt. 27 : 29, are formed of it. These plants flourish in marshes or in the vicinity of water-courses; hence the allusion, Job 40: 21. It is often used by the sacred writers to illustrate weakness and fragility. 2 Kgs. 18 : 21; Isa. 36 : 6; 42 : 3; Eze. 29 : 6; Matt. 12 : 20.

Reeds were also used to make pens of (see Pen), and also as measuring-rods. Eze. 40 : 5. See Measures. From their height and slender shape, plants of this kind are moved by the slightest breath of wind, 1 Kgs. 14 : 15, and hence nothing could be more unimportant in itself than such a motion, and nothing more strikingly illustrative of fickleness and instability. Comp. Matt. 11 : 7 and Eph. 4 : 14.

The true reed of Egypt and Palestine {Aniudo donnx) has a slender jointed stalk like bamboo, about 12 feet in height, with a fine large brush of bloom at the top. This flexible stalk often lies prostrate before the wind, ready to rise again at the first lull. About the perennial waters of the Holy Land there are often dense canebrakes of this plant, in the midst of which wild beasts find their

lairs. With one or more hollow tubes of reed, musical instruments are constructed by the youth of the country, and it is likely that David first learned to plav on a similar primitive reed-organ.

REED, MEASURING. Eze. 40: 5. See Measures.

REELiA'IAH {whom Jehovah makes tremble), one who returned with Zerub-babel, Ezr. 2:2: identical with Raamiah, in Neh. 7 : 7.

REFIN'ER. This word is often used figuratively by the sacred writers. Its peculiar force in the passage Mai. 3 : 3 will be seen when it is remembered that refiners of silver sit with their eyes steadily fixed on the furnace that they may watch the process, and that the process is complete and perfected only when the refiner sees his own image in the melted mass. Similar passages occur. Isa. 1 : 25 : Zech. 13 : 9 ; Jer. 6 : 29, etc.

REFUGE, CIT lES OF. Num. 35. See City.

RE'GEM (friend), a descendant of Judah, and son of Jahdai. 1 Chr. 2 : 47.

RE'GEM-ME'LECII {friend of the king), one of the persons who were sent by those in captivity to make inquiries at the temple. Zech. 7 : 2.

REGENERA'TION. This term occurs only in Matt. 19 : 28 and Tit. 3 : 5. As used by Matthew, it refers to the renovation or consummation of all things at Christ's second advent, when there shall be "new heavens and a new earth." " The washing of regeneration," in the latter passage, signifies the new birth from above or from the Holy S])irit, who makes us new creatures in Christ Jesus. Other words conveying precisely the same idea are of frequent occurrence. Our Saviour says to Nicodemus, " Except a man be born again" (or rather, " from above," " from God "), " he cannot see the kingdom of God." John 3 : 3. Christians are described as born of God, John 1 : 12, 13; 1 John 2 : 29; 5 : 1, 4. They are also represented as begotten of God or by the word of God. Jas. 1 : 18; IPet. 1:3, 23. And the same thing, in substance, is presented under the idea of a new creation, 2 Cor. 5 : 17; a renewing of the mind, Rom. 12 : 2; a renewing of the Holy Ghost, Tit. 3 : 5; a resurrection from the dead, Eph. 2:6; a being quickened, etc. Eph. 2 : 1, 5. Regeneration, then, may be regarded as

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the communicatiou of spiritual life to a soul previously dead in trespasses and sins by the almighty energy of the Holy Spirit, making use of the word of truth as an instrument; in consequence of which divine operation, the soul begins to apprehend spiritual things in a new light, to believe them in a new manner, to love them with an affection not before felt, and to act henceforth from new motives and for new ends.

REHABI'AH {whom Jehovah enlarges), a descendant of Moses. 1 Chr. 23 : 17.

RE'HOB (street, broad place). 1. The father of Hadadezer, king of Zobah. 2 Sam. 8 : 3, 12.

2. A Levite who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah. Neh. 10 : 11.

RE'HOB {broad j^^ace), the name of three towns.

1. The extreme place reached by the spies. Num. 13 : 21. It is named also Beth-rehob. 2 Sam. 10 : 6, 8. According to Eobinson, it was near Tell el-Kady, at the castle of Hunin, in the mountains west of the marsh of the Huleh, and in the upper Jordan valley. Thomson suggests that it was at Banias.

2. A place in Asher. Josh. 19 : 28. It was probably near to Sidon.

3. Another town of Asher, given to the Gershonite Levites. Josh. 19 : 30; 21:31.

REHOBO'AM {enlarger of the people), a son of Solomon by the Ammonite princess Naamah, 1 Kgs. 14: 21; ascended the throne after the death of his father, at the age of forty-one, and reigned seventeen years, b. c. 975-957. It appears that the taxes which Solomon had laid on the people had become an onerous burden ; and when Rehoboam went down to Shechem to be anointed and crowned, the representatives of the ten tribes met him with a unanimous demand for relief in the taxation. It is also probable that this proceeding of the ten tribes was influenced by the strong jealousy which reigned between Eph-raim and Judah. The accession of David to the throne, and the transference of the ark and the royal residence to Jerusalem, had given the tribes of Judah and Benjamin a decided prominence, and Ephraim felt verj' sore. The situation was critical, and Rehoboam showed himself utterly incapable of 730

managing it. Following the advice of his younger courtiers, he gave a most insolent answer, the effect of which was that the ten tribes revolted, leaving Judah and Benjamin alone in their allegiance to him. He at once proposed to employ force for the purpose of reducing the rebels, but was admonished

Kehoboam. {From Sculptures at Kamak.)

The inscription has been read, " Kingdom of Judah."

by the prophet Shemaiah to forbear. 1 Kgs. 12 : 24. Continual wars, however, prevailed between the two parties, and a still greater calamity soon fell on the head of the unhappy king. Allured by the enormous riches which Solomon had accumulated in Jerusalem, and probably also instigated by Jeroboam, the Egyptian king Shishak, the founder of the twenty-second dynasty, invaded Judah. Jerusalem was taken, and Rehoboam had to buy an ignominious peace bj surrendering all the royal treasures. This victory of Shishak is found commemorated by artistic representations on the side of the great temple of Kar-nak.

RE HO'BOTH {ivide places), a name for three places.

1. A well belonging to Isaac, and the third dug by him. Gen. 26 : 22. It has lately been identified, 16 miles south of Beersheba, at the head of the great Wddy Refah, and is now known as er-Rnheibeh. Near some stone ruins is an ancient well, the troughs and other masonry which still

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remain being of immense proportions, and apparently of very great antiquity. One of the troughs is round and the other circular, and cut in solid blocks (i feet by 5 feet and 5 feet high. Palmer states that the appearance of the masonry, which is more massive and antique than any other in the neighborhood, renders it probable that it is the well which Isaac dug. Though Robinson could not find it, Stewart and Rowlands each found it, as an ancient well and 12 feet in circumference ; but it was so built over and filled with rubbish that neither Palmer nor Drake could at first discover it.

2. '' Rehoboth b;/ the river," mentioned as the home of Saul or Shaul, an early king of the Edomites. Gen. 36 : .37; 1 Chr. 1:48. The "river" is supposed to be the Euphrates. The name is represented by liahahah, attached to two places on the Euphrates, one 28 miles below the junction of the Khabour and 3 miles from the western bank; the other lower down, on the eastern side. The former is perhaps the true site of ancient Rehoboth.

3. The " city Rehoboth," one of the four founded by Asher or Nimrod. Gen. 10 : 11, 12. The text has been variously explained. Some regard it as denoting, not a separate city, but the " streets of the city"—that is, of Nineveh; others prefer to regard it as a distinct city. Rawlinson would identify it with Sele-miynh, near Kalah, which has extensive ruins.

RE'HUM {compassionate). 1. One who returned with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2:2,-called Nehum in Neh. 7 : 7.

2. The chancellor who wrote to Arta-xerxes in order to prevent the rebuilding of the walls and temple of Jerusalem. Ezr. 4 : 8, 9, 17, 23.

3. A Levite who assisted in repairing the wall of Jerusalem. Neh. 3:17.

4. One who signed the covenant with Nehemiah. Neh. 10 : 25.

5. A priest who returned with Zerubbabel, Neh. 12 : 3; called Harim in v. 15.

RE'I ifriendljf), one who remained true to David when Adonijah rebelled. 1 Kgs. 1 : 8.

REINS. The reins or kidneys were considered by the Hebrews to be the seat of certain affections and emotions which we attribute to the heart. Hence

a number of peculiarly Hebrew expressions. Ps. 7 : 9 5 16 : 7 ; Jer. 17 : 10 ; 20 : 12.

RE'KEM {variegation, Jiower-qar-den). 1. One of the Midianite kings who were slain by the Israelites. Num. 31 : 8; Josh. 13 : 21.

2. A descendant of Judah, and son of Hebron. 1 Chr. 2 : 43.

RE'KEM {Jiower-fjardening), a city of Benjamin. Josh. 18 : 27. Its site is unknown.

RE MALI'AH {tvhom Jehovah adores), father of Pekab. 2 Kgs. 15 : 25, 27, 30, 32, 37: 16 : 1, 5; 2 Chr. 28 : 6; Isa. 7 : 1, 4, 5, 9 ; 8:6.

RE'METH {height), a town of Issa-char, Josh. 19 : 21 ; possibly the same with Ramoth, 1 Chr, 6 : 73, and the Jarmuth of Josh. 21 : 29, where it is named as a Levitical city. The Pal. Memoirs suggest Er Bduteh, a conspicuous village on a hill, 5 miles north-west of Samaria, as its site. The village is of moderate size, with olives below near the plain.

REM'MON {pomegranate), a city of Simeon. Josh. 19 : 7. See Rimmon, No. 1.

REM'MON-METH'OAR, a landmark of Zebulun. Josh. 19 : 13. "Methoar" is not a part of the proper name, and the clause should read, *' Remmon which reaches to Neah." See Rimmon. No. 2.

REM'PHAN, occurring only in Acts 7 : 43, which is a quotation from Am. 5 : 26, where the corresponding word in the Hebrew is " Chiun." It is probable, therefore, that they are interchangeable names for a god worshipped secretly by the Israelites in Egypt and in the wilderness, answering, probably, to Saturn or Moloch, the star-god. Some refer this worship to the time of Amos.

REND. To rend the garments, or "tare" them, 2 Sam. 13 : 31, was from the earliest period a sign of grief or penitence. Jacob and David did it on various occasions, and so did Joshua, Josh. 7 : 6, and Hezekiah. 2 Kgs. 19 :1. The high priest was forbidden to rend his clothes, Lev. 10 : 6; 21 : 10, probably meaning his sacred garments. Perhaps those referred to in Matt. 26 : 65 were such as were ordinarily worn, or merely judicial and not pontifical garments. Sometimes " rending " denoted

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anger or indignation mingled with sorrow. REPENTS REPENT'ANCE.

The Greek word so translated means literally " to perceive afterward," hence "to change one's mind." In the Bible it designates the turning from sin to God, or conversion. It is the beginning of the preaching of John the Baptist and of Christ. Matt. 3 : 2 ; 4 : 17 ; Mark 1: 15. It implies, 1. A knowledge of sin and guilt; 2. A deep sorrow for it; and 3. A determination to break with it and to begin a new life of obedience and holiness. This is " repentance unto life." Acts 11: 18; 26 : 20.

Dr. A. A. Hodge thus distinguishes between repentance and conversion: " 1. Conversion is the more general term, and is used to include the first exercises of faith, as well as all those experiences of love of holiness and hatred of sin, etc., which are consequent upon it. Repentance is more specific, and expresses that hatred and renunciation of sin and that turning unto God which accompanies faith as its consequent. 2. Conversion is generally used to designate only the first actings of the new nature at the commencement of a religious life, or at most the first steps of a return to God after a notable backsliding, Luke 22 : 32, while repentance is applied to that constant bearing of the cross which is one main characteristic of the believer's life on earth. Ps. 19 : 12, 13 ; Luke 9 : 23 ; Gal. 6 : 14 ; 5 : 24." — Outlines of Theology, enlarged ed., p. 489.

God is said to repent. Gen. 6:6; Jon. 3 : 9, 10. This, however, is merely attributing to God human ideas. He cannot truly repent, since he never does wrong and is unerring wisdom. But God's actions, looked at from earth, may appear to indicate a change of purpose.

The " repentance" of Judas, Matt. 27 : 3, shows that one may sorrow over sin and its terrible consequences without thereby gaining spiritual life. This is the sorrow which leads to despair.

RE'PHAEL {whom God heals), a Levite porter. 1 Chr. 26 : 7.

RE'PHAH (riches), a descen-flant of Ephraira. 1 Chr. 7 : 25.

REPHAI'AH [whom Jehovah healed). 1. A descendant of David. 1 Chr. 3 : 21. 732

2. A Simeonite chieftain in the reign of Hezekiah. 1 Chr. 4 : 42.

3. A descendant of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7:2.

4. A descendant of Saul, 1 Chr. 9 : 43; called Kapha in 1 Chr. 8 : 37.

5. The son of Hur, and ruler of the half part of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 9.

REPH'AIM if/iauts), the name of a race of giants who lived east of the Jordan. Chedorlaomer defeated them. Gen. 14 ; 5. Their land was promised to Abraham's seed. 15 : 20. At some time before Israel's coming they were driven out of their possessions. Dent. 2:10 (Heb.), and lived in the West of Palestine, where they had possessions. Josh. 15 : 8. See below.

REPH'AIM, VAL'LEY OF. It is first mentioned in Josh. 15 : 8; 18 : 16, and there translated '* the valley of the giants." It was one of the landmarks of the land of Judah: named after the Rephaim, or " giants," who at an early period were found on both sides of the Jordan. Comp. Gen. 14 : 5 ; Deut. 3 : 11-13; Josh. 13 : 12; 17 : 15. David twice defeated the Philistines in this valley. 2 Sam. 5 : 17-25 ; 23 : 13 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 15, 16; 14 : 9-16. The valley was noted for its fertility. Isa. 17 : 5. Its position as a boundary of Judah would indicate it to have been south of the valley of Hinnom. On the road to Bethlehem there is a cultivated plain about a mile long, bordered on both sides by hills, and gradually sloping into a deep valley at the south-west, called Wddi/ el-Werd, or '' the valley of roses." This plain is called Beka'a by the Arabs, and since the sixteenth century an attempt has been made to identify it with the valley of Rephaim. Tobler proposed to identify Rephaim with the Wddy der Yasiii, to the west-north-west of Jerusalem, but this would contradict the account of Josephus, and the other location is quite generally accepted.

REPH'IDIM (rests, refreshments), the last station of the Israelites before reaching Sinai, and where Moses smote the rock and the Amalekites were defeated. Ex. 17 : 1, 8-16. The location of this station and of the battle-field has been a difficult problem in biblical geography. The members of the British Ordnance party, after a thorough scientific survey of the whole region, con-

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eluded that the battle of Rephidim must have been fought in one of two places.

1. In the. Wddij Feiran. —This place was approved as the site of Rephidim by all of the party except the Rev. F. W. Holland, and this has been the prevalent view ever since the fifth century. Feiran is rather a broad valley, and would furnish a practicable route for a large body like the Israelites, going from the wilderness of Sin into the mountain-region, where they received the Law. The Amalekites would regard themselves as threatened by such a company, and would attempt to defend their country. The Feiran would be a strong military position. In this deep valley they might defend themselves from invasion, secure from the danger of a flank attack. Palmer discovered an Arab tradition pointing to the rock from which Moses brought the water, Ex. 17 : 1, 8, at a place called Hesij el-K/i(ttfnfin. Bedouins say of this rock, which is found a few miles before the fertile part of the valley commences, *'Our lord Moses smote it, and water miraculously flowed from the stone.'' Nearly opposite Wddi/ Aleyat, which comes into Feiran from the south, is a mountain, Jehel 'fahinidh, which the British party consider to be the hill on ■which Moses sat and surveyed the battle, while Aaron and Hur held up his hands. There are churches and chapels on this hill, which mark it as a very sacred spot in the e3"es of the old inhabitants of Paran, and Antoninus Martyr, in the seventh century, mentions a chapel built there in honor of Moses. This spot is 25 miles from Sinai {Jehel Musa), which would be more than a day's journey; but Palmer thinks there was a break in the march, Ex. 19 : 2, and that the operations of " pitching in the wilderness" and "encamping before the mount" were separate and distinct. Rephidim has been located in Feiran by Stanley, Ritter, Stewart, Lepsius, and others. See SixAi.

2. In Wddy es-Sheikh. —This is an easterly continuation of Wady Feiran, and is the site advocated for the battle of Rephidim by Rev. F. W. Holland. It includes the pass oi el- Wafit/eJi, a narrow defile 300 yards long and from 40 to 60 yards wide, having a level bed, but enclosed on either side by perpendicular rocks. A conspicuous hill on the north

side of the defile is observed, at the foot of which the Arabs point out a rock that they call " the seat of the prophet Moses." This is about 12 miles from Sinai {Jehel Miixa), and hence within a day's journey. Ex. 19:2; Num. 33 : 15. Robinson, Keil, Delitzsch, Porter, and others locate Pv,ephidim in some part of this vallev en-Sheikh,

RE'SEBf {hrUlle), a noted Assyrian city between Nineveh and Calah. Gen. 10 : 12. Rawlinson, who places Calah at Nimrud and Nineveh immediately opposite Mosul, would locate Resen between the two, near the village of Sela-mii/eh, about 3 miles north of Nimrud, where are Assyrian ruins. Fergusson identifies Calah with Knlah Sherghat, and Resen with Niijirud. Some have conjectured that the four cities of Gen. 10 : 12 were all afterward combined under the one name "Nineveh," and that " the great city" refen-ed to this united whole. Instances of such consolidation have been numerous enough to render this theory plausible.

RE'SHEPH {flame, lightning), a descendant of Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7 : 25.

RESTITU'TION, an act of justice by which a wrong done is repaired, and that which has been unjustly taken from a person restored to him. The Mosaic Law demanded that, in case of theft, the restitution should be fourfold, and in cases of carelessness the amount was graduated according to guiltiness. Ex. 22:1-15.

RESURRECTION. The resur rection of the dead, both of the just and unjust, is a fundamental doctrine of the Christian faith, and is most fully set forth by St. Paul. 1 Cor. 15. It is inseparable from the doctrine of the immortality of the soul, and gives it its necessary completion. If the dead rise not, then is not Christ raised; and if Christ is not raised, then is our faith vain : we are yet in our sins.

No truth is more clearly and forcibly presented in the Scriptures, and no fact is better and more decisively proved in history, than is the resurrection of Jesus Christ. 1. It was prophesied. Ps. 16: 10, 11; Acts 2 : 25-32. 2. Christ himself repeatedly and distinctly foretold it. Matt. 16 : 21; 20 : 19. 3. The precautions of his enemies to prevent it, the failure of all these precautions, and

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the measures taken to disprove the event, prove it. 4. The abundant, decided, and consistent testimony of witnesses who could not be deceived, and who had no inducement to deceive others, and all this in the face of every danger. 5. The change which took place in the minds and conduct of the apostles between the crucifixion and the first Pentecost, and which would be wholly inexplicable if the resurrection had not taken place. 6. The supernatural evidences arising from the fultilment of the promise that the Holy Spirit should be poured out on them all attest the same truth. 7. The Christian Church could never have been founded without the fact of Christ's resurrection, and is a constant living proof of it.

Thus the resurrection of Christ from the dead is clearly proved ; and, being proved, it ratifies and confirms in the fullest manner the truth and divinity of his character and mission, shows the eflBcacy of his atonement, is an evidence, earnest, and example of the resurrection of his people, John 14 : 19, and imports that all judgment is committed into his hand. Acts 17 : 30, 31.

Among the Jews, at the time of our Lord, the Sadducees altogether rejected the doctrine of the immortality of the soul and the resurrection of the dead, but the Pharisees and the great mass of the people had accepted it; and traces of this doctrine, more or less vague, we find not only among the people of the covenant, but also among the heathen, and from the very earliest times. Indeed, so deep-rooted is the natural conviction of the human mind on this point that no nation, people, or tribe have ever yet been found who do not, in some form, recognize the doctrine of a state of existence after the death of the body; and this conviction is satisfactorily met only by the simple and sublime doctrine of our holy religion, which brings life and immortality to light.

REU (friend), a patriarch in the line of Abraham's ancestors. Gen. 11: 18-21; 1 Chr. 1 : 25.

REU'BEN (behold a son .') was the eldest son of Jacob and Leah. Gen. 29 : 32. He lost the privileges of birthright in consequence of a grievous sin. Gen. 35 : 22 ; 49 : 3, 4. In spite of his im-734

pulsiveness, however, he was kind of heart, as shows his relation to the conspiracy against Joseph. Gen. 37 : 18-30 ; 42 : 37. It was said of Reuben by his father Jacob, " Unstable as water," Gen. 49 : 4, and Deborah and Sisera sang in reproach of Reuben, Jud. 5 : 15, 16; the tribe, at times, showed military prowess and extended its boundaries. 1 Chr. 5 : 1-10, 18-22. At the first census in the wilderness his descendants, the Reuben-ites. or the tribe of Reuben, numbered 46,500, Num. 1 : 20, 21, but at the second census they had decreased to 43,730. The Reubenites soon became wealthy herdsmen, but they were averse to war, Jud. 5 : 15, 16, and were the first who were carried awav into captivity.

REUBEN, TERRITORY OF. The region allotted to this tribe in the Promised Land lay on the east side of the Jordan and the Salt Sea. It extended from the river Arnon on the south, beyond the Wddi/ Heshhan on the north, reaching to the possessions of the tribe of Gad, and from the Jordan valley it stretched eastward indefinitely to the desert. The allotment is described in Josh. 13 : 15-21; comp. Num. 32 : 37, 38. This region had been held by the Moabites, who were driven out by Sihon, king of the Amorites, and he in turn was dispossessed by the Israelites, Num. 21 : 24; Deut. 3 : 16, 17; Josh. 13 : 15-28. This district consisted of three parts—the low region along the sea and the river, the mountains, and beyond them, to the east, an extensive rolling plateau known as the Belkah, well watered and abounding with forest and pasture-land well adapted for herdsmen. It included the fertile plains of Medeba, fourteen important towns, besides the " cities of the plain," and the entire kingdom of the Amorites. It was excellent for grazing, having fine pasture-land. Among its prominent towns were Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Baal-meon, Beth-peor, Bezer, Jahazah, and Kede-moth. A notice of these cities will be found under their respective titles.

The people of this territory were aided in conquering it by the entire body of the Israelites, and they in turn aided their brethren in conquering Western Palestine when they returned to their own counti'y, erecting a stone memorial, in connection with other tribes east

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of the Jordan, to note the common inheritance. Josh. 22: 10-34. For an account of the tribal history, see previous article. Their territory' has only been partially ex}»lore(l, but the findinj^ of the " Moabite Stone" at Dibon, and the many ruins with which the surface of the whole region is strewn, give jjrom-ise of rich results when carefully and scientifically explored.

REU'BENITES, descendants of Reuben. Num. 26 : 7; Josh. 1 : 12 and elsewhere.

REU'EL {friend of God). 1. One of the sons of Esau by his wife Bashe-math. Gen. 36 : 4, 10, 13, 17; 1 Chr. 1 : 35, 37.

2. Ex. 2 : 18. See Jethro.

3. Num. 2 : 14. See Deuel.

4. A Benjaniite chief. 1 Chr. 9 : 8. REU'MAH [exalted), the concubine

of Nahor, Abraham's brother. Gen. 22 : 24.

REVELA'TION. God has revealed himself in the works of creation, Ps. 19 : 2; comp. Rom. 1 : 19, 20; Acts 14 : 17; 17 : 26-28; in the conscience of man, Rom. 2 : 14, 15; comp. John 1:9; 8:9; and in the histor}' of nations and of the world. Acts 14 : 17; comp. John 1 : 5, 10. But this triple revelation, though a most precious guidance intellectually and morally, never leaving man wholly without testimony, of God, is, nevertheless,- only an indirect revelation, requiring the interpretation of human reason and liable to its mistakes. The full revelation of God is found only in his holy word, Ps. 119 : 105 ; comp. Ps. 19 : 8, 9, and in the person of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, 2 Pet. 1: 19 ; 2 Tim. 3 : 15-17 ; Heb. 1: 1, 2 : 4 : 12,13, a direct revelation breaking miraculously through nature and history, and laying hold miraculously in the conscience of man on a new life. This revelation is the foundation of our religion, which is therefore of divine origin and authority. All religions claim to be founded on revelation, but only the Jewish religion of the old covenant and the Christian religion are really revealed by God. All heathen religions are religions of Nature, the outgrowth of the human mind groping in the dark after the unknown (xod.

REVELATION OF ST. JOHN. 1. Contents. —This is the last and the

most mysterious book of the Bible. It is the divine seal of the whole. It is for the N. T. what Daniel is for the 0. T. It gathers up all the former prophecies and extends them to the remotest future. It represents the Church in conflict with the great secular powers. It unrolls a sublime ])anorania of Christ's victorious march through the world's history till the appearance of the new heaven and the new earth, when the aim of creation and redemption shall be fully realized. The theme is the divine promise " I come quickly," with the corresponding human prayer, ''Even so, come, Lord Jesus." It gives us the assurance that the Lord is coming in every great event, and overrules all things tor his glory and the ultimate triumph of his kingdom.

2. Character and Aim. —The beginning and the end of Revelation are as clear and dazzling as the sunlight, but the middle is dark and mysterious as midnight, yet with the stars and the full moon shining from the firmament. The book reminds one of the chiaroscuro of the great j^ainters, and of a mantle of the richest black broidered all over with brilliant jewels. The epistles to the seven churches, chs. 1-3, the description of the heavenly Jerusalem, chs. 20, 21, and the interspersed lyric anthems and doxolo-gies, 4 :11 ; 5 J 12-14; 7 : 12 ; 14 : 13, etc., are as sublime, inspiring, beautiful, and familiar as are any portions of the Scriptures. They are sufficient to prove the divine inspiration of the whole. But the bulk of the book is full of puzzling enigmas which Avill not be satisfactorily solved before the millennium. In the light of fulfilment we shall understand this prophetic panorama of Church history, but not before. Nevertheless, the Revelation answers an important practical purpose, just as the prophecies of the 0. T. (notwithstanding their obscurities, which gave rise to all sorts of conflicting interpretations), did to the Jews, before Christ's first coming, manna in the wilderness and a light shining in darkness. The history of exegesis shows that the situation of the Church materially influenced the interpretation and application of this wonderful book, and that it is in every age of the Church, especially in periods of persecution, a book of hope and comfort to

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all who are waiting for the coming of our blessed Lord.

3. Authorship.—The ecclesiastical tradition (Papias, Justin Martyr, Melito of Sardes, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen) ascribes the Revelation to John the beloved disciple. This is confirmed by the testimony of the book itself. 1:4, 9; 21 : 2; 22 : 8. It is true he does not call himself an apostle, but simply a servant of Christ, but he appears as the superintendent of the churches in Asia Minor, banished, for the testimony of Jesus, to Patmos, and entrusted with the most important visions of the future ; all of which is only applicable to John the apostle, and not to some obscure " Presbyter John." It is true there are internal difficulties, especially the discrepancy between the style of the Apocalypse—which is strongly Hebraistic—and the style of the fourth Gospel, which is purer Greek. But we must remember the difference of the subject, the intimate connection of the Apocalj'pse with the Hebrew prophecies of Daniel and Ezekiel, and the fact that John was "in the spirit" when the Revelation was dictated to him. Moreover, there are, on the other hand, some striking resemblances between the style of the Apocalypse and that of the Johan-nean writings—e. g., the name " Word " {Logos), as applied to Christ.

4. Place and Time of Composition. — The visions were received on the island of Patmos, in the ^gean Sea, about 24 miles west of the coast of Asia Minor. See Patmos. The time of composition was, according to the testimony of Ire-naeus (about 170), Eusebius and Jerome, the end of the reign of Domitian, about A. D. 95, who banished several Christians to inhospitable climes. This date answers the character of the book, which treats of the last things as if intended for the conclusion of the N. T., but strong internal evidence has led some modern scholars to the conclusion that it must be assigned to a much earlier date—viz. to the year 68 or 69 a. d., before the destruction of Jerusalem (a. d. 70), but they differ as to the particular emperor under whom it was written, whether it was Nero (the supposed Antichrist) or Galba or Vespasianus, and they regard the book simply as a prophetic description of the approaching downfall of an-

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cient Judaism (Jerusalem) and heathenism (Rome), and the succeeding reign of Christianity on earth as the true millennium. John, no doubt, like all the Jewish prophets, took his starting-point from his age and surroundings, but his vision extended to the most distant future of the new heavens and the new earth.

REVENGE' is the most primitive mode in which crime is dealt with in society, and the whole tendency and spirit of the Mosaic Law goes to discourage and check it. This law permitted a man to execute punishment upon the slayer of any of his relatives, but for the purpose of restraining the blood-feuds common in the East at that day. In the N. T. the feeling of revenge is strongly condemned. Matt. 5 : 39.

REVENUE. In its first days, up to the time of the kings, the Hebrew commonwealth knew of no public revenues. Imposts were made for religious purposes, but all public works, properly speaking, such as fortifications, or even the erection of the tabernacle, were made by free-will contributions. With the kings came the revenues. The revenues of Saul and David seem, however, to have consisted principally in war-spoils and presents, but Solomon introduced a regular system of taxation, which was continued under Persian and Roman rule. Ezr. 4 : 13.

RE'ZEPH {stone heated for baking), a city which Sennacherib boasted to the Jews that he had subdued. 2 Kgs. 19 : 12; Isa. 37 : 12. Its site is perhaps at Rasapha, a day's march west of the Euphrates, on the road from Raca to Hums.

REZI'A {ddi(fht), a chieftain of Asher. 1 Chr. 7 : 39.

^^"I.VS {stable,firm). 1. King of Damascus ; allied himself with Pekah and defeated Ahaz, but was himself defeated by Tiglath-pileser II., his capital destroyed, and his people carried away into captivity. 2 Kgs. 15 : 37; 16 : 5-9 ; Isa. 7 : 1-8:'8 : 6; 9 : 11.

2. One whose descendants returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 48; Neh. t : 50.

RE'ZON {2)rinee), son of Eliadah, revolted from Hadadezer, and, having enlisted a company of adventurers and made several incursions into the country around Damascus, finally succeeded

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in obtaining the crown, and became a sore vexation to Israel in the days of David and Solomon. 1 Kgs. 11 : 2'.l.

RHE'GIUM {breach), a city on the coast near the south-western end of Italy, and opposite Messina, on the north-eastern point of Sicily, from which it is separated by a strait 6 miles wide. The emperor Caligula proposed to make a port there for the Alexandrian corn-ships, but died before completing it. Paul was detained at this place for a day when on his voyage to Rome. Acts 28 : 13. It is now called Rheyyio, and is a flourishing commercial town and the capital of Calabria, having about 10,000 inhabitants.

RHE'SA {head), a name occurring in the genealogy of Jesus in Luke 3 : 27 ; probably not a proper name, but only a title.

RHO'DA {rose, rose tree), a maid in the house of Mary, mother of John Mark. Acts 12 : 12-15.

RHODES (a rose), a noted island in the Mediterranean, 13 miles from the coast of Asia Minor. It is 46 miles long, 18 miles wide, and has an area of about 420 square miles. The island is fertile, and carries on an extensive commerce. The city of Rhodes, at the western end of the island, was celebrated in the classic age. It was founded about b. c. 400 by the Dorians, and was very prosperous in the reign of Alexander. Jews were among its inhabitants during the Maccabfean period. Paul visited it on his return from his third missionary journey. Acts 21 : 1. He might have there seen fragments of the greatest of the Seven Wonders of the world—the famous Colossus of Rhodes. This was made of brass, and was 105 feet high. It stood at the right of the port as vessels entered, and not astride the channel, as so generally represented in pictures. It was erected B.C. 290, and overthrown by an earthquake b. c. 224. The city had also a beautiful temple of Apollo, built by Herod the Great. In the Middle Ages the city was held by the Knights of St. John ; it was captured by the Turks in 1522, and is now under their rule. The modern city is a place of considerable trade, and the island has a population of about 30,000, of which 21.000 are Turks.

RI''RAI {/or v)hom Jehovah pleads), 47

the father of Ittai the Benjamite. 2 Sam. 23 : 29; 1 Chr. 11 : 31.

RIB'LAH (/er/(7*^_y), an ancient city in the north-eastern frontier of Canaan. Num. 34 : 10, 11. Some regard it as being the same as Diblath, Eze. 6 : 14, but Condcr places Diblath at the modern village of Dihl, while Riblah is identified with the modern town on the east bank of the Orontes 35 miles northeast of Baalbek. The ancient town was upon the great road from Palestine to Babylon, and was a convenient military headquarters for the Babylonian kings and others invading the country. Here the Egyptian king Pharaoh-nechoh put Jehoahaz in chains and made Eliakim king, and here Nebuchadnezzar brought Zedekiah, murdered his sons before his eyes, then put out his eyes and bound him in chains to be carried to Babylon. 2 Kgs. 23 : 29-35; 25 : 1-7 ; Jer. 39 : 5-7. Riblah is now a mean and poor village in the midst of a plain of great fertility, and its position shows that it commanded the roads to Nineveh, Babylon, Phoenicia, and Palestine, making it of great strategic importance. About 10 miles west of Riblah is the great fountain of the Orontes. still called el-Ain, or "the fountain," which is supposed to be indicated bj' " on the east side of Ain." Num. 34 : 11. Grove thinks the Riblah which marked the boundary of the Promised Land could not have been as far north as Riblah in the land of Hamath, and he would look for the former near the Sea of Galilee, in the vicinity of Banias. No such place has been found in that region, and most authorities agree that there was but one Riblah, and hence that it was on the Orontes, as stated above.

RID'DLE. The Orientals have always been fond of such exercises of ingenuity as were requisite to answer riddles. Hence it was quite in the order of things that Samson should propose one. See Samson's riddle. Jud. 14 : 12-19. Ezekiel's riddle, 17 : 2, was rather an allegory.

RIGHT'EOUSNESS, Isa. 45 : 23, is an essential attribute of the divine nature, and as it is frequently used is nearly allied to, if not the same with, justice, holiness, and faithfulness. Ps. 119 : 142; Isa. 46 : 13 ; 51 : 5, 6, 8 ; 56 : 1. The " righteousness which is of

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faith," Rom. 10 : 6, is the righteousness which is obtained by the grace of God through faith in Jesus Christ. Rom. 3 : 21-26; 10:4, 10; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 2 : 21. The word is also used to denote the perfect obedience of the Son of God. Rom. 5 : IS. "Righteousness" is very commonly used for uprightness and just dealing between man and man, as in Isa. 60:17. and for holiness of life, as in Dan. 4:27; Luke 1:6: Rom. 14 : 17; Eph. 5 : 9.

RIGHT HAND. Ps. 21 : 8. The right hand is the symbol of power and strength, whence the effects of the divine omnipotence are often ascribed to the "right hand of the Most High." Ex. 15 : 6; Ps. 77:10. The right hand commonly denotes the south, as the left hand denotes the north. Gen. 14 : 15. It is said to have been the custom among the Jews to swear by the right hand, and that this is implied in Isa. 62 : 8. It was certainly common to swear by the hand. Gen. 14^22; Deut. 32 : 40. To give the right hand was a mark of friendship. Gal. 2 : 9. Hence the force of the expression, Ps. 144: 8: ''Their right hand is a right hand of falsehood." The right hand being a most useful member of the body, especially to laboring-men, to cut it off implies the greatest sacrifice. Matt. 5 : 30. To be seated at the right hand is a token of peculiar honor, 1 Kgs. 2 : 19; and when the expression is used respecting Christ, Acts 7 : 55, it implies his unequalled dignity and exaltation.

RIII'MON {jiomegranate). 1. The name of an idol worshipped in Damascus. 2 Kgs. 5 : 18. Naaman, who was in the habit of attending the king in his idolatrous services in the temple of Rim-mon, seems to have been perplexed about a question of duty as to continuing this practice. See Naaman.

2. A Benjamite, father of the two men who slew Ish-bosheth. 2 Sam. 4 : 2, 5, 9.

RIll'MON {pomegranate), a name of not less than three places.

1. A town in Judah, afterward given to Simeon. Josh. 15 : 21, 32 ; 19:7: 1 Chr. 4:32: Neh. 11:29; Zech. 14:10. Some have identified this with the ruin Umm er-Rumdmtn. 13 miles south-west of Hebron, and nearly the same distance north-east of Beer-sheba. On the top of the hill are foundations of important buildings, and also rock-cut cisterns. Two miles south are two other hills, 738

containing ruins and a fine spring with a reservoir.

2. A Levitical city in Zebulun. 1 Chr. 6 : 77. It is also called Remmon-meth-oar. Josh. 19 : 13. It is identified with the present village Rummaneh, about 6 miles north of ^sazareth.

3. A rock whither the 600 surviving Benjamites retreated after the slaughter of their tribe. Jud. 20 : 45, 47 ; 21 : 13. Its site is at the modern village Runimon, about 10 or 15 miles north of Jerusalem, on a limestone hill visible in all directions, having rugged sides difficult of ascent and deep valleys around it. The houses cling to the sides as huge steps. Tiie view from the top of the hill is extensive.

RIM'MON-PA'REZ (ijomegran-ate of the breach), an encampment of the Israelites in the wilderness. Num. 33 : 19, 20. The phrase probably refers to some special breaking forth of the wrath of God, as at Korah's rebellion. Re-land suggests that it may be found at Jebel Ikhrimm, 75 miles south-southwest of Beer-sheba.

Rings and Signets.

1, 2. Assyrian Rings in the Briti^h Museum. 3. i. Porcelain Rings. 5, 6, 7. Egyptian Rings, with ini' pressions from them.

RINGS were used for ornaments and

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as seals. "When used for ornament, they were worn not only on the lingers and in the ears, but also around the wrists and ankles and in the nostrils. Isa. 3 : 20, 21 ; Luke 15 : 22: Jas. 2:2. As a seal the ring became a token of authority, and the giving of a ring the sign of imparting authority, (xen. 41 : 42; Esth. 3 : 10, 12; Dan. 6 : 17. See Clothes.

RIN'NAH (.shout), a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 20.

RI'PHATH {a crusher), a son of Gomer. Gen. 10 : 3. His descendants have by some been identified with the Ripheans, the old name of the Paphla-gonians ; by others they have been located in the Rhiepean Mountains, north of the Caspian Sea.

RIS'SAH (a ruin, a worm), a station of Israel. Num. 33 : 21, 22. It has been identified with the Roman Rasa, 30 miles from Elath, near the hill now named Has el-Kan, or ''head of the plain," north-west of Ezion-geber. Wilton would place it Sit'Ain el-Jughamileh, 125 miles south-south-west of Beer-sheba; Reland locates it at el-Kusahy, bb miles south-west of Beer-sheba.

RITH'MAH [broom), a station of Israel, Num. 33 : IS, 19, named from retem or rethem, " the broom," a species of low bush growing in the wilderness. Some regard it as being the same as " Kadesh " of Num. 13 : 26 ; Rowlands suggests that it is at Sahel er-Retmah, west of 'Ain Kadesh, which he makes Kadesh.

RIVER OF EGYPT. This phrase is found five times in the English Bible, and is the translation of two Hebrew terms.

1. Nahar Mizraim, rendered "river" in Gen. 15 : 18, and usually denoting a perennial stream ; hence it perhaps refers to the Nile, and to the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, as the eastern limit of the territory promised to Abraham, but which his posterity never occupied, possibly because of its desert character.

2. Nahal Mizraim. Num. 34 : o ; Josh. 15 : 3, 4, 47; 1 Kgs. 8 : 65 : 2 Kgs. 24 : 7. This phrase does not denote a perennial stream, but usually a torrent bed, either partially or totally dry in summer, and having a running stream only in the rainy season. Nahal, therefore, exactly corresponds with the Arabic word icddy, for which we have no English equivalent.

Hence '' Nahal Mizraim," or ''torrent of Egypt," is generally used in Scripture to designate the old boundary between Palestine and Egyjtt, and is identified with the modern Wddy el-Arish, which drains the great central basin of the desert, between the passes oiJehel et-Tih and Sinai. The various ii'ddies of this region unite in one, but without forming a perennial stream, and the torrent-bed reaches the Mediterranean about 40 miles south-west of (xaza, and nearly midway between the Red Sea and the eastern branch of the Nile.

RIZ'PAH, a concubine of Saul who watched day and night for many months (probably from March to October) over the bodies of her two sons, who had been put to a violent death by the Gibeonites. 2 Sam. 21 : 10, 11.

ROAD means " raid " in 1 Sam. 27 : 10. Our " road " is, in the A. V., always "path" or "way."

ROBBERS OF CHURCHES. See Chuhches, Robbers of.

ROB'BERY is one of the chronic troubles in Palestine, where the Bedouin of to-day are robbers. The 0. T. reveals .a similar state of things during the period of the Judges, when might was right. Some of the inhabitants were " liers in wait," who robbed " all that came along that way." Jud. 9 : 25. Hosea and Micah, by a few touches, paint a sad picture of pillage and robbery in the northern kingdom in their day. The Romans did not improve matters, but rather made them worse; and incidental notices in the N. T. prove the insecurity of person and property in Palestine in the first century. Luke 10 : 30; John 18 : 40; Acts 5 : 36, 37 ; 21 : 38; 2 Cor. 11 : 26. The "thieves" between whom our Lord was crucified were highway robbers. Matt. 27 : 38.

One of the usual camping-places, a day's journey north of Jerusalem, is called the '• Fountain of the Robbers."

ROBE. 1 Sam. 24 : 4. See Mantle.

ROB'OAM, the Greek form of " Rehoboam." Matt. 1 : 7.

ROD means a shoot or branch of a tree, and in this sense it is applied figuratively to Christ, Isa. 11 :1, and to the tribes of Israel as springing from one root. Ps. 74 : 2 : Jer. 10 : 16. Meaning also a staff", it is used as a symbolical

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expression for that which supports and strengthens, Ps. 23 : 4; Isa. 3:1; Eze. 29 : 6 : lor power and authority, Ps. 2 : 9 : 110 : 2; 125 : 3; Jer. 48 : 17; Eze. 19 : 14; 1 Cor. 4:21: Rev. 2:27; and for the afflictions with which God disciplines his people. Job 9 : 34; comp. Heb. 12 : 6, 7. The phrase "passing under the rod," Eze. 20 : 37, originated from the manner in which the Jews used to select the tenth of their sheep. Lev. 27 : 32. The lambs were separated from the dams, and enclosed in a sheepcote with

only one narrow way out; the dams were at the entrance. On opening the gate the lambs hastened to join their dams, and a man placed at the entrance touched every tenth lamb with a rod dipped in ochre, and so marked it with his rod, saying, " Let this be holy in the name of the tenth."

ROD'ANIM occurs in some copies,

1 Chr. 1 : 7, instead of '* Dodanim." ROE, ROE'BUCK {beauty), an

animal especially fleet of foot, 2 Sam.

2 : 18 : 1 Chr. 12 : 8, and elegant in form.

Roe, or Gazelle. (Gazella Dorcas. After Wood.)

Cant. 2 : 9, 17 ; 8 : 14. The gazelle ( Gazella dorcas) satisfies these and all other requirements, and is still very abundant in Palestine and adjacent regions. The Jews might use the roe as food, Deut. 12 : 15, 22 ; it was hunted, Isa. 13 : 14 : " it is amiable, affectionate, and loving, by universal testimony," Prov. 5:19; and it has ever been admired for its beauty, which is the meaning of its Hebrew name. " Tabitha " or " Dorcas " means " a gazelle." Acts 9 : 36.

RO'GELj (a fidler) occurs in the margin to 1 Kgs. 1 : 9 instead of " En-rogel."

ROGE'LIM, a town of Gilead, the home of Barzillai. 2 Sam. 17 : 27; 19 : 31.

740

ROH'GAH (outcry), an Asherite chieftain. 1 Chr. 7 : 34.

ROLL. Jer. 36:2. See Books.

ROLLS, HOUSE OF. See House.

RO MAN CITIZENSHIP. See Citizenship.

RO'MANEM'PIRE. The empire of Rome arose from the republic, or commonwealth, and succeeded the Macedonian empire, which was founded by Philip and Alexander, in extending its sway over the greater part of the then known world. The references to the Roman dominion in the Bible chiefly allude to the empire in its earlier history, including the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, and Nero.

The extent and power of the empire

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during this period were greater than at any earlier, and possibly than at any later, time. It reached to the Atlantic on the west, the Eu2)hrates on the east, the African desert, the Nile cataracts, and the Arabian deserts on the south, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Black Sea on the north. Jt also conquered Great Britain, leaving Germania on the north and Parthia on the east as semi-independent powers. Gibbon estimates the population of the empire in the reign of the emperor Claudius at 120,000,000. When a country' was conquered by Rome it became a subject province, governed by officers appointed by the authorities at Rome. Occasionally, however, the local rulers were left in possession of their territory, subject to the Roman power. Augustus divided the provinces into two classes—1. Imperial j 2. Senatorial. He retained in his own hand provinces requiring a large military force, giving the more peaceful provinces to the control of the Roman senate. Among the provinces of the imperial class were Gaul, Lusitania, Syria, Phoenicia, Cilicia, Cyprus, and Egypt. Among the senatorial provinces were Africa, Numidia, Asia, Achaia and Epi-rus, Dalmatia. Macedonia, Sicily, Crete and Cyrene, Bithynia and Pontus, Sardinia and Boeotia. Many changes, however, were made in these provinces at various periods ; as, for example, Cyprus and Gallia ceased to be imperial and became senatorial provinces, while Dalmatia ceased to be a senatorial and became an imperial province. These divisions of the country are referred to by the iST. T. writers, who speak of the rulers of senatorial provinces as anthirpdtoi, or ''proconsuls;" the ruler of an imperial province is styled hyemon, or ''governor." Cyrenius is called " governor of Syria," Luke 2:2; Pilate, Felix, and Festus are spoken of as "governors"—that is, procurators—of Juda?a. Matt. 27:2; Acts 23 : 24; 24 : 27. Three Roman emperors are named in Scripture, Augustus, Tiberius, and Claudius. Luke 2:1; 3:1; Acts 11 : 28 ; 18 : 2. The emperor Nero is also alluded to as "Augustus" and "Ca?sar." Acts 25 : 10, 11, 21, 25, 26; Phil. 4 : 22. When Christ was born at Bethlehem, a general peace prevailed throughout the Roman dominions. The changes eflFected by that power largely

contributed toward giving increased facilities for the spread of Christianity. Piracy and robbery had been suppressed, military roads constructed, efficient governments capable of executing the laws instituted, commerce had increased, the Latin language had spread in the West, as the Greek had already done in the East, and the condition of the people in all the civilized countries offered facilities never before known for the spread of a new religion. Under the preaching of the apostles, Christianity was made known in most of the Roman provinces of Asia Minor, in the south-eastern provinces of Europe, and as far west as Rome, and possibly even to Spain. It was likewise proclaimed in Africa, and eastward as far as Babylon. Thus the gospel was preached in apostolic days throughout the entire extent of the Roman empire. See Rome.

RODMANS, EPISTLE OF PAUL TO THE, is the sixth in order of the books of the N. T. It was written at Corinth, a. d. 58, just as Paul was leaving that city for Jerusalem, and transmitted through Phoebe. Rom. 15:25; comp. Acts 20:2,3,16; Rom. 16 : 1, 23 ; 1 Cor. 1:14; 2 Tim. 4 : 20.

It is the most important and most systematic of all the apostolic Epistles. It is the fullest exposition of the great truth that the gospel is a power of universal salvation on the sole condition of faith. In Rome, the mistress of the world, he proclaimed the gospel as the power of God. which alone can save; in Corinth, the city of philosophy and art, as the icisdoDi of God, which is wiser than all the wisdom of men. Ch. 1: 16,17 contains the theme. Chs. 1:18 to 3 : 20 is the negative part, showing the need of salvation or the general de])ravity of both Jews and Gentiles. Ch. 3 : 20 to the close of ch. 8 presents the positive part, and exhibits the saving grace of God in Christ, by which the believer is justified, sanctified, and glorified. Chs. 9-11 treat of the historical progress of Christianity from Jews to Gentiles, the rejection of the Jews in consequence of their unbelief, and their ultimate repentance and acceptance after the fulness of the Gentiles has come in. The last five chapters contain practical exhortations of the greatest spiritual power and unction. The Epistle to the Romans is the bul-

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wark of the evangelical doctrine of justification by faith.

The origin of the Roman congregation is involved in obscurity. Its first members may have been converted on the day of Pentecost, since Jews from Rome were among the witnesses of the pente-costal miracle in Jerusalem. Acts 2 : 10. At all events, it was already a large and flourishing congregation when Paul wrote his Epistle. He had not been there, but intended to visit the metropolis of the world, and wrote this letter to prepare the way for his coming. He did visit Rome afterward, but as a prisoner of Jesus Christ, and sealed his testimony with his blood.

The genuineness of the Epistle to the Romans is beyond all reasonable doubt. No man could have written it but Paul, and he could have written it only by inspiration. Luther called it ''the chief part of the N. T. and the purest Gospel;" Coleridge, " the most profound work in existence/' Meyer, "the grandest, boldest, and most complete composition of Paul." The Reformation of the sixteenth century was inspired by the Epistles to the Romans and Ualatians.

RO'MANTI-E'ZER (/ ham exalted his help), son of Heman and head of the twenty-fourth course of singers in the reign of"David. 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 31.

ROME, the celebrated city and capital of the Roman republic and empire, and once the proud mistress of the world. It is situated on the river Tiber, about 15 miles from its mouth. The ancient city was built upon seven hills. It was founded about 754 years before the Christian era; legendary history ascribes its founding to Romulus. The principal interest to the Bible-reader in the history of Rome relates to the N. T. period.

Rome, in the N. T. times, was the capital of the empire in its greatest prosperity, and the residence of its emperors. Among its inhabitants were many Jews. Acts 28 : 17. They had received the liberty of worship and other privileges from Caesar, and lived in the district across the Tiber, near the Porta Portese. At the time of Paul's visit the city had outgrown the old Servian wall, and consisted of an extensive and irregular mass of buildings unprotected by any outer city wall. This was a period between two 742

noted epochs in its history—the restoration by Augustus and that effected by Nero. It was the boast of Augustus that he found a city of brick and left one of marble. The streets are described as being at that time generally narrow and crooked, flanked by crowded lodging-houses of great height—so great that Augustus made a law limiting them to 70 feet. Gibbon estimates the population of the city at this time as nearly 1,200,000, of which probably one-half were slaves, and the larger part of the remainder were paupers supported in idleness by an unwise system of public gratuities. Paul was kept at Rome two whole years, dwelling in his own hired house with a soldier who had charge of him. Acts 28 : 16, 30. In accordance with the usual Roman custom of treating prisoners, he appears to have been bound to the soldier with a chain. Acts 28 : 20 ,• Eph. 6 : 20 ; Phil. 1 : 16. To those coming to visit him he preached the gospel, no one forbidding him. Acts 28: 30, 31. An old legend declares that the Mamertine prison was the place where Paul and Peter were confined together as fellow-prisoners, though there is no historic proof of this supposition. This prison still exists under the church of St. Giuseppe; while a chapel on the Ostian road is pointed out by tradition as the place where the two parted when on their way to martyrdom. Some historians deny that Peter ever visited Rome, and it is quite certain, from the silence of the N. T., that he could not have been there till the latter part of his life, but tradition unanimously affirms that he suffered martyrdom in Rome under Nero. It is the prevailing opinion that Paul was acquitted on his appeal to Caesar, but that he was after a time again imprisoned at Rome. Several of his Epistles are believed to have been written from this city, as those to the Colossians, Ephesians, Philippians, Philemon, and the Second Epistle to Timothy, the latter shortly before his death. 2 Tim. 4:6, On Paul's approach to Rome he was met by brethren, who came out on the Appian Way as far as the little town of Appii Forum. Acts 28 : 15. In his letter to the Philippians he also refers to the "palace" or Cfesar's court. Phil. 1 : 13. This probably does not refer to the imperial palace, but to the residence of the Praetorian guards

ROM

or to a miltary barrack attached to the imperial house. There were Christians also belonging to the imperial household, even during the reign of the cruel Nero. Phil. 4 : 22.

Gardens, Colosseum, and Catacombs. —There are many traditions connecting various other localities in Rome with the visit and residence of Paul, but most of them have very little real historical support. Among the sites which may unquestionably be connected with the Roman Christians at or near the apostolic age ai'e :

1. The Gardens of Nero, in theVatican, near St. Peter's. Within these, in the Neronian persecution, A. D. 64, after the great conflagration. Christians, wrapped in skins of beasts, were torn by dogs, or, clothed in inflammable stufis, were burnt as torches during the midnight games; others were crucified.

2. The Colosseum. —In this vast theatre games of various sorts and gladiatorial shows were held, and within its arena many Christians, during the ages of persecution, fought with wild beasts, and many were slain for their faith.

3. The Catacombs. —These are vast subterranean galleries (whether originally sand-pits or excavations is uncertain). Their usual height is from 8 to 10 feet and their width from 4 to 6 feet, and they extend for miles, especially in the region of the Appian and Nomentane Ways. The Catacombs were early used by the Christians as places of refuge, worship, and burial. More than four thousand inscriptions have been found in these subterranean passages, which are considered as belonging to the period between the reign of Tiberius and that of the emperor Con-stantine. Among the oldest of the inscriptions in the Catacombs is one dated A. D. 71. The names of twenty-four Christians at Rome are given in the salutations contained in the Epistle to the Romans. The house of Clement of Rome, where the early Christians probably met for worship, has recently been discovered beneath the church of St. Clement.

Rome, as a persecuting power, is referred to by the "seven heads" and *' seven mountains" in Rev. 17 : 9, and described under the name of " Babylon " elsewhere in the same book. Rev. 14 : 8; 16 : 19; 17: 5; 18:2,21. 744

Post-Biblical History. —The Christian church at Rome, which appears to have been founded before the visit of the apostle, probably by Roman Jews who had heard the gospel in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost, Acts 2:10, was strengthened by Paul, and the metropolitan character of the city gave the church a position of importance and gradually increasing power, until it became the seat of a metropolitan bishopric, and then of the papal see. The earliest religious centres under Christianity were, Ephesus, Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome. Each of these gradually claimed superior powers in the Church, and their decrees were accepted as law. Soon the bishop at Rome, from his position in the capital of the world, and from an assumption that he was the spiritual successor of Peter, claimed supreme power in the Church, and, after long regarding themselves as his equals in rank and authority, the patriarchs of Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople were led to acknowledge the claim of the Roman bishop to a primacy of honor, but not to a supremacy of jurisdiction (about A. D.451-604). Since the ninth century the great schism divided Christendom into the Roman Catholic Church and the Greek Church, independent of the papal power of Rome. The popes ruled Europe with varying degrees of power and ability until the Reformation broke out, in the sixteenth century, since which era the papal power has gradually declined at Rome. The French army entered Italy in 1796, and later the pope became a prisoner, first at Rome, then in France, and Rome was formally governed by France (1806). In 1814 the pope returned to his palace, but in 1848 the people rebelled, and established a republic. France again interfered; the republic ended. The pope returned, but when the French troops were withdrawn in 1870, Italy became united under Victor Emmanuel, Rome was made the political capital of the nation (1871), and the temporal power of the holy see was abolished. The pope still occupies the Vatican, and is supported by contributions of Roman Catholics of France, Austria, Belgium, England, the United States, and other countrie.^, Pius IX. indignantly refused th« government

KOO

RUE

pension, and called himself a prisoner in the Vatican. Leo XIII., though firm in maintaining his claim to the " patrimony of Peter," is more peaceable and conciliatory,

ROOF. See Dwellings.

ROOM, in the phrases " uppermost room" or *• chief room," Matt. 23 : 6 ; Mark 12 : 39 ; Luke 14 : 7, 8, 9 ; 20 : 46; denotes the seat of honor at the table, the first place on the first couch. See Eating.

ROPES, 1 Kgs. 20:31, and CORDS. Josh. 2 : 15. The putting ropes upon the neck was significant of great earnestness and distress. The "cords of his sin," Prov. 5 : 22, probably denotes the power of sinful habits. And in Isa. 33 : 20 and Jer. 10 : 20 allusion is made to the construction of a tent. The " silver cord," Eccl. 12 : 6, is beautifully interpreted by Delitzsch as the soul, which holds the body in life, the "bowl" is the body, and the golden oil within it is the spirit. Zech. 4 : 12.

ROSE (acrid bulb). The meaning of the original excludes from our consideration the true rose and several other plants suggested. It is the opinion of some of the best authorities that the polyanthus narcissus {Narcifn^us ta-zetta) is intended in Cant. 2 : 1 and Isa. 35 :1, where alone the rose is mentioned. This beautiful and fragrant narcissus grows in the plain of Sharon, as is required by these references, and during its season of bloom is sold in the bazaars of the East and carried by everybody as a specially favorite flower.

The " rose of Sharon " of modern writers is a rose-like species of cistus, while the " rose of Jericho " is a small woody plant with minute cruciferous flowers. True wild roses are rarely seen except in the extreme North of Palestine.

ROSH (hem/, ehief). 1. A son of Benjamin. Gen. 46 : 21.

2. As occurring in Eze. 38 : 2, 3 ; 39 : 1, the word has been translated in our version, but is probably a proper name, denoting one of the three great Scythian tribes of which Magog was the head.

ROS'IN. Eze. 27 : 17, margin. The text correctlv reads "balm."

ROWERS. Eze. 27:2(5. See Ship.

RU'BIES. There is much uncertainty concerning this translation. Some would render the word " red coral," and

others "pearl" or "mother-of-pearl," both of which latter are often of a ruddy hue. The word occurs in Job 28 : 18; Prov. 3 : 15 : 8 : 11 ; 20 : 15; 31 : 10 ; Lam. 4 : 7, but seems never associated with the name of any precious stone.

True rubies are of a red color. They are next to the diamond in hardness, beauty, and value, and once commanded even a higher price. See Stones, Precious.

RUDDER-BANDS. See Ship.

RU'DIMENTS, the first and simplest principles of a science or literature. The word is translated " rudiments " or " elements " without distinction, as both mean the same thing. Gal. 4 : 3, 9 : Col. 2 : 20.

RUE, a well-known herb {Ruta rjraveotens) which often grows wild in Palestine, and was also cultivated for

Kue. {Ruta Graveolens. After Carruthers.)

its disinfectant and other medicinal properties. It was among the things which the hypocritical and inconsistent Pharisees tithed, though uncommanded,

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RYE

while they neglected to obey the important and positive precepts of the Law. Luke 11 : 42.

RU'FUS (red), a Christian to whom Paul sent his salutation, Rom. 16 : 13 ; probably identical with Rufus, the son of Simon the Cyrenian. Mark 15 : 2L

RU'HAMAH {compassionated, having obtained mercy), a symbolical name applied bv Hosea. 2 : 1.

RU'MAH. 2 Kgs. 23:36. See Arumah.

RU'MAH {lofty), the home of Pe-daiah, the father of Jehoiakim's mother. 2 Kgs. 23 : 36. Conder proposes to identify it with a ruined village, Rumeh, north of Nazareth. Others have supposed that it was the same as Dumah, near Hebron. See Josh. 15 : 52.

RUSH. The proverbial expression "branch and rush" occurs in Isa. 9 : 14 and 19 : 15 in the sense of "top" and " bottom " or " utterly." Another word thus translated in Job 8:11 refers to the famous papyrus or paper-reed, described under Bulrush.

RUTH {a friend, or, according to others, beauty), aMoabitish woman, Ruth 1 : 4, who married a son of Naomi and showed her strong attachment to her mother-in-law by leaving her own country and following her mother-in-law into Judaea. Her kindness was abundantly \ rewarded, as she soon found favor in the , eyes of akinsman, who afterward married her, through which event she became the ancestor of the royal familv of David.

RUTH, THE BOOK OF, so called, not from the author, but from the chief person, Ruth the Moabitess, is properlj' inserted between Judges and Samuel, as it is an appendix to the former and an introduction to the latter. The history relates to the time of the Judges, 1 : 1, perhaps during the judicature of Gideon, about B. c. 1241 or later, and forms a bright contrast to the dark and chaotic state of society at that time. It is a beautiful episode of domestic life, showing how domestic virtues may be practised and domestic happiness enjoyed even in periods of revolution and anarchy.

By the urgency of famine, Elimelech was obliged to emigrate with his famfly from Canaan to Moab. where he died, leaving a widow, Naomi or Noami, and two sons, who married women of Moab 746

by the names of Orpah and Ruth. Oi. the death of the sons the widowed mother resolved to return to her country, and thereby she put the filial affection of her daughters-in-law to a severe test. But Ruth accompanied her with a devotion that was prepared for every sacrifice: " Whither thou goest, I will go, and where thou lodgest, I shall lodge," etc. 1 : 16, 17. They arrived at Bethlehem in extreme poverty, and Ruth went out to glean after the reapers in the harvest-field of Boaz, a wealthy kinsman of her deceased father-in-law. Attracted by her personal appearance and filial devotion, he encouraged her return from day to day, and, after redeeming the patrimony of Elimelech, married her. From this union sprang Obed, the father of Jesse, the father of David, and through him our Saviour according to the flesh. Matt. 1: 6.

The age and authorship of this book cannot be definitely ascertained, but it cannot have been written before the time of David, since he is mentioned as the last in the genealogy. 4 : 18-22. It has been variously ascribed to Samuel, Heze-kiah, and Ezra.

The practical lessons of the book are manifold and impressive—the sure reward of filial devotion and trust in God ; the true use of the calamities of life; the overruling providence of God in the private attairs of a humble family as well as in the palace of princes and the public events of nations. It also shows that God had children outside of Canaan and the Jewish theocracy, and the incorporation of Ruth into the Church of the 0. T. may be regarded as an intimation of the future call of the Gentiles to the gospel salvation.

RYE. This word occurs in Ex. 9 : 32 and Isa. 28 : 25. The same Hebrew noun is translated ''fitches" in Eze. 4 : 9. Rye being a northern grain and rarely cultivated in the East even in our day, Celsius' view is universally accepted—that in all these passages the reference is to spelt {Triticum sjyelta), a grass closely resembling wheat and long cultivated in the Levant. Though the flour of its grain is inferior to that of the latter, it is mixed with it for bread. Spelt seems to have been sown later than wheat, on the border or headland of the field, to which there is reference in the word "place" of Isa. 28 : 25.

SAB

SABACHTHA'NI {thou hast forsaken me), one of the words uttered by Christ on the cross. Matt. 27 : 46 ; Mark 15 : 34. It is part of the jjhrase in Syro-Chaldee.

SAB'AOTH, OR SABA'OTH {hoHts). The phrase " Lord of Sabaoth " occurs twice in the N. T.—in Rom. 9 : 29 and Jas. 5:4. It is a common blunder to understand it as referring to the Sabbath or as implying rest. But it is the Greek transliteration of the Hebrew Tse-baoth, "hosts" or "armies," so often recurring in the 0. T., " the Lord of hosts," Isa. 1 : 9, "the Lord God of hosts" — i. e., the heavenly bodies, the angels, or the people of God. Sometimes it means nothing more than that God will guide Israel to victory.

SAB'BATH (rest). The word first occurs in Ex. 16 : 23. but the institution of a day of rest is much older—is founded, indeed, in man's nature, and, like marriage, was instituted in Paradise. Gen. 2 : 2, 3. The word usually indicates the seventh day of the week, which bj' God's appointment was set apart for his service, •but it is used also of other days or times separated and sanctified in a similar way. Lev. 19 : 3, 30 ; 25 : 4, and in the original text of the N. T. for a whole week. Matt. 28 : 1; Mark 16 : 2; Luke 24 : 1 : John 20 : 1: Acts 20 : 7,- 1 Cor. 16 : 2. In a spiritual sense it designates the eternal rest in heaven. Heb. 4 : 9 (marg. and Greek). In the Christian Church the first day of the week has been substituted for the last. There is no explicit command on the subject, but the Church naturally commemorated the great event which was in a sense her birth, the resurrection of Christ. By changing the day the Church threw off the Jewish regulations which had loaded down the Sabbath, and turned it into a day of ecclesiastical bondage. The Jews were not peculiar in their day of rest. It is a natural institution, and was observed also by some pagan nations quite independent of Judaism. Originally it was devoted to simple rest from worldly toil. The fourth commandment,

Ex. 20 : 8-11; Deut. 5 : 12-15, enjoins no specific religious service, except in the general direction to keep it holy. But the opportunity thus given was improved. Subsequent legislation made it a day of holy convocation. The sacrifices of the temple were doubled; the shew-bread was changed ; the inner court of the temple was opened for solemn services ; the prophets and the Levites took the occasion for imparting religious instruction to the people. It was a day of holy joy. There was freedom for so much social enjoyment. Indeed, the fear was that the day would be "' wasted by idleness and degraded by sensuality and drunkenness " because it was so joyous. Neh. 8 : 9-12; Hos. 2 : 11.

But after the Captivity arose the school of the Pharisees, and by them the attractive character of the Sabbatic observances was destroyed. In place thereof they imposed upon the people the yoke of a pedantic, scrupulous, slavish Sabbatarianism which made the Sabbath an end instead of a means, hampered the spirit of true worship, and laid greater stress upon a punctilious obedience to mere human regulations than upon the commands of the Law. Some of their ridiculous prohibitions are the following: Walking in the grass on the Sabbath, because the bruising would be a kind of threshing ; wearing nailed shoes, because they would be a sort of burden; mounting a tree, lest a twig should be broken.

It was against this perversion of the commandment that our Lord protested. He refused his sanction to Pharisaic legalism. Much to the consternation of the religious party of the day, he vigorously defended his Sabbath miracles. The example of Christ represents the Sabbath, not as a day of gloom, but as a pleasant and healthful day of rest, quiet religious service, and Christian benevolence.

He kept the Sabbath in the highest sense of the term. He observed every jot and tittle of the Mosaic Law in the free-

SAB

dom of the spirit. From him we learn that religion is the uppermost business of the day, that acts of necessity and mercy are to be performed, that worldly occupations are to be put as far as possible out of our thoughts. It is true we transfer the fourth commandment to the first day of the week, but we do not thereby violate the spirit of the divine law: for what God asked for was the entire seventh of our time. We may therefore claim the blessing which God has pronounced upon those who keep the day holy.

It is a matter of secondary importance, and yet it shows the natural basis of the fourth commandment, that this division of time is scientifically correct. The night's sleep does not restore all the waste of the day ; additional rest, therefore, is demanded for health. It is an interesting fact that the blasphemous abolition of Sunday by the French Revolutionists and the substitution of a day of rest every ten days was found poor policy, as the rest was insufficient.

The Christian Church keeps the first day of the week, which celebrates the close of the spiritual creation, just as the last day celebrated the close of the physical creation. We have the fullest warrant for this change. Upon the first day of the week Christ arose from the dead. We find the disciples, before the Ascension, assembled on that day, and Jesus appeared to them. John 20 : 26. According to tradition, which is confirmed by every probabilitj^, the outpouring of the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost was on Sunday. Paul preached at Troas on the first day of the week—evidently, among those Christians, the day of religious service. Acts 20 : 7. Paul tells the Corinthians that every one is to lay by him in store upon the first day of the week as he is prospered. 1 Cor. 16 : 2. It was upon the Lord's day— and by this name he calls it—that John on Patmos saw through the opened door into heaven. Rev. 1 : 10.

The first day of the week is therefore the Christian Sabbath, the day of rest and worship. And God has further confirmed the change by giving it his blessing, as he blessed the Sabbath of creation-week.

Around the Lord's day we do well to throw safeguards. It is, in a sense, the 748

palladium of Christian liberty. The various states and cities have good laws for the protection of the civil Sabbath and against its open desecration. The positive observance of the religious Sabbath can, of course, not be enforced by law, and must be left to the individual conscience. The American churches are unanimously in favor of a quiet Sabbath, in opposition to the evils of the so-called '•continental Sunday," and earnesteff"orts havebeen made to protectus against them. Our Lord states the case most concisely: "The Sabbath was made for man." Mark 2 : 27. It is the divine gift, which, when accepted and properly used,contributes to man's physical,moral, and spiritual happiness and welfare, and gives a foretaste of the saint's everlasting rest in heaven.

The following are among the leading passages of the Bible respecting the Sabbath and its proper observance :

The divine institution of the Jewish Sabbath. Gen. 2 : 2, 3 ; Ex. 20 : 8-11 ; Deut. 5 : 12, 15 ; Eze. 20 : 12; 44 : 24. Servile labor forbidden. Ex. 16 : 23, 29 ; 20 : 10, 11 ; 23 : 12 ; 34 : 21 ; 35 : 2, 3; Deut. 5 : 14, 15; Jer. 17 : 21, 22; Mark 16 : 42 ; 16 : 1, 2 ; John 19 : 14, 31, 42.

The profanation of the Sabbath the cause of national judgments. Neh. 13 : 15-18 ; Eze. 20 : 15, 16 ; 23 : 38, 47.

The Jewish Sabbath re-established under the gospel dispensation. Matt. 5 : 17; 12 : 12; Mark 2 : 27.

The change of the Sabbath from the seventh to the first day of the week. Gen. 2:2; Ex. 20 : 11 : Luke 23 : 56 ; John 20 : 19 ; Acts 20 : 7 ; 1 Cor. 16 : 2; Rev. 1 : 10.

The duties of the Sabbath enjoined. Lev. 19 : 30 : 26 : 2 : Eze. 46 : 3; Mark 6:2; Luke 4 : 16, 31 ; Acts 13 : 14-16, 27, 42, 44 ; 17 : 2, 3.

Works of necessity and mercy to be done on this day. Matt. 12 : 1, 3, 5, 7, 12, 13 ; Mark 2 : 23, 27 ; 3 : 2, 4; Luke 6 : 9; 13 : 15, 16: 14 : 3, 5 ; John 5 : 8-10, 18; 7 : 22; 9 : 14.

Blessings promised to those who keep the Sabbath. Isa. 56 : 2, 4, 5, 7 ; 58 : 13, 14.

Threatenings against Sabbath-breakers. Ex. 31 : 14, 15; 35 : 2 ; Num. 15 : 32-36 : Jer. 17 : 27 : Eze. 20 : 13, 16, 23, [24; 22 : 8, 14, 26,31; 23 : 38,46.

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SAD

Sabbath privileges taken away. Isa. 1 : 13; Lara. 1:7; 2 : (>; llos. '2 : 11: Am. 8 : 10. 11. See Lord's Day.

SABBATH DAY'S JOURNEY. See Mkasikios.

SABBATICAL YEAR. Ex.23: 11. See Yp:ar, Sabbatical.

SABE'ANS. Two tribes of this name are mentioned in the A. V.

1. Descendants of Seba, Isa. 45 : 14; it should be simply " people of Seba/' son of Cash.

2. In Joel 3 : 8 the descendants of Sheba, son of Joktan, are meant. Possibly a third tribe is spoken of in Job 1: 15. The translation " Sabeans " in Eze. 23 : 42 is incorrect; read, as in the margin, "drunkards."

SAB'TA, S AB'TAH (strikhig), the third son of Cush. Gen. 10 : 7 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 9.

SAB'TECHA, SAB'TECHAH {striking ?), the youngest son of Cush. Gen. 10 : 7 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 9.

SA'CAR [hire). 1. The father of Ahiam, a warrior of David's, 1 Chr, 11: 35; called Sharar in 2 Sam. 23 : 33.

2. A Levite porter, and the fourth son of Obed-edom. 1 Chr. 26 : 4.

SACK'BUT. A sackbut is a wind instrument, but that meant in the original of Dan. 3 : 5, etc., was a stringed instrument of a triangular shape, played with the fingers. It had four strings, and had a very penetrating sound. In process of time the strings were increased to twenty. See Music.

SACK'CL.OTH. This was a coarse

Sitting in Sackclotii.

fabric, as the Hebrew word '' sack" means, made of black goats' hair and

other materials, and worn either as a sign of repentance. Matt. 11 : 21, or as a token of mourning. Gen. 37 : 34 ; 2 Sam. 3 : 31; Esth. 4 : 1, 2 ; Job 16 : 15 ; Ps. 30 : 11; Isa. 20 : 2; Rev. 6 : 12. Hence the frequent occurrence in Scripture of figurative language connecting sackcloth with mourning and darkness. Isa. 3 : 24; Eze. 7 : 18; 27 : 31; Am, 8 : 10.

SACRIFICE. Gen. 31 : 54. Sacrifices were in use from the earliest periods of the world, and among all nations. The universality of sacrificial rites is a powerful argument on behalf of their naturalness ; they meet the demand of the sinner for some way of appeasing the oifended divinity. But Christians have no need of them, simply because of the one perfect Sacrifice once offered on the cross. See Offerings.

SACRILEGE, the crime of violating or profaning sacred things. Rom. 2 : 22. The Jews at some periods were eminently guilty in this particular, inasmuch as they withheld the tithes and offerings which God required of them, Mai. 3 : 8-10, and converted his holy temple into a market. Matt. 21 : 12, 13.

SAD'DLE. Lev. 15 : 9. Among the ancients saddles were very simple —merely a mat or quilted cloth; such is the present Oriental saddle.

S AD'DUCEES, a Jewish sect often mentioned in the N. T. The origin of the term and its meaning are involved in obscurity, but the most satisfactory theory is that the sect was derived from Zadok and constituted a kind of " sacerdotal aristocracy." This explains Acts 5 : 17. The Zadok spoken of is the famous high priest of that name whom Solomon appointed to succeed the deposed Abiathar. 1 Kgs. 2 : 35. The Sadducees were a small party, of limited influence among the people, and of a rationalistic turn of mind. From their connection with the high priests, they were men of position, and probably of more or less wealth. They were worldly-minded and had only a superficial interest in religion. They are the forerunners of the modern reform Jews.

Their theology was in direct contradiction to the Pharisaic, and, from its nature, could not be popular. It embraced four principal tenets: (1) A denial of the divinity and consequent

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SAL

authority of the oral Law, the body of commentary on the written Law which the Pharisees, without any historic evidence, maintained was handed down by tradition from the lawgiver himself. (2) The Sadducees accepted the teaching of Moses onl}', and seem to have rejected the later books of the 0. T. (3) The denial of man's resurrection—the soul dies with the body. Matt. 22 : 23. Of course the doctrine of future rewards and punishments fell with it: likewise belief in angel or spirit. Acts 23 : 8 (4) Their fourth principal tenet was that man had the most absolute moral freedom, for upon this freedom was dependent the moral quality of his actions. This tenet was, however, so far "pushed as almost entirely to exclude the divine government of the world."

In the N. T, they are not spoken of with the same bitterness as the Pharisees ; yet they Avere determined foes to our Lord, and made common cause with them in condemning him to the cross. Annas and Caiaphas were Sadducees. The sect disappears from history after the first Christian century. They have their successors in the worldly Jews and Christians of the present day.

SA'DOC {just), one of our Lord's ancestors. Matt. 1 : 14.

SAF'FROIV. Cant. 4:14. Undoubtedly this is the saffron crocus ( Crocus sativns), which, with other species of this plant, abounds in Palestine. This kind is in high repute as a perfume; hence its mention among spices. The pistils of its blossoms, gathered, dried, and pressed into cakes or ground, became the saffron of commerce, which is used as an orange dye and is also employed in medicine in the East. This substance is also valued for adding flavor and aroma to food and drink.

SAINTS, the title given by the sacred writers to believers in Christ, Heb. 6 : 10, or the people of God. Ps. 16 : 3; Rom. 1:7; 8 ; 27. A saint is one who is separated from the world and consecrated to the service of God. It does not necessarily imply entire personal holiness, but that believers are called to holiness and are to strive after it. The special application of the term to apostles and evangelists and a select number of men who constitute as it were a spirit-750

ual nobility is not biblical, but dates from the fourth centurv.

SA'LA, SA'LAH {sprout), a descendant of Shem, Gen. 10 : 24: 11 : 12-15 ; Luke 3 : 35 ; in 1 Chr. 1 : 18, 24 the name is given as Shelah.

SAL'AMIS {peaceful, or beaten), a seaport-town with a good harbor, on the eastern coast of Cyprus. It was visited by Paul and Barnabas on their first missionary journey. Acts 13 : 5. The city was once the capital of Cyprus, and stood on the north side of the river Pe-diaeus. The land is low in this region, and this river is the only true one in the island, the other streams being merely winter-torrents. We read of " synagogues," from which it is evident that the Jewish population in the city was numerous. The island was productive, and its trade in fruit, wine, flax, and honey, and the farming out of the copper-mines by Augustus to Herod, would naturally attract many Jews to this city. In the time of Trajan and Hadrian, there were great insurrections of the Jews; Salamis was partially destroyed, and its demolition completed by an earthquake, but it was rebuilt by a Christian emperor and named Constantia. Its site is now traced bA^ broken cisterns and columns and the foundations of ancient buildings. The ruins are known as Old Famur/usta.

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