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the temple was completed and dedicated, and thus Jerusalem became the one central place of all the world to the true worshipper of Jehovah. See Tkmplk. A palace of grandeur corresponding to the extent and power of his empire, Solomon erected for himself within the chosen capital, taking 13 years for its construction ; he also built another royal edifice to beautify the city, and which is called the '' house of the forest of Lebanon," perhaps from the "pillars of cedar" around it, 1 Kings 7 : 2-7 ; a palace was likewise built for the queen, the daughter of Pharaoh. 1 Kgs. 7 : 8. He extended the walls of the city probably around the newly-built portions, added towers, and increased the height of the walls made by David ; so that the Jerusalem of that period, with the splendor of Solomon's court, was unsurpassed for magnificence and brilliancy by any of the noted capitals of the East. The fame of it reached unto Sheba, whose queen came to behold it; and she declared that the half of the glory of the kingdom of which Jerusalem was the centre had not been told her, 1 Kgs. 10 : 7 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 1-12.
The division of the kingdom under Re-hoboam, which followed the death of Solomon, exposed the city to attack from foreign foes. Shishak, jealous of the glory of Jerusalem, which had for two generations excelled that of Egypt, tempted by the treasures of the famous city, and perhaps influenced by Jeroboam, who had been an exile in Egypt and was the leader of the revolting tribes, invaded the land and made the southern kingdom tributary to the Pharaohs, bearing away the accumulated treasures of the temple, including 500 golden shields, computed to represent $720,000—a vast sum for those days. Thirty years later, under Asa, Jerusalem regained her independence after the great battle with Zerah at Mareshah. 2 Chr. 14 : 9-15. As the fruit of this victory, Asa replaced the vessels of the Lord's house taken by Shishak, rebuilt the altar, and probably added a new court to the temple, 2 Chr. 15 : 5, 8; these treasures were soon after granted to the king of Syria to secure his aid in a war against Baasha, king of Israel. 2 Chr. 16 : 1, 2.
In the idolatrous and troubled times which followed the alliance of the house
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of Jehoshaphat with that of the wicked i Ahab, the glory of Jei'usalem fell into a decline, but it revived for a time under Joash, who repaired the temple, only to despoil it when Hazael of Syria invaded the country and threatened the capital. 2 Chr. 24: 10-14, 2?>; 2 Kgs. 12: 17, 18, Later, under Amaziah, a large portion of the walls of Jerusalem was broken down bv the armies of the northern kingdom of^ Israel. 2 Chr. 25 : 23. Uzziah repaired the walls and renewed the fortifications of the city, which were still further strengthened by his son Jotham, especially that part of the city on Moriah, Zion, and Ophel. It again declined under the wicked Ahaz, but was improved and made to approach the former magnificence attained in the days of Solomon by the extensive and remarkable works of Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 32 : 30 ; Isa. 22 : 9-11. Manasseh built a wall outside of the city of David, enclosing Zion, and raised the tower of Ophel to a great height. 2 Chr. 33 : 14. With the ample supply of water provided by Hezekiah through the pools and conduits which he built, and the towers of defence constructed by Manasseh, the city was regarded as very strong, if not impregnable. Compare 2 Kgs. 20 : 20 ; 2 Chr. 33 : 14; Lam. 4 : 12. The kingdom was, however, subject to Assyria. The subject king revolted ; the capital was attacked, and was compelled to surrender to the forces of Nebuchadnezzar, who carried away all the ti-easures of the temple and the palace, and took as captives the princes, men of wealth, and the skilled artisans, numbering 10,000, so that only the poorest of the people were left in the land, over whom Zedekiah was made king. Trusting to the aid of Pharaoh-hophra, Zedekiah rebelled, and Nebuchadnezzar again laid siege to Jerusalem, erecting forts, mounds, and engines of war to batter down the walls. This siege was temporarily raised by the approach of an Egyptian army, but the Assyrians speedily returned to the city, and invested it more closely than ever. Its inhabitants, shut up within its walls, suffered from all the horrors of famine, pestilence, and war for a year and a half, when the walls were broken and the place taken b. c. 586, the temple, palace, and chief buildings burned, the walls thrown down^ and the 438
city made a " heap of rubbish " by order of Nebuchadnezzar. The dreadful horrors of this siege and destruction are vividly portrayed by Jeremiah. Lam. 2 and 5. For 50 years the city lay in ruins.
3. Jerusalem of Ezra (ind the Ptolemies. —Under the decree of Cyrus the captives returned to Jerusalem, rebuilt the temple, and made the cit}' again habitable; and later, under Nehemiah, the city was fortified, and the walls, which had been broken for 140 years, were re-constructed, notwithstanding the opposition of San-ballat and Tobiah. Neh. 4 : 7-22; 6 : 1-16. The extent of the walls built by Nehemiah is clearly indicated in Neh. 3, and they must have enclosed a far larger space than the reduced population could require. The following description of the city and its extent is from Baedeker's Handbook of Syria (1876): " The wall extended up the hill from the pool of Siloam toward the north. On the highest point of Ophel rose a bastion, which was also intended to protect the horse-gate, an entrance of the temple toward the east. Near the horse-gate, and within the precincts of the temple, were the dwellings of the priests. On the east side it is commonly supposed that there was a second gate, called the water-gate. There were also fortifications at the north end of the temple terrace, the most important being the Biru, a large bastion restored by Nehemiah, afterward the site of Bar is. The city was further defended on the north side by the tower of Hananeel. There was also the tower of Mea, about 50 yards south of the other; but the site of both seems to be far from being even approximately determined. . . . The wall which enclosed the upper city ran toward the west and had two gates—the gate of the centre, which led from one pai't of the city to the other, and, to the extreme west, the valleri-gate, afterward called Gennath, situated to the east of the present Jaffa-gate, where Uzziah once erected a tower of defence. In the suburb to the north was, first, the corner - gate, which was probably the same as the old gate, and perhaps also the gate of Ephraim, the site of which, however, is quite uncertain. From the upper part of the city a gate led west toward the valley of Hinnom, called the dung-gate, where a rock staircase has been
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discovered. To the south a wall ran across the Tyropoeon, at the outset of which lay the spriiuj-gate, or the valley between the two walls. The situation of the potters' gate, leading to the valley of Hinnom, is a matter of mere conjecture." The city prospered under Nehemiah as a Persian governor. In b. c. 366, Jeshua was murdered by his brother, Johanan, through rivalry for the high priesthood, and Bagoses, the Persian general, entered the sanctuary, and imposed a tax of 50 darics or drachmas for every lamb oflFered during the lifetime of Johanan, which was 7 years. The two sons of Johanan, Jaddua and Manasseh, held the high priest's office jointly until after their father's death, when Manasseh joined the Samaritans, and became the first high priest of their temple on Mount Gerizim. ScoSamari-TAXS. In B. c. 332, Alexander the Great, after the famous battle of Issus, in which he gained a decisive victory over the Persians, visited Jerusalem, according to Josephus, and the high priest read to him the writings of Daniel, predicting the overthrow of Persia b}' the Greeks. This secured to the Jews various favors, among them an exemption from tribute during the sabbatical year. In B. c. 320, Ptolemy Soter captured Jerusalem because the Jews would not fight on the Sabbath, and large numbers of the people were transported to Africa. In b. c. 300, Simon the Just, a favorite hero among the Jews, became high priest, and added deep foundations to the temple, probably to gain greater surface on the top of the hill, sheathed the great sea with brass, strengthened and fortified the walls, and sustained the temple-service with great pomp and ceremony. Ptolemy Philadelphus, under whose direction the Septuagint Version of the 0. T. is reputed to have been made, at Alexandria, also made rich gifts to the temple and its service.
I Jerusalem soon after became the prey of rival parties; was visited by Ptolemy Philopator, who attempted to offer sacrifice in the temple, but was prevented by Simon, the high priest, and by a supernatural terror, which caused him to fall paralyzed upon the floor of the court. He afterwards showed great hostility to the Jews. Jerusalem was taken by Antiochus the
Great, b. c. 203, and retaken by Scopas, the Alexandrian general, b. c. 199, but a year later was opened by the Jews to Antiochus, who rewarded them with largo presents of money and materials for repairing the temple, and with considerable remission in taxes, declaring their temple inviolable. The city again had great apparent prosperity. After the death of Antiochus the Great, B. c. 187, and under the reign of the infamous Antiochus Epiphanes (since b. c. 175), it became again the scene of commotion through strifes and disgraceful Greek customs, young men being trained naked in a new gymnasium set up by Jason the high priest, to whom Antiochus had sold the office; bribery, fraud, pillage, and riot were common ; the holy place of the temple was polluted; a foreign garrison was placed in the hill of David, overlooking the temple; heathen worship was ordered to be celebrated in the sanctuary of Jehovah, and the Jews not slain were forced to submit to every species of indignity. Many of them resisted the efforts of Antiochus to destroy their religion, and suffered torments and bitter persecutions. See 1 Mace. 1: 13 ; 2 Mace. 4:9, 12; 6:10-31; 7. The Jews finally made a general revolt against the monstrous tyranny of Antiochus Epiphanes. A large army was raised under Judas Maccabaus, who gained a victory over Lysias, the Antiochian general, and the Jews re-entered Jerusalem, b. c. 165. 2 Mace. 8.
At the death of Judas Maccabseus, B. c. 161, the city again had a period of disturbance and trouble, caused by the dissensions of local rulers, until the time of John Hyrcanus, b. c. 135, when it was attacked by the king of Syria, who encircled it with seven camps, erected on the north a hundred towers of attack, each three stories high, and partially undermined the wall. A truce was, however, secured; the Syrians were induced to end the siege, and the walls were carefully repaired. After the death of Hyrcanus the city was the scene of murderous strifes and bloody wars between the petty rulers and the two leading sects, the Pharisees and Sadducees, no fewer than 50.000 persons having fallen in these feuds in six years.
The city was captured, b. c. 63, by the Roman Pompey, who left the valuable ^ 439
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treasures of the temple intact; Crassus, in B. c. 54, however, plundered the temple and city of the treasures which Pompey had spared, amounting, it is computed, to 10,000 talents, or from $8,000,000 to $10,000,000. The city was captured by the Parthians under Anti-gonus, B. c. 40, but the next year Herod, afterward the Great, laid siege to Jerusalem, supported by a Roman army; the outer walls and lower city were taken in less than 60 days, and after prolonging the siege for five months the citadel and temple were captured by storm. Later, Herod was made king by the Romans. He speedily began to improve and beautify the city, one of the chief of his works being the enlarging of the temple, which occupied 46 years. Under his rule the city was restored to something like its ancient magnificence.
4. Jerusnlem in N. T. Times. —Jerusalem, in the time of our Lord, stood in all the strength and grandeur to which it had been brought by Herod. This king died a few months after the birth of Jesus, but the royal palace, the renewed temple, the fortress of Antonia, built from the older Baris tower, the grand theatre where games were instituted in honor of Caesar, the three great towers of Hippicus, Phasajlus, and Mariamne, the bridge of Herod, between the upper city and what had been a portion of Solomon's palace,—these magnificent structures of Herod remained. The ruin
Kobinsoii's Arch.
now known as "Robinson's Arch" is a part of the bridge of Herod. Except the aqueduct built under Pilate for the 440
better supply of the city with water, no important improvements were made from the time of Herod the Great until the reign of his grandson, Herod Agrip-pa, A.D. 41. The second wall enclosed the northern part of the central valley of the city; beyond this lay Bezetha, or '' new town," which Agrippa enclosed by a third wall, that doubled the size of the city. After his death Judaea again became simply a Roman province, ruled by reckless and oppressive procurators, and Jerusalem was the scene of discontent, insurrections, riots, and petty rebellions, until Vespasian and Titus began a war to put down the insurrection. Jerusalem was besieged. The terrible suflferings and agony of the Jews shut up in the invested city, the loss of upward of 1,000,000 lives in the siege, the complete destruction of the city, A. d. 70, form one of the darkest pages in the history of this remarkable people. The rebellion was kept up for about 3 years after the fall of the city, when the Jewish power was completely destroyed and the Jews denied access to their ancient capital.
5. Jerusalem under Roman and Christian Emperors. —The city and kingdom having been destroyed by Vespasian and Titus, a new Roman Jerusalem was founded by Hadrian upon the site of the ancient city, and called ^lia Capito-Una; a temple of Jupiter was erected on the ruins of the temple of Jehovah. The Jews were not allowed to enter the city, and this law continued until the country came under the rule of the Christian emperors of the Eastern empire. Constantine restored the old name Jerusalem, and his mother, the empress Helena, devoted herself to re-discovering the lost sites of importance to Christians, erecting costly churches to commemorate some of the supposed holy places. In the reign of Julian—commonly called the Apostate—an attempt was made to rebuild the temple, but an earthquake and other supernatural occurrences caused the work to be abandoned, and the event has been regarded as a judgment of God upon an impious attempt to falsify the words of Christ. Ammianus Marcel-linus, a heathen historian, philosopher and a soldier of Julian, thus describes the failure of this attempt to rebuild the temple : *' Whilst Alypius, assisted by the
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governor of the province, urged with vigor and diligence the execution of the work, horrible balls of tire breaking out near the foundations, with frequent and reiterated attacks, rendered the place from time to time inaccessible to the scorched and blasted workmen ; and the victorious element continuing in this obstinately and resolutely bent, as it were, to drive them to a distance, the undertaking was abandoned." Chrysostom declares that persons of his time were witnesses of this defeat of the etfort to rebuild the temple, and that the above occurrences were the reason assigned for the failure of the project. This view has been strongly advocated by Bishop Warburton. The emperor Justinian founded a fine church in honor of the Virgin, a. d. 529, which some would locate upon the site of the mosque el-Aksa. In A. d. 614 the Persians, under Chosroes II., captured Jerusalem, slew thousands of the monks and clergy, and destroyed the churches.
6. Jerusalem of the Crusaders and Turks.—In A. D. 637 the city fell into the hands of Caliph Omar, and Christians were allowed to worship there, but not to erect churches. After unusual severities upon Christians by a Turkish ruler, the Crusaders captured the city in A. D. 1099; it was reconquered, 1187, by the Mohammedans under Saladin. Thrice afterward it was in Christian hands; in 1517 it came into the possession of the Osmans, and has remained in the hands of the Turks until the present time. (A description of modern Jerusalem will be found near the close of the article.) V. Topography. —The Jerusalem of to-day is built upon the ruins of several successive cities, each erected and destroyed upon the same site, and each adding to the debris of some former town. The foundations of the Jerusalem of the 0. T. and of Christ and his apostles, so far as they exist, are far below the surface of the present town. *'The city shall be builded upon her own heap," said Jeremiah, 30: 18; and this we know has been fulfilled many times. Owing to this repeated burial of the Jerusalem of the various periods described above, the precise location of the biblical sites and ancient holy places in and about the city has led to long and sharp controversy. Even the location of Zion and Moriah has been disputed
with great ability and learning. The energetic and successful explorations of the English Palestine Fund proved that remains of the ancient enclosing walls about the temple still exist, about 80 feet below the present surface. Upon these immense stone blocks, lying at that depth upon a rocky foundation, there were discovered Phoenician quarry-marks. The shafts sunk by Captains Warren and Wilson have since been filled up, and Jerusalem topography is still confused by the mazes of many conflicting opinions. A brief statement of the general divisions and features of Jerusalem has already been given under Physical Features, p. 4.34.
The theory of Mr. Fergusson, in Smith's Dictionary, which would identify Zion with the hill on which the temple stood, has been generally rejected by scholars. The lower eastern hill, known as Mount Moriah, is the site of Solomon's temple; west of it was the higher hill of Zion, called also the city of David. Bezetha was on the north of Zion, according to Josephus.
Walls of David and of Nehemiah. —As the walls of the old city rebuilt b}' Nehemiah were, it is believed, upon the old foundations, the city, as renovated after the great captivity,'must have been upon the same site, and have covered nearly the same area as the Jerusalem of David and Solomon. Dr. Howard Crosby, in Johnson's Cycloj)?edia, says of the city as restored by Nehemiah : " Elia-shib the high priest is first mentioned as leading the workers at the sheep-gate, and at the wall as far as the tower of the Hundred {Ha Meah) and the tower of Hananeel. These jjlaces we must, of course, find in the temple-region. . . . The description in Nehemiah follows the wall from the centre of the east side of the city northward. The sheep-gate must have been in the centre of the temple-precinct wall. . . . If the jjrobatika of John 5:2 be the sheep-gate, and the Pool of Bethesda be the Fountain of the Virgin, with its intermittent flow, then we should suppose the sheep-gate to be farther south ; but the Pool of Bethesda may have been within the temple-precinct, and the present Fountain of the Virgin may receive to-day the intermittent eff'ects which in former times showed them-
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selves in another pool, now filled up. We are inclined to think that this sheep-gate is the same as the Mlshneh, or ' second gate/ of Zeph. 1: 10, and the 'college' of 2 Kgs. 22: U, where the prophetess Huldah lived. In this case the fish-gate would be the first gate (see Zeph. 1 : 10), and would represent the north-eastern corner of the city, opposite the Mount of Olives. Between the fish-gate and the sheep-gate would stand the tower of Hananeel and the tower of Meah (or the Hundred). The ' old gate' would be fovmd next as we follow the north wall north-westward. The course would be along the ' second wall' of Jo-sephus, for the first or old wall seems to have been the northern fortification of Zion. The ' old gate ' may be really the Jeshanah gate. 2 Chr. 13 : 19. . . . The 'gate of Ephraim' comes next in Nehe-miah (not in his account of the building, but in his record of the dedication, 12 : 39), and may have occupied the site of the present Damascus gate. Then follows the ' broad wall' (some local peculiarities of the wall, perhaps for defence), and then we reach the ' Tower of the Furnaces,' which may have stood over the western valley, as the towers of Hananeel and the Hundred overlooked the eastern. The 'valley-gate' would correspond with the present Jaff'a-gate. Near this was the ' Dragon-well.' Neh. 2 : 13. The 'dung-gate' (if our suppositions above are correct) would be 1000 cubits south of the JaSa-gate, Neh. 3 : 13—that is, on the south-western part of Zion, over against the Birket es-Sul-tan (Pool of the Sultan). The 'fountain-gate' would lie on the opposite side of Zion, facing the Pool of Siloam. The ' stairs' that go down from the city of David would be found between the fountain-gate and the south-western temple-corner. They were probably an ascent from the king's gardens to the Davidian palace on Zion. The sepulchres of David, the ' king's pool,' Neh. 2 : 14, and the house of the mighty were probably at the corner of Zion, over against the south-western temple-corner, where the wall crossed the Tyro-pceon. The 'armory'is in this neighborhood, at the very corner where the wall turns abruptly southward to encircle Ophel. The ' house of the high priest' and the ' house of Azariah' are 442
near this. After turning the extreme corner of Ophel southwardjwe reach the' tower which lieth out from the king's high house,' which may be the extra tower discovered by Capt. Warren's subterranean explorations {Recovery of Jerusalem, p. 229). As he himself suggests, it may have been built out in order to guard the fountain of the Virgin. The ' water-gate' would be so called in relation to this fountain. By this water-gate, on Ophel, was a broad street or square, where assemblies could be held in the immediate vicinity of the temple. Neh. 8 : 1, 3, 16. Near by was the ' horse-gate,' famous as the spot where Atha-liah was put to death. . . . The gate ' Miphkad' may mark some angle of the walls connected with the division, as a special corner is here mentioned, Neh. 3 : 32, before we reach the sheep-gate again."
The next important view of Jerusalem topography is that during our Lord's day, and until its destruction by the Romans, a. d. 70. The only full description of the city near that date which has come down to us is found in Josephus. The city was defended on the east, south, and west by a single wall; upon the north three walls were successively built, the second outside of the first, and the third outside of the second. The position of these walls is one of the disputed questions in Jerusalem topography. In reconstructing the city as it appeared in our Lord's day the reader must remember that the third wall, which enclosed the new city, Bezetha, on the north, was built by Herod Agrippa, about A. D. 42, and therefore after the crucifixion and ascension of Christ. All the three walls noticed by Josephus are upon the north of the upper city, or Zion, but there is much controversy respecting the course of these walls, particularly the second and the third wall. It must be further borne in mind that the ancient walls probably included the southern portions of the hills of Zion and of Ophel, which are outside the present walls of the city.
The following description of the city before its destruction by Titus is condensed from Josephus, Jewiih War, v., 4; several of his points in the course have not been identified.
" 1. Jerusalem was fortified with three walls on such parts as were not en-
Eastern Wall of Jerusalem and Muslim Tombs. {Aft-er Photograph by Bonfih.)
There are many cemeteries, sepulchres, and tombs about Jerusalem, but the favorite buryiiig-place of the Muslims is along the east wall, adjoining the Baram esh-Sherif, since, according to their traditions, the general judgment will take place in this locality. They say that all men will then assemble in the Valley of Jehoshaphat (at the left of the picture). A thin wire rope will he stretched across the valley to the Mount of Olives. Christ will sit on the wall and Mohammed on the mount, as judges. All men must pass over the intervening space on the rope. The righteous will be kept by the angels from falling, while the wicked will be precipitated into the abyss of hell. Near the centre of the picture can be seen the Golden Gate, which has been kept closed from a very early period.
The Interior of the Jaffa-Gate. {After Photograph by Bonfils.) The JafiTa-gate, called also " Yafa-gate," '• Hebron-gate," and by the Arabs Bdh el-Khulil, is on the west side of Jerusalem. It consists of a massive square tower, the entrance to which from without is on the northern side, and the exit within on the eastern. A11 the roads from the country south and west converge to this gate. One street—and it is generally the one first trodden by Western pilgrims—leads from the Jaffa-gate eastward past the space by the citadel, and down the side of the ridge and across the valley to the principal entrance of the Haram. This street is called by some the " Street of Uavid." Outside the Jaffa-gate is the usual camping-place of all travellers reaching Jerusalem by way of Jaffa and from Hebron or Bethlehem.
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compassed with impassable valleys; in such places it hath but one wall. The city was built upon two hills. Of these hills, that which contains the upper city is much higher, and was called the citadel by King David, but it is by us called the upj)er market-place. The other hill, which was called Acra and sustains the lower city, is of the shape of a moon when she is horned. Over against this there was a third hill, but naturally lower than Acra, and parted formerly from the other by a broad valley. However, in those times when the Asamonee-ans reigned they filled up that valley with earth, and had a mind to join the city to the temple. They then took oflF part of the height of Acra, that the temple might be superior to it. Now, the Valley of the Cheesemongers, which distinguished the hill of the upper city from that of the lower, extended as far as Siloam, a fountain that hath sweet water. But on the outsides these hills are surrounded by deep valleys ; and by reason of the precipices to them belonging on both sides, they are everywhere impassable.
" 2. Now, of these three walls, the old one was hard to be taken, both by reason of the valleys and of that hill on which it was built. But besides that great advantage as to the place where they were situated, it was also built very strong, because David and Solomon and the following kings were very zealous about this work. Now, that wall began on the north at a tower called Hippicus, and extended as far as the Xistus, and then, joining to the council-house, ended at the west cloister of the temple. But if we go the other way westward, it began at the same place, and extended through a place called Bethso to the gates of the Essenes; and after that it went southward, having its bending above the fountain Siloam, where it also bends again toward the east at Solomon's Pool, and reaches as far as a certain place which they called Ophlas, where it was joined to the eastern cloister of the temple. The second wall took its beginning from that gate Gennath which belonged to the first wall; it only encompassed the northern quarter of the city, and reached as far as the tower An-tonia. The beginning of the third wall was at the tower Hippicus, whence it 444
reached as far as the north quarter of the city and the tower Psephinus, and then was so far extended until it came over against the monuments of Helena, queen of Adiabene, the daughter of Izates; it then extended farther to a great length, and passed by the sepulchral caverns of the kings, and bent again at the tower of the corner, at the Monument of the Fuller, and joined to the old wall at the valley called the T^«/-ley of Cedron. Agrippa added to the old city, by this wall, a fourth hill, called Bezetha, or 'new city.' It lies over against the tower Antonia, but is divided from it by a deep valley, which was dug to strengthen the tower. The father of the present king, Agrippa, began the third wall, but he left off building it when he had onl}' laid the foundations, out of the fear he was in of Claudius Caesar, lest he should suspect that so strong a wall was built in order to make some innovations in public aflfairs; for the city could no way have been taken if that wall had been finished in the manner it was begun, as its parts were connected together by stones 20 cubits long and 10 cubits broad, which could never have been either easily undermined by any iron tools or shaken by any engines. The wall was, however, 10 cubits wide; after that it was erected with great diligence by the Jews as high as 20 cubits, above which it had battlements of 2 cubits, and turrets of 3 cubits' altitude, insomuch that the entire altitude was 25 cubits."
This third wall is said to have been defended by 90 towers. The strongest of these was the Psejjhinus tower, at the north-western angle, which was upward of 100 feet in height and stood on the highest ground in the city (2572 feet above the sea).
The First Wall. —In respect to the course of the first wall there is, in the main, greater agreement among scholars than in respect to either of the other two. This wall began at the tower of Hippicus on the west, ran to the south around the pinnacle of the hill, enclosing Siloam, and extended to the eastern wall of the temple-precincts. South of this north wall stood the palace of Herod, the Xistus, and the bridge which crossed the Tyropoeon to the temple. Another
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wall ran down on the western margin of the Tyropoeon to defend the upper part of the city.
The Second Wall and Site of Calvary. — No certain traces of the second wall have been discovered. Respecting the course of this wall there has been sharp dispute, for upon it depends the question of the genuineness of the *' holy sepulchre"' and of the site of Calvary. Robinson, Tobler, Ilupfeld, Arnold, John Wilson, Thomson, Barclay, Bonar, Fergusson, Porter, Meyer, Ewald, Schatf, Crosby, Conder, and others, dispute the traditional site of the holy sepulchre, since in their view the second wall included its site within the city. On the other hand, Roman Catholics, as De Vogue, De Saulcy, and Sepp, and able Protestants, as Rev. Geo. Williams, KraflFt, Ritter, Schultz, Rosen, Von Schubert, Raumer, Fiirrer, F. A. Strauss, and Lewin, argue that the second wall excluded the site of the holy sepulchre, and therefore they accept the old tradition that it is the true site of the crucifixion. From the account in the Gospels it is clear that the place of the crucifixion was outside the city. Matt. 28 : 11 ; Mark 15 : 20,21; Luke 23:26; John 19:17; Heb. 13 : 12, 13, but it was also nigh to the city, John 19 : 20, and near a common thoroughfare frequented by many, Matt. 27 : 39 ; Mark 15 ; 29 ; John 19 : 20; and again, it was on a conical elevation (hence called ''Place of a Skull" or Calvary, but not Mount Calvary, for which there is no Scripture warrant). Matt. 27 : 33 ; Mark 15 : 22 ; Luke 23 : 33 ; John 19 : 17; and lastly, it was in a garden which had a sepulchre hewn in a rock, where Christ was buried. Matt. 27:60 ; John 19:38-42.
Several writers of the fourth and fifth centuries ascribe the discovery of the site of Calvary to Helena, mother of Constan-tine, who found three crosses there, and who also discovered which was the true cross of our Saviour by a miracle of healing which its touch produced upon a sick woman. Helena caused a splendid church to be erected on the spot, a. D. 335. It has since been several times destroyed and rebuilt, but tradition has fixed upon this spot as the place of Christ's crucifixion and burial. The advocates of this tradition must prove that the old city excluded this site. The Rev. Geo. Williams sums up the argu-
ments in favor of the traditional view, and Robinson presents, with marked ability, the objections to it. Dr. Schatf, in Throuijh Bible Lunds, says: "The old city was much larger and more densely inhabited than the present, and consequently more likely to include the site of that church [Holy Sepulchre] than to exclude it. ... The champions of the tradition, therefore, are bound to prove that the location of the city has greatly changed, and that the second wall of Josephus (which ran circuitously from the gate Gennath— i. e. the garden-gate, near the tower of Hippicus—to the fortress of Antonia, on the north of the temple-area) excluded the church of the Holy Sepulchre. This has not been proved. It is possible, but very improbable. Diligent search for wall-foundations has failed so far. The ruins near the church of the Holy Sepulchre, which have been supposed by Williams and others to be fragments of the second wall, have proved to be portions of a church, and the old arch called the gate Gennath is a compax-atively recent building." See Calvary. The precise course of the second wall can only be unquestionably settled by further excavations, and this, if settled, would decide whether the church of the Holy Sepulchre covers the true site of Calvary, as tradition claims, or whether Calvary must be sought elsewhere, as the weight of scholarship now seems to require. Some of those who reject the traditional site locate Calvary a few minutes' walk north of the present Damascus-gate, not far from the Grotto of Jeremiah. Here is a skull-shaped, rocky elevation, about half a mile from the fortress Antonia (Pilate'sjudgment-hall), and the same distance from Mount Zion (Herod's palace) and on the highway to Damascus. The spot is encircled by rock-caverns and tombs. It answers all the requirements of the Gospel narratives, and is accepted by Bishop Gobat of Jerusalem, Conrad Schick, Schaff", and others, and a similar view was advocated b}' Fisher Howe of Brooklyn, 1871, and more recently by Conder, 1878. The Third WalL—HhG situation of the third wall is likewise disputed by topographical writers. Some, as Kie-pert, Fergusson, Wilson, and others, make it reach to, and possibly include,
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the so-called royal tombs and the whole northern mountain-plateau, on which man}' ruins and cisterns lie scattered. Robinson places the third wall about the middle of this locality; to this Baedeker objects on strategical grounds. Others suggest that this third wall occupied about the same site as the present north wall of Jerusalem, which view is claimed to accord with the distances given by Jo-sephus (4 stadia to the royal tombs, 7 stadia to the Scopus), but Josephus is not always accurate. Capt. Warren advocates this latter view, that the positions of the third wall and of the present northern wall are identical, though he acknowledges that he found no decisive evidence on the subject. The reader will not be surprised at the general uncertainty which prevails in regard to the ancient walls and sacred sites in the Holy City when he remembers that it has been 27 times besieged and 17 times conquered, and often desolated. The present walls are of recent date, being built by Suleiman the Magnificent in 1542.
Plans of the City, —Mr. Besant, secretary of the Palestine Exploration Fund, received 18 diff"erent reconstructions of ancient Jerusalem, by as many eminent scholars, yet all based on the authors' views of the statements in the Bible, Josephus, and by late explorers. The most important plans are those of Robinson, Schultz, Williams, Furrer, Barclay, Van de Velde, Tobler, British Ordnance Survey, and Schick. Fergusson's j^lan (Smith's Bible Dictionanj), although the view of a distinguished architect, is too untenable to be of value or interest to the ordinary student. The chief of these plans are given upon another page.
The Temple-site. —The site of the temple has long been a subject of controversy among scholars, but nearly all agree that it was on Mount Moriah, which is at present occupied by the H(tram, wherein stands the mosque of Omar. Some place it in the south-western corner of the area now known as the Haram esh-Sherif, but the discovery of immense stones at the base of the south-eastern corner of the present Haram wall, lying in place on a rocky foundation cut out to receive them, 80 feet below the present surface, and bearing Phoenician quarry-marks, 446
seems to confirm the earlier view that remains of the buildings of Solomon still exist there, and that Solomon's temple stood upon the centre of the Haram area or the site of the mosque of Omar, and shows the fallacy of Mr. Fergusson's view that the temple-area reached only 600 feet east from the south-western corner of the present Haram area, since these discovered stones at the southeastern corner are 900 feet eastward. The explorations of Capts. Wilson and Warren prove that the south-eastern corner is unchanged, while the southwestern has undoubtedly been added, probably by Herod. Beneath the Haram area there are aqueducts, subterranean passages, and tanks, some of them constructed, doubtless, for proper drainage and use of the temple; hence the inference from recent discoAeries is that the present Haram area very nearly coincides with that of the old temple-area.
Zion and the Ti/ropaeon. —Two other places of interest in the Holy City besides Calvary—which has been noticed under the second wall—are the hill of Zion and the Tyropoeon Valley. Zion is a broad hill with an abrupt front nearly 400 feet high at one point above the southern valley, the hill having a length of 2400 feet to the JaS"a-gate, and from the Tyropoeon to the western valley a breadth of about 1600 feet. The " first wall " was built along the northern brow of Zion. The plateau of Zion included about half the ancient city. Zion is scarcely 200 feet lower than Olivet. The Tyrojioeon valley, known also as the "Valley of the Cheesemongers," extended from the junction of the Hinnom and Kedron valleys northward, dividing Zion from Moriah, and, according to one view, continued northward toward the present Jaff"a-gate, but, according to another view, turned toward the present Damascus-gate; while a third view supposes that it covered the two branches reaching to the two gates above named. The portion of the valley between Zion and Moriah increased rapidly in depth as it extended southward, and at the south-western corner of the temple-area the bed of the valley was 90 feet below the present surface, giving an entire altitude of wall amounting to 150 feet, and in Herod's time to over 200
Plans of Ancient Jerusalem.
The five plans given above indicate the views of some of the best authorities in regard to the topography of ancient Jerusalem.
The first wall enclosed the old part of the town, or " upper city," upon Mount Zion, and extending to the Walls of the temple-enclosure.
The second wall enclosed the old suburb, or " lower city," upon Acra. The plan of Sepp (Konian Catholic) puts the site of the present churcli of the Holy Sepulchre outside that wall, in accordance with tlie traditional view. The other jjlans include that site within the second wall, in whicli case it cannot have been the place of the crucifixion, which took place outside of the city.
The third wall was built by Agrippa, eleven years after the death of Christ.
Date of plans: Robinson, 1841-1856; Sepp, 1873; Tobler, 184»-18.58; Schick. 1876; Conder, 1879.
For the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as the genuine Calvary are: l>e Voc;u6, lie Saulcy, Sepp (Roman Catholic), Williams, Hitter. Krafft, Schultz, Strauss (Protestants) ; also I'^urrer, in Schenkel's Bihellexikon, ii. 506.
Against the traditional view : Robinson, Tobler, John
Wilson, Tl ipsou. Harclav, Bonar, Fergusson, Porter,
Van de Vcl.lc, .Mcvcr, Ewald (all Protestants) ; also SchafT, Through liihle Lands, p. 259, aad Conder, in Handbook of the Jiille, p. 350.
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feet; so that the statement of Josephus no longer seems a foolish exaggeration : " If any one looked down from the top of the battlements, he would be giddy, while his sight could not reach to such an immense depth." The gates, pools, and environs of the Holy City may be appropriately noticed under the description of modern Jerusalem. VI. Modern Jerusalem.— The present city is built upon the ruins of the ancient Holy City. The buildings, walls, towers, and bridges of the city of David and Solomon, of Hezekiah, of Nehemiah and Ezra, of the Macc;i|bees, and of Herod, have been demolished, so that the depth of the rubbish around the temple-walls is nearly 100 feet; on the hill of Zion the rubbish is 40 feet deep, and on the Via Dolorosa it is from 15 to 30 feet deep. The buildings, walls, streets, and towers now standing on these sacred hills cannot with any certaintj^ be identified with the structures which adorned the city 2000 years ago, and whose very foundations, so far as discovered, lie buried many feet below the present surface.
Environs of Jerusalem. —To gain a clear view of the places immediately around modern Jerusalem we may begin on the east side of the city, near the Mount of Olives. Passing by the Bir-ket-Israel, identified by some as the Pool of Bethesda, we go out of St. Stephen's gate, and cross a bridge leading over the Kedron or '' black brook," which runs southward through a deep valley, now dry above the springs. This valley is also called the Valley of Jehoshaphat, and an old tradition makes it the scene of the last judgment, founded on a misinterpretation of Joel 3:2. At the resurrection the sides of the valley, according to this tradition, will move apart to give suflBcient room for the vast assembly. Beyond the Kedron is the modern chapel of the Tomb of the Virgin, near which is the traditional Cavern of Agony, and a short distance farther on, upon the slope at the foot of Olivet, is the garden of Geth-semane. It is now enclosed and in charge of Franciscan monks. It contains a number of venerable olive trees, whose large trunks, some of them 19 feet in circumference, are burst from age, and have been shored up with stones. These trees are said to date from the time of 448
Christ; but this is questionable, since it is certain Titus and Hadrian cut down all the trees about Jerusalem. They are, however, of great age, and may be the descendants of some trees that were standing here in our Lord's day. See Gethsemane. From this garden three roads lead up the slopes of Olivet—one to the south, around the top of the mount, another to the north, and a third, or middle path, leads up the steepest part to the summit. See Olivet. The view of Jerusalem from Mount Olivet is the finest that can be secured. Bethany lies a short distance east of the summit of Olivet. See Bethany. In the valley south of Olivet are the Tombs of the Prophets, no doubt belonging to the Jewish period. To the west of Geth-semane a road leads down the Kedron valley, by which stands the so-called TomlD of Absalom (see Absalom), and beyond are the Tomb of Jehoshaphat and the Tomb or Pyramid of Zacharias. Above these, to the east, the whole slope of the hill is covered with Jewish tombstones, and to the south of these lies the village ofSihcan, or Siloah. The southern part of the Mount of Olives, on which this village is situated, is called also the Mount of Offence, from 1 Kgs. 11 : 7. To the west are the valleys of Jehoshaphat and of Hinnom. To the south, down the Valley of Jehoshaphat, is the Pool of Siloah and St. Mary's Well, which is fed by an intermittent spring; still farther down the valley is Job's Fountain, probably the "En-rogel" or fullers' spring of Josh. 15 : 7 and 1 Kgs. 1:9. To the west of this is the mouth of the Valley of Hinnom, always dry, on the south of which is the Mount of Evil Counsel, upon which tradition, probably correctly, places Aceldama, "potter's field" or "the field of blood." Matt. 27 : 7, 8. The hill is full of rock-tombs. At the foot of this mount, the bottom of the Valley of Hinnom was called Tophet. 2 Kgs. 23: 10; Isa. 30: 33; Jer. 7: 31; 19: 11. North of this valley, and upon the southern portion of the hill of Zion—which was formerly included within the walls of the city, but is now outside the city (as the present walls only embrace the northern portion of Zion)—are the Jewish and Christian burying-grounds. In the portion of Zion outside the city walls
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Porter saw oxen ploughing, in fulfilment of the prophecy, " Zion shall be ploughed like a field." Jer. 26 : IS ; Mic. 3 : 12. An old aqueduct runs past Zion's gate and into the city between that gate and the gate eastward of it, supposed to be the dung-gate. Across the Valley of Hinnom, to the westward, is the large Jewish hospice, a modern structure founded by Sir Moses Montefiore, while between this and the south-western corner of the present wall is the Pool of the Sultan, 175 yards long, 73 yards wide, and from 35 to 41 feet deep, partly filled with rubbish. This pool is by some identified with the " lower pool" of Isa. 22 : 9. North of this pool is a conduit, which runs from Solomon's pools into the city, a Greek monastery, a leper hospital, and the Bhket-Mamilhr, or " Mamil-la pool." 291 by 192 feet, and 19 feet deep, which may be the''upper pool" Gihon, Isa. 7: 3, or, as Baedeker proposes, the Serpent's pool of Josephus. These are upon the south side of the road, leading from Jaffa (Joppa) into Jerusalem by the Jaffa-gate on the west side of the city. Crossing this road to the north are the Kussian buildings, a church, a monastery, and a hospice: outside the city, and farther north, in the city wall, is the Damascus-gate, to the north of which, outside the wall, is the Grotto of Jeremiah, near which many place the true site of Calvary. Farther from the city wall, to the north, are the so-called Tombs of the Kings, and beyond these the hill Scopus, which is the northern extension of Olivet and completes our circuit of the city.
The Cifi/ and iffi Divisions. —The present city of Jerusalem stands upon the northern portions of the hill of Zion and of Moriah, the part of the old city known as Acra, and upon Bezetha, a portion of Jerusalem which dates from Agrippa, A. D. 42, The walls now exclude the southern sections of the hill of Zion and of Ophel. The cit}^ is also divided into four quarters by the main streets, and these quarters are named from the classes of inhabitants which dwell in Jerusalem. The largest division, in the north-eastern part of the city, is known as the Mohammedan quarter; west of this is the Greek and Fiank, or Christian quarter; to the south of it lies the Armenian quarter; while to 29
the east of the Armenian and to the south of the Mohammedan lies the Jewish quarter.
Jerusalem is now enclosed by a wall (dating from Suleiman in the sixteenth century), 38^ feet high, having 34 towers and 7 gates. The town as thus walled in forms an irregular quadrangle of about 2^ miles in circumference, around which a person can easily walk in an hour. The city has few open spaces ; the streets are generally narrow, crooked, and poorly paved; and the narrower streets are mere blind-alleys, exceedingly filthy after a rain. The chief streets form the boundaries of the principal quarters of the town. The Damascus and Bazaar streets, from the north, separate the Moslem from the Christian or Greek quarter, and farther south divide the Jewish from the Armenian quarter. The main street, running from the Jaffa-gate to the Ha-ram area, first divides the Christian from the Armenian quarter, and to the eastward separates the Moslem from the Jewish quarter. See Baedeker's Pahs-tine. The seven important gates are : in the west wall, (1) The Yafa or Jaffa gate; in the north wall, (2) the Damascus gate, and (3) Herod's gate, closed for 25 years, but of late opened a portion of the year; in the east wall, (4) St. Stephen's gate and (5) the Golden gate, long since walled up ; in the south wall, (6) Babel-Mayhar-ibeh, or the so-called dung-gate, and (7) Sion's gate. There are also other gates, now closed up ; as, the triple gate, the double or Huldah gate, and another old gate adjoining it, walled up.
The city has no springs, but it is supplied with water by cisterns filled from the rain-falls on the roofs of the houses, by pools, of which there are six or more in and about the city, and by conduits and wells or springs outside the town. The chief pools have been already noticed. They may be here grouped together: The BJrket-Mamilla, Birket-Sultan, Pool of Siloam, Fountain or Pool of the Virgin, Birket-Israel, and the Pool of Hezekiah. "The Birket-Ma-milla," says Crosby, "is supposed to be the upper pool, Isa. 7 : 3 ; 2 Kgs. 18 : 17. It lies 2000 feet west of the Jaffa-gate, The Birket-Sultan is a section of the great western valley dammed up for more than 500 feet. The Pool of Siloam, Neh. 3: 15 ; John 9: 7, is in the mouth of the
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Tjropoeon, at its junction yvith the Hin-nom and the Kedron valleys. It was probably used to irrigate the king's garden. It is connected, by a long, rude, and crooked subterranean passage, with
Pool of Hezekiali, inside the Jaffii-gate. {After a Photograph by Bonfils.)
the Fountain of the Virgin, on the other side of Ophel, from which the water flows softly. . . . The Fountain of the Virgin is a pool on the eastern side of the Ophel rock, to which is a descent of 28 steps. The water comes into it from the direction of the temple, but has never been traced. It has a periodic and sudden rise of a foot in height, the periods varying from two to three times a day to once in two or three days. This periodic troubling of the water seems to mark the Fountain of the Virgin as the Pool of Bethesda, unless we may suppose that a pool farther up on the temple-mount formerly received this intermittent flow. The requirements of the sheep-gate (see above) seem to put Bethesda farther north. The Birket-Israel, just inside St. Stephen's gate and north of the Ha-ram (supposed by Robinson to be the trench of Antonia), is the damming up of the valley that runs east of Bezetha in a south-eastern direction, originally under the north-eastern corner of the Haram into the Kedron. . . The Pool of Ilezekiah is north of the Jaffa-gate street; ... is supplied by an aqueduct from the Birket-Mamilla. ... A system of wells and aqueducts in the Kedron ravine below Jerusalem (the En-rogel of antiquity) presents features of peculiar interest. One of the several ancient 450
aqueducts still conducts the water from
Solomuu's pools beyond Bethlehem to the city." Crosby in Johnson's Cyclopaedia, vol. ii. p. 1.398.
The Buildings. —The houses in Jerusalem are built chiefly of stone, and are two or three stories high, and owing to the scarcity of timber even many of the roofs are also of stone. The roofs are generally flat, supported by vaults and ai'ches below. Some, however, are dome-shaped. There are few windows opening on the streets; these openings are chiefly toward the interior open court of the house. The more important buildings are—those in the Haram enclosure on Mount Moriah: the " Dome of the Rock " or mosque of Omar, mosque El-Aksa, the mosque known as the Throne of Solomon; those in the Christian quarter: the church of the Holy Sepulchre, Coptic convent, Abyssinian monastery, Muristan, or ruins of the knights-hospitallers, nine convents, and two hotels; those in the Mohammedan quarter: church of Mary Magdalene, church of St. Anne, two convents, Pilate's hall, two mosques, the city prison ; in the Jewish quarter: two synagogues, three hospitals, and a spot of the deepest interest, known as the "Jews' Wail-ing-place;" in the Armenian quarter: tower of David, tower of Hippicus, four convents, the lepers' quarter, and the church of St. James.
Haram exli-Shertf. —The extent of this enclosure, which covers the ground on which the temple stood, is, according to the British Ordnance Survey, on the north wall, 1042 feet; east, 1530 feet; south, 922 feet; west, 1601; or a total circumference of 5095 (nearly a mile), and the total area is .35 aci-es. Near the centre of the enclosure is a raised platform, upon which once stood the temple of Solomon, later the less glorious temple of Zerubbabel, and last the temple of Herod, which was built in the time of Christ, and was destroyed by the Romans, a. d. 70. The attempt to rebuild the Jewish temple under Julian the Apostate, A. D. 362, was a complete failure, as already noticed. See p. 440. During the reign of Hadrian, a. d. 136, a temple of Jupiter occupied this sacred spot, and a shrine of Venus was placed upon the site of the Holy Sepulchre. In place of the temple now stands the Kuh-
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bet es-Sakhara, " Dome of the Rock," or mosque of Omar—''perhaps/' says Hepworth Dixon, "the very noblest specimen of building-art in Asia." " It is," says SchafF, " the most prominent as well as the most beautiful building in the whole city, It stands out conspicuously in every picture of Jerusalem. ... It is the second mosque of Islam, inferior only to that of 5lecca, as Jerusalem is its second sacred city. . . . The mosque stands on an irregular base of 10 feet in height, and is approached by three flights of steps, which terminate in elegant arcades, called ' scales,' because, according to tradition, the scales of judgment are to be suspended here. The mosque is an octagonal building, each side measuring 67 feet." Baedeker says : " Each of the eight sides is 66 feet in length, and is covered externally as far as the pedestal with porcelain tiles of the Persian style, and lower down with marble. Each tile has been written upon and burned separately. Passages from the Koran, beautifully inscribed in interwoven characters, run round the building like a frieze." The whole structure is 170 feet high, and is surmounted by a dome supported on 4 great piers and 12 Corinthian columns. The design of the building is Byzantine, and Sepp regards it as originally a church of Justinian; others trace its origin to Omar. It has four gates, facing the four cardinal points of the compass. The most interesting object in the mosque is the rock beneath the dome, which is 57 feet long and 43 feet wide, and rises from 1 to 5 or 6 feet above the mosaic marble pavement. It is enclosed by an iron railing. Jewish tradition marks this spot as the place where Melchizedek offered sacrifice, where Abraham offered Isaac, where the ark of the covenant in the holy of holies stood, where the unspeakable name of God was inscribed upon the rock, which Jesus was able to read, and which gave him his power to perform miracles; and finally, that this spot was the centre of the earth. The Mohammedans, not to be outdone by the Jews, accept all these traditions or have improved on them. The excavations of Capts. Wilson and Warren have thrown much light on this portion of Jerusalem, covered as deeply with tradi-452
tions as with rubbish. By means of a shaft sunk at the west wall and southern extremity of Wilson's Arch, Warren found twenty-one courses of bevelled stones, from 3 feet 8 inches to 4 feet high, making in all 75 feet above the foundation-rock, and all these were in their original position, but covered with debris. These stone blocks, of which the topmost are from 35 to 55 feet below the present surface, are hewn smooth on every side except the outside, where they are bevelled, and are jointed with mortar or cement, but so accurately that a knife cannot be introduced between them. The wall is not perpendicular, but slopes outward toward its base. He inferred that this formed a part of the wall of Solomon's temple. The southern wall, from the double gate to the south-eastern angle, he also regarded as of Solomonic age and as forming a part of Solomon's palace. The south-western portion was more modern, and he supposes a square of 300 feet was added by Herod, and that Herod's temple occupied the whole southern portion of the present sanctuary. On the south-east are immense vaults, and beneath the temple-area immense cisterns were found, of which thirty-three were described. They were cut out of the soft rock, and had a depth of from 25 to 50 feet and a ca-pacitv estimated at from 10,000,000 to 12,000,000 of gallons—enough to furnish a year's supply of water for the whole city. A single cistern, called the " Great Sea," would hold 2,000,000 gallons. The water was supplied partly by the rain and pai-tly by an aqueduct, which connected these reservoirs with Solomon's Pools, beyond Bethlehem and 13 miles from Jerusalem. The overflow from these cisterns was conducted through a rock-cut channel into the valley of the Kedron, which also served as a sewer to carry away the refuse arising from sacrifices of the temple. In the eastern wall of the Haram area a stair ascends to the top of the wall, and the stump of a column built in horizontally may be seen protruding from the wall. The Moslems say that all men will assemble in the Valley of Jehoshaphat when a trumpet-blast proclaims the last judgment, and that from this column a thin wire will be
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1. Wady Umm el' Anab (or Wady es
2. Wady el Haiuarah. [Samar).
3. 'Ain el Madowerah.
4. Ras es Sillim.
5. Ras el Madbaseh.
6. Ard es Samar.
7. Ras el Mesharif (Scopus).
8. Bir el Mesharif.
9. Ras Abu Malawi.
10. Khallet el 'Ajuz.
11. 'Ain es Suwan. 1'2. Ras Umm et Tal'a.
13. 'Akabet es Suwan.
14. Bir el Ka'ah.
15. Kusr el Kutb.
16. Kusr esh Shehabi.
17. Kusr el Khatib.
18. Kusr el Ka'aU.
19. Kusi el Mufti.
20. Bir eth Thogherah.
21. Bir Zeitunat el Haweileh.
22. Bir er Rasasveh.
23. Sheikh Jerrih.
24. 'Akabet Sheikh Jerrah.
25. Bir el Yehudiyeh (and Tomb of
Simon the Just). [tA).
26. Bir Sheikh Jerrah (in Court of
27. Tombs of the Judges (or Saii-
hedrin). [Tomb).
28. Kabur es Salatan (Helena's
29. Rujm el Kehakir.
30. Mugharet el 'Auab.
31. Sheikh Kamir. [ings).
32. El Muskobiyeh (Russian build-
33. St. Stephen's (Ruins). [tion).
34. F.l Heidheniiyeh (Phice of K.xecu-
35. Kurm csh Sheikh.
36. Bir el Huwarah.
37. Bir el Kos.
.38. Birket Mamilla.
39. Birket es Sultan. [Cross).
40. Deir es Salth (Convent of the
41. Khallet et Tarhah.
42. Khurbet el Bedr.
43. Khurbet es Salah.
44. Khallet el Kusab.
45. Bir Abu Shalbek.
46. Kurm Ahmed.
47. Ras eu Nadr.
48. Kusr el Kurmeh.
49. Wady Umm Ahmed.
50. Kusr Isheuar (Schnellev's Or-
phanage).
51. Sheikh Bedr.
52. Khurbet el Khaniis.
53. Wady el Wely.
54. Khurbet el Khazuk.
55. El Hawieh. [Kvil Coun.soTi
56. Jebel Deir Abu Tor (.Mount of
57. Sheikh Ahmed et Torch (at 56). ,58. Bir Evub.
59. AVadv Kadflm.
60. Bir el Khulil.
61. W.ady Deir es Sonneik.
62. Batn el Howa.
63. Sheikh Selman el Farsi.
64. Kefr et Tor (Village, and Church
of Ascension).
65. Russian House on Olivet. 66.-Pater Noster Chapel.
67. New Convent of the Latins.
68. Tombs of the Prophets.
69. Bethphage Chapel.
70. Jebel et Tor (Mount of Olives).
71. El K'adi (where Christ sat).
72. Rus Mesa'adet Sidua 'Aisa.
73. Ahbal el Kibrit. [Tomb).
74. Kubr Sitti Miriam (Virgin's
75. El Khelweh (the Hei-mitage).
76. Getliseniiine.
77. AV.ady es Sahel.
78. Silwau (the village of Siloam).
79. 'Ain Umm et Dei-aj (En Rogel
and Oihon).
80. Tantdr Fer'6n( Absalom's Pillar).
81. 'Ain Sihvan (Pool of Siloam).
82. Ncby Daiid (the Ctenaculuni).
83. wady en Nar (Kedion).
84. W.ady et Rababeh (Hinnoni).
85. Humm.ani Tubariya (Protestant
Cometerv). HC. Wady Tub! (by 61). 87. Khurbet Abu W'air. H8. Sheikh el Mensi.
89. Almshouses for Jews.
90. Zahweileh (Zoheleth at 78).
91. Rujum el lieliiiiieh (near N. E.).
92. 'Aki.betel Ohuzlau (near last).
93. Kubhet el 'Abd (by :iS).
94. Birket es Sitti Miriam.
95. 'Arak et Tireh. [Aceldama.
96. Ilakk ed Dumm (south of 84)
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stretched to the opposite Mount of Olives, that Christ will sit on the wall and Mohammed on the mount as judges, and that all men will be compelled to pass over the intervening space; the righteous, preserved by angels, will pass quickly and safely over, but the wicked will fall and be thrown into the abyss of hell.
The mosque El-Aksn also stands within the Haram area, and is a complex pile of buildings, " the principal axis of which forms a right angle with the southern wall of the temple-precincts. It dates from Justinian, but has been several times partially in ruins and rebuilt. . . . The building is altogether 270 feet long and about 198 feet in width. The dome is of wood covered with lead, and the windows are in part of stained glass of about the sixteenth century."
Just outside of the enclosure of the mosque El-Aksa, and near Robinson's Arch, is the noted Wailiny-place of the
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1 1 rum Photo-
Jews. The cyclopean foundation-wall of the temple which bears this name is 156 feet in length and 56 feet in height. Nine of the lowest courses of stone consist of huge blocks; above these are fifteen layers of smaller stones. Some infer, and others deny, that these lower external layers are very ancient. The blocks are certainly old and of vast size, one in the western part being 16 feet, and another in the southern part 13 feet, in length. On Friday numbers of the Jews, old and young, male and female, gather here, kissing the stones, watering them with their tears, and bewailing the 454
downfall of their city, while they read or repeat from their well-worn Hebrew Bibles and prayer-books the Lamentations of Jeremiah and suitable Psalms, as the 76th and 79th. The following is an extract from their litany :
Leader: For the palace that lies desolate: — Response : We sit in solitude and mourn.
L. For the palace that is destroyed:— R. We sit, etc.
L. For the walls that are overthrown :— R. We sit, etc.
L. For our majesty that is departed:— R. We sit, etc.
L. For our great men who lie dead:— R. We sit, etc.
L. For the precious stones that are burned :—R. We sit, etc.
L. For the priests who have stumbled:— R. We sit, etc.
L. For our kings who have despised Him: —R. We sit, etc.
Another antiphon is as follows:—
Leader: We pray Thee, have mercy on Zion I—Response: Gather the children of Jerusalem.
L. Haste, haste, Redeemer of Zion!— R. Speak to the heart of Jerusalem.
L. May beauty and majesty surround Zion !— R. Ah! turn thyself mercifully to Jerusalem.
L. May the kingdom soon return to Zion ! — R. Comfort those who mourn over Jerusalem.
L. May peace and joy abide with Zion I— R. And the branch (of Jesse) spring up at Jerusalem. See Baedeker's Palestine.
The Church of the Holy Sejndchre ranks next to the temple-area in interest to the Christian. It is a "collection," says SchafT, " of chapels and altars of different ages, and a unique museum of religious curiosities from Adam to Christ.. . . In the centre of the rotunda, beneath the dome, is a small marble chapel, where pilgrims from every land in a ceaseless stream are going in and out, otfering candles and kneeling before and kissing the empty [reputed] tomb of Christ." The church is also claimed to possess a piece of marble of Christ's
fjpulchre, the stone of anointment, three oles in which the crosses of Christ and of the two robbers were inserted, a cleft in the rock caused by the earthquake, the very spot where Christ was scourged, where his friends stood afar oflF, where his garments were parted, where the gardener appeai'ed to Mary, the rock-hewn tombs of Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea, the tombs of Adam, Mel-chizedek, and John the Baptist, and'' the centre of the world." It is of course
Ecce Homo Arch, Via Dolorosa
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claimed as the site of Calvary. See p. 445.
The Citadel and the Tower of David, opposite the Jaffa-gate, consist of an irregular group of five square towers, originall}^ surrounded by a ditch. The foundations of the towers are of thick walls rising at an angle of about 45°; for 39 feet from the bottom of the moat the masonry is of large drafted blocks with rough surfaces, and the forms of the stones higher up indicate that these foundations are ancient. In the northeastern corner stands an ancient tower, bearing the name of David, but probably the remains of one of the towers of Herod's palace. Robinson and Baedeker suggest that the building answers to the desci'iption given by Josephus of the HippicHs toicer, but others regard its dimensions as agreeing better with those of the tower of Phasselus.
The Castle of Goliath is at the northwestern angle of the present wall, and upon the highest ground within the city limits. The Via Dolorosa, or " street of sorrows," is a portion of the street along which it is said our Saviour was led to his crucifixion; but the name dates only from the fourteenth century.
Tombs. —Some of the rock-tombs about the city have already been noticed. The ground in the vicinity of Jerusalem has been described as one " vast cemeter3^" In the days of King Josiah " the graves of the children of the people " were in the valley of the Kedron. 2 Kgs. 23 : 6. The great Jewish cemetery is on the slope of Olivet; the Tombs of the Prophets are near the southern peak of Olivet; the Tombs of the Kings are half a mile north of the Damascus-gate; and about a mile beyond are the Tombs of the Judges. Portions of the western side of the valley of the Kedron are still full of tombs.
The Iiihnhitauts. —The present population of Jerusalem is variously estimated, as no census has been taken. Robinson, in 1841, made the total population 11,500, but later was inclined to place it at 17.000. Drake (1874) puts it at 20,900, Baedeker 24,000 ; Dr. Neuman, a Jewish physician 15 years a resident of the city, estimates it .Tt 36.000. Baedeker distributes the 24.000 as follows : 13,000 Moslems, 7000 Christians, 4000 Jews. The Turkish statistics of 1871 give the 456
number of families or houses: 1025 Moslem, 630 Jewish, 299 Orthodox Greek, 179 Latin, 175 Armenian, 44 Coptic, 18 Greek Catholic, 16 Protestant, and 7 Syrian—in all, 2393 families. Dr. Neuman distributes his estimate of 36,000 into 15,000 Mohammedans, 13,000 Jews, and 8000 Christians, including 5000 Franks. In the Easter season about a dozen languages are now heard there besides the vernacular Arabic, illustrating tlie scene during the Pentecost. Acts 2: 7-11. Drake estimates that the Jews are increasing in Jerusalem at the rate of 1200 to 1500 per year.
The religion of the people also represents various faiths. The Greek Church is the strongest in wealth, numbers, and influence, having the support of the Russian power. Its members are chiefly Arabs, speaking Arabic, while the clergy are mostly foreign Greeks, speaking modern Greek. The Church has several monasteries, churches, two hospices, and two schools. The Old Armenian Church has a resident patriarch, a large monastery, with a printing-oflSce, and a seminary with about 40 students, a nunnery, and a smaller monaster^'. The Coptic, Ancient Syrian,and Abyssinian Churches each has a small religious community. The Latins, or Roman Catholics, are said to number 1500. In their Franciscan monastery is a printing-press, chiefly used for printing school-books in Arabic, a school for boys, and the Latins also have a hospital and three other schools in the city. The Jeics have four holy cities in Palestine: Jerusalem, Safed, Tiberias, and Hebron. In Jerusalem they live largely on the charity of their European brethren. They are divided into three sects; their quarter of the city is squalid, dirty, and uninviting. In Jerusalem, and there only, is the Hebrew language used (by the Jews) in ordinary conversation. The only newspapers printed in the city are in the Hebrew language. The Protestant community in Jerusalem is very small. There is a bishop jointly supported by the Prussian and the English Churches, which maintain a mission and have a church, schools, orphanages, and hospitals. The first Protestant bishop was Alexander, the second, Gobat (died 1879), the third, Barclay (consecrated 1879). There are three Protestant
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Churches, the English Church of Sion, the native Arab Church, and the German Church, on the property of the Prussian government.
This is Jerusalem in her decay. Of Jerusalem in her grandeur we can only gain more certain knowledge by further thorough archaeological explorations. The Palestine Exploration Fund, under careful and extended excavations by Capts. Wilson (1S(U) and ^yarren (1807), made a noble beginning. Among the results o' their work were: (1) That the ancient city lies deeply buried beneath the present surface; (2) that the height of the temple-walls was great, as Josephus declares; (3) that Phoenician workmen were employed in building the temple, as stated in the book of Kings. (4) Strong proofs as to the location and extent of the temple-area have been furnished, especially showing the views of Mr. Fergusson and others, that the temple occupied a square of only 600 feet in the south-western angle of the area, to be erroneous. (5) The conjecture of Robinson respecting the location of the bridge over the Tyropceon has been verified. (6) The water-supply of the city, and particularly of the temple, has been proved to be very extensive and quite abundant.
For the history of Jerusalem, ancient and modern, the following are among the works which may be consulted : Jo-aephus; Eusebius's and Jerome's Ono-muHticon, French ed., 1862; Reland's, Palestina ex Mouumentis Veteribns II-lustrata, Traj. Batav. 1714, 2 vols. sm. 4to; W. H. Bartlett, Walks in and about Jerusalem, 4th. ed., London, 1852, roy. Svo, and his Topocp-ajyhjj of Jerusalem, 1845; E. Robinson, Biblical Researches, New York, 1841, 3 vols. Svo, and his later Biblical Researches, 1856, Svo ; W. Krafft, Die Topocfraphie Jerusa-lems, Bonn, 1865; Fergusson, Essay on the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem, London, 1847, imp. Svo, and The Holy Sepulchre and the Temple at Jerusalem, Svo ; Early Travels in Palestine, edited by T. Wright. London. 1848, post Svo; G. Williams, r//e Holy City, London,! 849, 2 vols. Svo ; J. T. Barclay, The Citij of the Great King, 1 vol. Svo, pp. 627^ 1857; Churchill, Mount Lebanon, London, 1855-62, 4 vols. Svo : W. M. Thomson, The Land and the Book, New York, 1858, 2
vols. 12mo, new ed. 1879; Pierotti, Jerusalem Explored, London, 1864, 2 vols. fol.; Levvin, Siege of Jerusalem by Titus, London, demy Svo; H. B. Tristram, The Land of Israel, London, 1865, demy Svo ; Titus Tobler's Pales-tinse Descriptiones, 1869, Svo; and Topographic von Jerusalem, Berlin, 1854, 2 vols.: Captains Wilson and Warren, Recovery of Jerusalem, London, 1871, demy Svo; Reynolds, The History of the Temple of Jerusalem (Public. Oriental Trans. Com., vol. 451) ; J. L. Porter, Syria's Holy Places, 12mo, 1873 ; Thrupp's Ancient Jerusalem ; A.Thomson, In the Holy Land, London, 1874, 12mo ; Captains Wilson, Anderson, Warren, etc., Our Work in Palestine, London, 1875, Svo; Murray's Handbook of Syria and Palestine, 1875; Besant and Palmer, History of Jerusalem, London, or. Svo; Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem, with Notes by Captain Wilson, London, 2 vols, Baedeker, Palestine and Syria, Leipsic, 1876; Warren's Underground Jerusalem, 1876; C. E. T. Drake, Modern Jerusalem, London, 1877, Svo ; Schaff, Through Bible Lands, New York, 1878, 12mo ; C. R. Conder, Tent-work in Palestine, 2 vols. 12mo, 1878; Quarterly Statements Palestine Exploration Fund, 1872-1880, and the large Maps of that Society with the Memoirs, 1884.
Jerusalem, New, Rev. 21:2, is a term employed metaphorically to represent the spiritual Church in the state of triumph and glory. The ancient Jews regarded the tabernacle, the temple, and Jerusalem itself, as descending directly from God, and they suppose that there is a spiritual tabernacle, temple, and city corresponding with them. Corap. Gal. 4: 26 ; 2 Pet. 3 : 10-13 ; Rev. 21. Jerusalem of old was the city of God; and Jerusalem above is called ''the city of the living God," or "the heavenly Jerusalem." Heb. 12 : 22 ; Rev. 3:12. The sublime and most comforting description of the new Jerusalem with which the Bible closes has given rise to some of the sweetest Christian hymns of homesickness after heaven.
JERU'SHA, OR JERU'SHAH [possessed), the mother of Jotham. king of Judah. 2 Kgs. 15 : 33 ; 2 Chr. 27 : 1.
JESA'IAH (-far/m/). 1. One of David's posterity. 1 Chr. 3:21.
2. A Benjamite. Neh. 11: 7.
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JESHA'IAH [heli^ of Jehovah, same as Isaiah). 1. A son of Jeduthun, and chief of the eighth division of the singers. 1 Chr. 25 : 3, 15.
2. A Kohathite Levite, a descendant of Moses, 1 Chr. 26:25; called Isshai-ah in 1 Chr. 24:21.
3. One who came back with Ezra. Ezr. 8:7.
4. A Merarite Levite who also returned. 8:19.
JESH'ANAH, a town Avhich, with its dependent villages, was one of the three taken from Jeroboam by Abijah, 2 Chr. 13 : 19, and identified by Swartz with al-Samin, 2 miles west of Bethel ; but this requires confirmation.
JESHAR'ELAH( rifjht toivard God), the head of the seventh division of the Levite musicians. 1 Chr. 25 : l-l. In V. 2 he is called Asarelah.
JESHEB'EAB {seat of one's father), the chief of the fourteenth division of the priests. 1 Chr. 24:13.
JE'SHER {nj^rightness), one of the sons of Caleb, the son of Hezron. 1 Chr. 2:18.
JESH'IMON {the icaste),_ a name designating the position of Pisgah and Peor, which are described as " looketh toward Jeshimon." Num. 21: 20 ■ 23 : 28. The word may not be a proper name, but a general term for any wilderness, and may thus be applied to different places at different times. Grove would place Jeshimon on the west side of the Dead Sea, toward En-gedi: Porter suggests that there may have been two Jeshimons, one east of the Jordan connected with Pisgah, and another west of the Jordan; Conder, with Grove, proposes to identify Jeshimon with the plateau above the Dead Sea, on its west side, and called el Bvkeia', the most desolate country in Palestine.
JESHISH'AI {offspring of an old man), a Gadite. 1 Chr. 5 : 14.
JESHOHAI'AH {whom Jehovah bows (fow)i), a Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4:36.
JESH'UA, in one case JESH'-UAH (whom Jehovah helps). 1. The chief of the ninth division of the priests. Ezr. 2 : 36 : Neh. 7 : 39. He is called Jeshuah in 1 Chr. 24:11.
2. A Levite in Hezekiah's reign placed over a city of the priests " to distribute the oblations of the Lord." 2 Chr. 31: 15.
3. A high priest after the Captivity,
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son of Jehozadak. lie was probably born in Babylon, as his father was a captive. 1 Chr. 6:15. He returned with Zerubbabel, and was active in rebuilding the temple and in re-establishing the ordinances of religion. Ezr. 2:2; 3:2, etc. ; 4:3; 6:2; 10: 18; Neh. 7:7; 12:1, etc. By Zechariah he is represented as a type of Christ. By this prophet and by Haggai he is called Joshua. See Zech. 3:1, 3, 8, 9; Hag. 1:1, 12, 14; 2: 2, 4.
4. The head of the most numerous family that returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2:6; Neh. 7:11.
5. Head of a Levitical house. Ezr. 2: 40; Neh. 7:43.
6. A Levite. Ezr. 8 : 33.
7. One whose son helped repair the wall. Neh. 3 : 19.
8. A Levite who read the Law. Neh. 8:7; 9 : 4, 5 ; 12 : 8, 24.
9. Joshua, the son of Nun ; mentioned thus Neh. 8:17.
JESH'UA {Jehovah the salvation), one of the towns reinhabited by the people of Judah after their return from captivity. Neh. 11 : 26. Conder proposes S'awi, a ruin near Beer-sheba, as the site of Jeshua.
JESH'URIIN {dearhj beloved), a symbolical name for Israel, Deut. 32: 15 ; 33 : 5, 26, and once, hj mistake, Jesu-run. Isa. 44 : 2. The "he" in Deut. 33 :5 refers not to Moses, who is never called a king, but to the Lord, who was the Head of the theocracy.
JESI'AH {whom Jehovah lends). 1.
A Korhite, one of David's mighty men
I who came to him in Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : fi.
2. A Levite, same as Jeshaiah of 1 Chr. 26 : 25 : 1 Chr. 23 : 20.
JESIM'IEL {whom God has set iq)), a prince of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4: 36.
JES'SE {strong), the father of David, and the grandson of Ruth. His genealogy is twice given in the 0. T.. Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr. 2 : 5-12, and twice in the N. T. Matt. 1 : 3, 5; Luke 3 : 32-34. He is usually called " Jesse the Bethlehemite," 1 Sam. 16 : 1, 18; 17: 58, but his full and proper designation is Jesse "that Ephrathite of Bethlehem Judah." 1 Sam. 17 : 12. This latter verse calls him "an old man" at the time of David's fight with Goliath. He was the affectionate father of eight sons, and a man of wealth and position. 17: 17, 18. It is remarkable that David is
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called ** the son of Jesse" after his own fame was established. 1 Chr. 29 : 26 ; Ps. 72:20. Jesse was thi-ough David the ancestor of the Judaic kings, and thus of Christ.. The prophets announced this in so many words. Isa. 11: 1, 10.
JES'UI (lerel), an Ashcrite, founder of the Jesuites. Num. 26 : U. Elsewhere he is called Isui, Gen. 46:17, and Ishuai. 1 Chr. 7 : 30.
JES'UITES, THE, descendants of Jesui. Num. 26 : U.
JES'URUN. See Jeshurun.
JE'SUS, the Greek form for Hebrew '' Jehoshua," contracted to " Joshua." This term means " Saviour." Matt. 1: 21. It occurs only in the N. T.; and though it is not exclusively applied to Christ, it should be, for in Acts 7 : 45, Col. 4 : 11, and Heb. 4 : 8, "Joshua," and not *' Jesus," is the proper rendering, although the two names have originally the same meaning.
In the evangelical history our Saviour is designated by the name of " Christ" alone in nearly 300 passages; by the name of "Jesus Christ," or "Christ Jesus," less than 100 times; and by the name of the " Lord Jesus Christ" less than 50. See Christ Jesus.
JE'SUS, called Justus, a Jew, who was Paul's fellow-worker and a comfort to him in Rome. Col. 4:11.
JESUS, SON OF SIRACH, BOOK OF. See EccLESiASTicus.
JE'THER (excellence). 1. In margin of Ex. 4; 18. See Jethro.
2. The eldest of Gideon's 70 sons. Jud. 8:20.
3. The husband of Abigail, David's sister, and father of Amasa, captain of Absalom's host, 2 Sam. 17 : 25 ; called " Ithra, an Israelite," in that verse, but in 1 Chr. 2 : 17, more correctly, " Jether the Ishmaelite."
4. A member of the tribe of Judah. 1 Chr. 2: 32.
5. Another member. 1 Chr. 4:17.
6. One of the sons of Asher. 1 Chr. 7:38; probably identical with the Ith-ran of v. 37.
JE'THETH {a nail), one of the dukes of Edom. Gen. 36:40; 1 Chr. 1: 51.
JETH'LAH (high, exalted), a city of Dan. Jos. 19: 42. Drake proposed the village of Shilta, north-west of the lower Beth-Horon, as the site of Jethlah;
Conder, on a weak similarity of names, proposes Beit Tul as its- site. Either view requires further confirmation.
JE'THRO (Ill's excellence), a priest or prince of Midian, and father-in-law of Moses. Ex. 3:1. He is called Raguel, Num. 10 : 29, and Reuel, Ex. 2:18, and was probably known by either name, while Jethro was his official title. It is highly probable, too, that he was a descendant of Abraham by Keturah, the mother of Midian, Gen. 25 : 2, but what was the nature of his office as priest (or prince, as some say it should be rendered) we know not. See Hobab.
JE'TUR (an enclosure), one of the sons of Ishmael. Gen. 25: 15; 1 Chr. 1: 31; 5 : 19. See Iturea.
JE''UEIj (treasured of God), one of the descendants of Judah. 1 Chr. 9 : 6.
JE'USH (to v)hom God hastens). 1. A son of Esau by Aholibamah, and one of the Edomitish phylarchs or "dukes." Gen. 36:5, 14, 18; 1 Chr. 1:35.
2. The head of a Benjamite house in David's reign. 1 Chr. 7:10.
3. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 23: 10, 11.
4. A son of Rehoboam. 2 Chr. 11: 18, 19.
JE''UZ (counselling), a Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 10.
JEWELS. This term is applied to ornaments made of the precious metals and used to adorn the person. We find them among the pi-esents which the servants of Abraham made to Rebekah and her family when they sought her in marriage for Isaac. Gen. 24 : 22. It is probable that much skill was attained at a very early period in the manufacture of metal ornaments, such as chains, bracelets, ear-rings, etc. Num. 31:50; Eze. 26 : 12 ; Hos. 2 : 13. The word is figuratively used to denote anything peculiarly precious; as, the chosen people of God, Mai. 3 : 17, or wisdom, Prov. 20:15.
JEWRY, a word elsewhere rendered "Judah" and "Judaea." It occurs once in the 0. T., Dan. 5 : 13, where it might be rendered "Judah," and several times in the Apocryphal and N. T. books. See Judah and Jud^a.
JEWS. The word first occurs in 2 Kgs. 16 : 0, and denotes the Judjeans, or men of Judah, in contradistinction from the seceding ten tribes, who retained the
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name of Israel. The name Israelites was applied to the 12 tribes, or descendants of Jacob (Israel) as a body; but after the separation of the tribes, the above distinction obtained until the Babylonish captivity, which terminated the existence of the kingdom of Judah, and thenceforward, until the present day, the descendants of Jacob are called Jews, and constitute one of the two classes into which the whole human laraily is frequently divided—viz., Jews and Gentiles. '* It is a more comprehensive term than Hebrew, for Hellenists (Grecians) might be Jews, nor is it quite synonymous with ' Israelites,' which term seems, sometimes at least, to express more decidedly covenant hopes and relationships. John 1: 47 ; 2 Cor. 11: 22."— Ayre. See Hebrews.
JEZANI'AH {whom Jehovah hears), a ^&vi, Jer. 40 : 8 ; 42 :1; called Azariah, Jer. 43 : 2. See Jaazaniah, 1.
J E Z ' E B E L {chaste), the wife of Ahab, king of Israel, was the daughter of a Zidonian king, 1 Kgs. 16: 31, and of course educated in the idolatrous practices of her native country. She was the virtual ruler of Israel. She introduced the worship of Baal and other idols, maintaining 400 priests of As-tarte at her own expense, while Ahab maintained 450 priests of Baal. 1 Kgs. 18:19.
She resolved on the extermination of all the prophets of God. Obadiah, who was a pious man and principal officer of Ahab's household, rescued one hundred of them at one time from her grasp, and supplied them with bread and water while they were concealed in caves. 1 Kgs. 18 : 3, 4, 13. Soon after this, Elijah caused the 450 priests of Baal supported by Ahab to be put to death. For this proceeding Jezebel threatened to take the life of Elijah, but her purpose was frustrated. Soon afterward she planned and perpetrated the murder of Naboth: and by using the king's name and authority with the leading men of Jezreel, she secured their co-operation in the flagrant crime. 1 Kgs. 21:1-13. Her doom was predicted by Elijah, and was in due time visited upon her to the very letter. 2 Kgs. 9 : 30-37. See Ahab, Elijah, Jehu.
In Rev. 2: 20 the name Jezebel is used symbolically, and with us it is common 460
as a name of infamy. Shakespeare's Lady Macbeth is often, though improperly, compared to Jezebel.
JE'ZER. ( frame), one of the sons of Naphtali. Gen. 46:24; Num. 26: 49; 1 Chr. 7:13.
JE ZERITES, THE, the descendants of the above. Num. 26:49.
JEZI'AH {whom Jehovah sjiriukles), one who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 25.
JE^ZIELi {assembly of God), a Ben-jamite archer who joined David at Zik-lag. 1 Chr. 12 : 3.
JEZLjI'AH {whom Jehovah delivers), a Benjamite who lived in Jerusalem. 1 Chr. 8: 18.
JEZ'OAR {shinwq), one of the tribe of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:7.
JEZRAHI'AH {whom Jehovah hri)u/s forth), the Levite who led the singers at the dedication of the wall. Neh. 12:42.
JEZ'REEL {God hath 2)lanted, or scattered). 1. A name in the genealogies of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:3.
2. The eldest son of the prophet Rosea. Hos. 1: 4.
JEZ'REEL {God hath planted). 1. A city in the plain of the same name between Gilboa and Little Hermon. It was a boundary of Issachar. Josh. 19 : 18. Ahab chose it for his chief residence. The selection shows the ability of this wicked king. Near by were a temple and grove of Astarte, with an establishment of 400 priests supported bv Jezebel. 1 Kgs. 18:19; 2 Kgs. 10: 11. The palace of Ahab, 1 Kgs. 21:1; 18 : 3, probably containing his " ivory house," 1 Kgs, 22 : 39, was on the eastern side of the city. Comp. 1 Kgs. 21: 1; 2 Kgs. 9 : 25, 30, 33. Jezebel lived by the city wall, and had a high Avindow facing eastward. 2 Kgs. 9 : 30. It had a watch-tower, on which a sentinel stood. 2 Kgs. 9:17. An ancient square tower, now among the hovels of the modern village, may be on its site. The gateway of the city on the east was also the gateway of the palace. 2 Kgs. 9 : 34. The vineyard of Naboth was on the vineclad hill outside the city to the eastward, according to Baedeker; but this is not certain. A spring near is now called 'Ahi-Jalud, or the "Spring of Goliath," and is the " fountain " or " spring " in " Jezreel." 1 Sam. 29:1. After the fall of the house of Ahab, Jezreel also fell into
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a decline. It is now a miserable village of a dozen houses, and known as Zerin. Around the village are many (some say 300) cisterns and subterranean granaries, but ruins of the ancient royal buildings have not been discovered. The ground would indicate that careful excavations might bring rich results.
2. A town in Judah, in the neighborhood of the southern Carmel. Josh. 15: 56. Here David in his wanderings took Ahinoam the Jezreelitess for his second wife, 1 Sara. 27 : 3 ; 30 : 5.
JEZ'REEL, VALLEY OF, atri-angular plain of central Palestine, called by Josephus " the great plain," extending from the Mediterranean to the Jordan, and from the range of Carmel and Samaria to the mountains in Galilee. It is about 25 miles long from east to west, and 12 miles wide from north to south.
It is a classic battle-field. There Barak and Gideon triumphed, Deborah sung her war-song; Saul and Jonathan fell near by, on the mountains of Gilboa ; here King Josiah was mortally wounded by the Egyptians. It furnished the apostle with a mystic name for the final battle-field of the Almighty, Rev. 16 : 14-16, and here Napoleon gained a fruitless victory over a Turkish army of 30,000. On the west side is a narrow pass, opening into the plain of 'Akku. From the base of this triangular plain three branches stretch out eastward, divided by two bleak gray ridges, one called Mount Gilboa, the other Little Hermon, The central branch is the richest as well as the most celebrated. It is the "Valley of Jezreel " proper—the battle-field where Gideon triumphed and Saul and Jonathan were overthrown. Jud. 7 : 1, 'sq.; 1 Sam. 29 and 31. The plain is noted for its wonderful richness. The modern Greek name of the plain Esdrae-lon is not found in the 0. T. or N. T., but occurs in the Apocrypha. It is now uninhabited, and only a small portion is cultivated. " Next to the plain of Sharon," says SchaflF, " it is the most fertile district of Palestine, looking in spring like a green vel set carpet, . . . sadly neglected, and exposed to the ravages of the wild Bedouin, who from time to time make raids and pitch their black tents, kill peasants, plunder crops, and then ride back with their booty on camels 462
and horses to their lairs in the Hau-ran."
Dr. N. Macleod writes concerning the plain of Jezreel: '' On or near the spot where Ahab's palace is likely to have stood is an ancient tower, built I know not when nor by whom. We ascended to its upper story, and there, through three windows, opening to the east, west, and north, obtained an excellent view of all the interesting portions of the surrounding landscape. Beneath us lay the famous plain, a rolling sea of verdure, yet lonely-looking, being without inhabitants. We saw no villages or huts dotting its surface, not even a solitary horseman, but only troops of gazelles galloping away into the distance, and some birds of prey, apparently vultures, wheeling in the sk}', and doubtless looking out for work from their masters, the Bedouins. This green prairie stretches for upward of 20 miles toward the Mediterranean. It is the more striking from its contrast with the wild, bare hills among which we had been travelling, and with those which look down immediately upon it. It separates the highlands of southern Palestine from the hill-country of the more lowland north, as the plain along which the railway passes from Loch Lomond to Stirling separates the highlands of Rob Roy from the lowland hills of the Campsie range, that rise above the valley of the Clyde."
JIB'SAM (pleasant), a descendant of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7 : 2.
JID'LAPH (tceepiiiy), a son of Na-hor, and nephew of Abraham. Gen. 22 : 22.
JIM'NA, OR JIM'NAH (good fortune), the eldest son of Asher. Gen. 46 : 17; Num. 26 : 44. He is also called Imnah in 1 Chr. 7 : 30. His descendants are the Jimnites. Num. 26 : 44.
JIPH'TAH, one of the cities of Judah toward the sea-coast. Josh. 15: 43.
JIPH'THAH-EL(6^ocZo/>e»!s),the name of a valley forming one of the landmarks for the boundary of Zebulun and Asher. Josh. 19 : 14, 27. Dr. Robinson suggests that Jiphthah-el was identical with Jotapata, the fortress which .Josephus defended and where he was captured, and that they survive in the modern Jefat, a village in the
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mountains, 15 miles west of the Lake of Galilee, and halfway between the Bay of Acre and the lake.
JO'AB [irhose father in Jehovah). 1. The eldest of the three sons of Zeruiah, David's sister, and the commander-in-chief of his army. 1 Chr. 2:10; 11:6. He was evidently a valiant man, but ambitious and revengeful. To revenge the death of his brother Asahel, whom Abner had killed in self-defence, 2 Sam. 2 : 23, he treacherously assassinated this distinguished geflcral. 2 Sam. 3 : 27. He brought about a reconciliation between Absalom and his father after the murder of Amnon; but when Absalom rebelled, Joab adhered to his master, and under his generalship the troops of David, though much inferior in numbers, obtained a complete victory over the army of Absalom, and, contrary to the express orders of David, Joab put him to death with his own hand as he hung suspended from the oak tree. 2 Sam. 18: 14. After this event David promoted Ama-sa to be his general-in-chief, by which Joab was deeply otfended, and secretly resolved on the death of his rival, and took the first opportunity of assassinating him as he had done Abner. 2 Sam. 20 : 10. David after this seems to have taken him again into favor. 2 Sam. 24 : 2. When David the king had become old, however, Joab combined with Abiathar the priest and others to set Adonijah on the throne in defiance of the will of David, who had, by divine direction, resolved to make Solomon king. 1 Kgs. 1 : 7. The plot was seasonably defeated, and Solomon was proclaimed king the same day. But Joab now seemed to David so evidently an object of the divine displeasure that he solemnly charged Solomon to punish him for all his enormous crimes, and especially for the murder of two valiant men, both better than himself, Abner and Amasa. Joab, conscious that his life was forfeited, sought an asylum at the horns of the altar, which position he absolutely refused to relinquish, and Benaiah, now advanced to be the captain of the host, slew him by the altar, agreeably to the command of the young king. He was buried in his own house in the wilderness. 1 Kgs. 2 : 5-34.
2. A descendant of Kenaz. 1 Chr. 4: 14.
3. One whose posterity returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 6; 8 : 9 ; Neh. 7:11.
JO'AH {ichose brother, i. e. helper, is JehoiHth). 1. The son of Asaph, the royal recorder under Hezekiah. 2 Kgs. 18 : 18, 26, 37 ,• Isa. 36 : 3, 11, 22.
2. A Gershonite, 1 Chr. 6:21; probably same as Ethan, v. 42.
3. A Korhitc porter. 1 Chr. 26:4.
4. A Gershonite Levite who took part in Hezekiah's reforms. 2 Chr. 29 : 12.
5. The son of Joahaz, and recorder to Josaiah. 2 Chr. 34: 8.
JO'AHAZ (whom Jehovah holdn), the father of Joah, the recorder to Josaiah. 1 Chr. 34:8.
JOAN'NA {whom Jehovah has graciously given). 1. One of the ancestors of Christ. Luke 3: 27. He has been identified with Hananiah. 1 Chr. 3 : 19.
2. The wife of Chusa, the steward of Herod Antipas, and one who ministered unto our Lord, and who brought spices and ointments for his embalming. Luke 8:3; 24:10. She seems to have been the subject of some miraculous cure by Christ, whom she followed, and to whom she ministered. Luke 24: 10.
JO'ASH 2 Kgs. 13 :1, or JEHO'-ASJH, 2 Kgs. 12:1 {whom Jehovah he-stoioed). 1. The father of Gideon, who had his own altar to Baal. His idolatry, however, would not seem very sincere, since he defended Gideon in destroying the idol. Jud. 6:11, etc.
2. One of the sons of Ahab. 1 Kgs. 22:26; 2 Chr. 18 : 25.
3. The son and the successor of Aha-ziah, king of Judah. Jehosheba, or Je-hoshabeath, 2 Chr. 22:11, the wife of Jehoiada, the high priest, his aunt, preserved him from the murderous designs of Athaliah, his grandmother, when he was but a year old, and kept him hid six years in a chamber belonging to the temple. 2 Kgs. 11: 2, 3. See Athaliah. When he was seven years of age, Jehoiada entered into a solemn covenant with Azariah and others to set up young Jo-ash for their sovereign, and dethroned Athaliah. After preparing matters in the kingdom, and bringing the Levites and such others as they could trust to Jerusalem, they crowned him in the court of the temple with great solemnity. 2 Kgs. 11. Joash behaved himself well while Jehoiada, the high priest, lived and was his guide, but no sooner
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was this good man removed, than he began to listen to the counsels of his wicked courtiers. The worship of God fell into neglect and idolatr}'^ prevailed. Zechariah, the priest, son of Jehoiada, warned him of his sin and danger, but in consequence of his fidelity he was, by order of Joash, stoned to death between the temple and the altar. When djung he assured them that God would avenge his death, 2 Chr. 24 : 20-22, to which event our Saviour is generally supposed to refer. Matt. 23 : 35. Hazael invaded the kingdom, but Joash, with a large sum of money, including all the treasures and furniture of the temple and palace, redeemed his capital from plunder. 2 Kgs. 12 : 18. After suffering other injuries from the Syrians, and after being loaded with ignominy, he his own servants, years, b. c. 878-838.
was murdered by after a reign of 41 2 Chr. 24:24-27. 4. 2 Kgs. 13: 9.
Son and successor
of Jehoahaz, king of Israel, and grandson of Jehu. He was associated with his father in the government for 2 years, but 14 years he reigned alone, making in all 16 years, b. c. 840-825.
He was a wicked prince, though he was successful in three campaigns against the Syrians, and recovered the cities which they took from his father, according to the prediction of Elisha. 2 Kgs. 13: 15-25. He was also signally successful in a war with Amaziah, king of Judah (see Amaziah), soon after the termination of which he died. 2 Kgs. 14 12-16.
5. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 22
6. A Benjamite, one of David's heroes 1 Chr. 12 : 3.
JO'ASH (to rvhom Jehovah hastens i. e., with help). 1. The son of Becher, and head of a house of Benjamin in the time of David. 1 Chr. 7 : 8.
2. An officer of David who was over the oil-cellars. 1 Chr. 27 : 28.
JO'AT HAM. Matt. 1:9. The Greek form of Jotham, 2, which see.
JOB {desire ?},thQ third son of Issa-char. Gen. 46 : 13 ; called Jashub, 1 Chr. 7: 1.
JOB (o7!e^3ersec!<^efZ),the famous patriarch of Uz (probably in eastern Edom), whose sorrows and whose words find faithful and immortal record in the book of Job. He lived in very primitive times—at least 464
was unacquainted with the Mosaic law and the Jewish worship. He appears in the book as a holy outsider, who was yet, like Melchizedek, a worshipper of the true God. We have reference to Job as an historical character in Eze.l4:14,16, 18, 20, and Jas. 5:11. These references must be accepted as conclusive not only as to his reality, but likewise as to his recovery. They are supported by Arab and Mohammedan traditions. But this view does not compel us to accept all the details, and especially all the speeches (which are too highly poetical to have been extemporized), as strictly historical. The book is a ^joe»i on an historical basis. He was a patriarchal prince of great wealth, piety, integrity, and happiness. By God's permission Satan tried him, destroj'ing his property, his children, and his health, and visiting him with the most loathsome form of leprosy (elephantiasis). But as he abode faithful, God grandly vindicated his righteousness, reversed Satan's sentence, gave him back all he had lost and much more. With daughters renowned for their beauty, with sons to perpetuate his name, with fulness of days and abundance of honor did he pass away, 140 years after his great trial. Hales places him before the birth of Abraham, Usher about 30 years before the Exodus, b. c. 1521.
Book of. It is the record of Job's experiences. It is a didactic poem with a narrative prologue and a narrative epilogue in prose. The poem itself has a dramatic drapery, several speakers being introduced, who carr^' on a metaph3"s-ical contest on the mj^steries of divine government. It has been called a Hebrew tragedy and theodicy. Its poetic merit is of the highest order, and ranks it, with Homer's Iliad, Dante's Biviiia Commedia, Shakespeare's dramas, and Goethe's Faust, among the immortal masterpieces of genius. Thomas Carlyle calls it " one of the grandest things ever written by man, a noble book—a book for all men. Such living likenesses were never since drawn. Sublime sorrow, sublime reconciliations; oldest choral melody, as of the heart of manhood ; so soft and great, as the summer midnight; as the world with its seas and stars,— there is nothing written, I think, of equal literary merit." With the exception of the beginning and end, it is in
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poetry. It is uncertain who wrote it, but surely it is very old. Some ascribe it to Moses while in Midian, others carry it down to the age of Solomon. The speeches of Job and his friends discuss the problem of evil and its punishments, and the justice of God in the unequal distribution of happiness and misery. Why do the righteous suffer and why do the wicked prosper in this world ? The friends of Job charge him with secret crimes ; he in vain protests his innocence. All the speakers are silenced at last by almighty God, who appears as umpire on the scene and overwhelms Job with a sense of his infinite power and wisdom.
The jyractical lessons of the book may be stated as follows :
1. Not all the sufferings are punishments for sin. This is the one-sided view of the three friends of Job, who are for this reason censured by Jehovah and required to make an atonement for the injustice done to Job. ch. 42 : 7. The general principle of the connection of sin and suffering is true enough, but the error and injustice consist in the application of this principle to all individual cases of suffering. Without sin there would have been no suffering; but in a fallen world sufferings are used by God as a school of discipline.
2. The sufferings of the righteous are not punitive, but disciplinary and corrective. They are prompted by God's love rather than his justice. "Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth." Prov. 3 : 12 : Heb. 12 : 6.
3. Afiiiction is the necessary condition for the development of disinterested virtue and the heroism of patience. As a means for such an end it is foreordained by God.
4. The sufferings of the righteous are but temporary and lead to an abundant reward even in this life, or certainly in the life to come.
5. It is wicked presumption in man to murmur against God and to find fault with his dealings or to call him to an account, instead of humbly adoring him and submitting to the mysteries of his almighty power and wisdom.
6. The final solution of all the remain'-ing mysteries of divine government is reserved for the future life. This idea is at least hinted at in that remarkable
30
and most comforting passage which stands right in the middle of the book, as the kernel in the shell, ch. 19 : 23-27, and which teaches, if not the resurrection of the body, at all events the immortality of the soul.
"Oh that my words were written down ! Oh that they were inscribed in a book! That with an iron stile and lead, They were graven in a rock for ever! Yea, I know that my Redeemer liveth, And ivill stand the last upon the dust {the
grave) ; And after this, my skin is destroyed, Even without (or, Jrom off) my flesh, I shall
see God. Yea, I, for myself, shall see him. And my eyes behold him, and no stranger. (For this) ray heart is consumed within
me."
We add an analysis of the book of Job, which has suffered much from the traditional division into chapters:
The Prologue. Job's character and prosperity, ch. 1: 1-5. The divine decree to try Job through Satan by taking away his possessions, 1: 6-22, and his health, 2 : 1-10. The visit of his friends and their mute sympathy, 2: 11-13.
The Poem.
I. The outbreak of Job's despair, ch. 3 :
1-26.
II. First series of controversies, chs. 4-14.
Eliphaz's address, chs. 4 and 5. Job's reply, chs, 6 and 7. Bildad's address, ch. 8. Job's reply, chs. 9 and 10. Zophar's address, ch. 11. Job's reply, chs. 12-14.
III. Second series of controversies: Eliphaz's address, ch. 15.
Job's reply, chs. 16 and 17. Bildad's address, ch. 18. Job's reply, ch. 19. Zophar's address, ch. 20. Job's reply, ch. 21.
IV. Third series of controversies: Eliphaz's address, ch. 22. Job's reply, chs. 23 and 24. Bildad's address, ch. 25. Job's reply, ch. 26.
V. Job's closing address to the vanquished friends, chs. 27 and 28.
VI. Job's soliloquy, chs. 29-31.
VII. Elihu's four discourses in condemnation of Job and his friends, and in
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vindication of the divine justice, ehs. 32-37.
VIII. Jehovah's addresses to Job, ehs. 38, 39, 40, and 41.
IX. Humiliation of Job and penitent confession of his sin and folly, ch. 42: 1-6.
The Epilogue, or historical conclusion, cli. 42 : 7-17. Vindication of Job before his friends, vs. 7-10 ; the restoration of his former dignity and honor, vs. 11 and 12; the doubling of his former earthly prosperity and happiness, vs. 12-17.
JO'BAB (a desert). 1. A son of Joktan. Gen. 10: 29; 1 Chr. 1 : 23.
2. A king of Edom. Gen. 36: 33, 34; 1 Chr. 1: 44, 45.
3. A king of Madon, who joined the league against Joshua. Josh. 11: 1.
4. 5. Two Benjamites, heads of their respective houses. 1 Chr. 8 : 9, 18.
JOCH'EBED {whose glory is Jehovah), the mother of Aaron, Moses, and Miriam, was the wife and aunt of Am-ram, and the daughter of Levi. Ex. 6: 20 ,: Num. 26 : 69.
JO'ED {his witness is Jehovah), a Benjamite. Neh. 11: 7.
JO'EL {Jehovah is his God). 1. The first-born of Samuel. 1 Sam. 8 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 33; 15: 17. By a curious error his name is given as Vashni, which means " second," in 1 Chr. 6: 28, the word Joel having dropped out. The verse, therefore, should read " The first-born Joel, and the second Abiah."
2. A Simeonite chief. 1 Chr. 4 : 35.
3. A Reubenite. 1 Chr. 5: 4, 8.
4. A Gadite chief. 1 Chr. 5:12.
5. A Kohathite, 1 Chr. 6 : 36, but probably merely a corruption of Shaul in verse 24.
6. One of Issachar's posterity. 1 Chr. 7:3.
7. One of David's heroes; called Igal in 2 Sam. 23 : 36 ; 1 Chr. 11: 38.
8. A Gershonite chief. 1 Chr. 15: 7, 11.
9. The Gershonite appointed with his brother over the treasures of the house of the Lord. 1 Chr. 23 : 8; 26 : 22. •
10. A Manassite chief on the west of Jordan. 1 Chr. 27: 20.
11. A Kohathite in Hezekiah's reign. 2 Chr. 29: 12.
12. One who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10: 43.
13. The Benjamite overseer of those 466
of his tribe and that of Judah who lived in Jerusalem. Neh. 11: 9.
14. The son of Pethuel, one of the minor prophets. Nothing is recorded of his personal history but the most likely conjectures assign him to the reign of Uzziah and make him reside in Judah.
Joel, Book of. It may be divided into two parts: I. 1-2:17 describes a sore judgment which is to come upon the land, and grounds upon it a call to repentance. II. 2: 18-3: 21 contains the blessings which Jehovah will confer upon the chosen people, and announces when the Messiah has come, the outpouring of the Spirit and the complete conquest of Judah over her foes, resulting in absolute and unbreakable peace. The second chapter contains a prophecy of a terrible jjlague of locusts, but a symbolical use is made of the incursion to foretell the attack of Judah's foes. Joel's style is classical; '* it is elegant and perspicuous, and at the same time nervous, animated, and sublime."— Ayre. The fulfilment of his Messianic ])rophecies is noticed in the N. T. Acts 2 : 16-21; Rom. 10: 13.
JOE'LiAH {whom Jehovah helps), a Benjamite chief who united his forces to David's at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12: 7.
JOE'ZER {whose help is Jehovah), a Benjamite who was a Korhite, who came to David at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 6.
JOG'BEHAH {elevated), a place in the tribe of Gad, Num. 32:35; Jud. 8:11, east of the Jordan, and near where Gideon overcame Zebah and Zal-munna; it may be identical with Juheiha, a ruin about 4 miles north of Amnidn.
JOGXI {exiled), the father of a chief of Dan. Num. 34: 22.
JO'HA {whom Jehovah revives). 1. A chief of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8 : 16.
2. The Tizite, one of David's warriors.
1 Chr. 11 : 45.
JOHA'NAN {to whom Jehovah is merciful). 1. One of the captains of the army of Judah who came with their men unto Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar had appointed governor, and declared themselves "servants of the Chaldees."
2 Kgs. 25: 23-26. Having heard of the intention of Ishmael to kill Gedaliah he told the governor, at the same time requesting permission to kill Ishmael, but Gedaliah did not believe the report, and accused Johanan of lying. After
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Ged.aliah was assassinated Johanan again took the lead, rcgathered the fugitives, and, although warned bj' Jeremiah against going down to Egypt, carried off the prophet and other Jews into that land, where he died. Jer. 40: 7-10: chs. 41, 42, and 43.
2. One of Josiah's sons. 1 Chr. 3:15.
3. One of David's posterity. IChr. 3 : 24.
4. Sou of Azariah. of the high-priestly line. 1 Chr. 6: U. 10.
5. 6. A Benjaniitc and a Gadite who came to David at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 4, 12.
7. The father of an Ephraiuiite chief in the reign of Ahaz. 2 Chr. 28 : 12.
S. One who returned with Ezra. Ezr. 8: 12.
9. One of the chief Levites, in whose chamber Ezra mourned for the transgressions of the captives. Ezr. 10:6; Neh. 12: 23.
10. The son-in-law of Meshullam. Neh. 6 : 18.
JOHN, identical with JOHA'IVAN {ichom Jehovah loves ; comp. the German Gottlieb). 1. One of the high priest's kindred. Acts 4 : 6.
2. The Hebrew name of Mark the evangelist. Acts 12 : 25 ; 13 : 5 ; 15 : 37.
3. John the Baptist, more properly "the Baptizer." Matt. 3 : 1. The son of a priestly family on both sides, his father, Zacharias, being a priest of the course of Abiah, and his mother, Elisabeth, being of the daughters of Aaron, the prophet and forerunner of our Saviour, and the Elias of the N. T. His parents were old when they received the promise of his birth. Luke 1:18. See Zechariah. He was born about six months before Christ. His birth and work were predicted by the angel Gabriel, Luke 1: 5-15, and by Isaiah, Isa. 40 : 3, and Malachi. Mai. 4 : 5. He grew up in solitude, and when about 30 years of age began to preach in the wilderness of Judaea, and to call men to repentance and reformation. By divine direction he baptized with the baptism of repentance all who came unto him confessing their sins, Luke 3 : 8 ; and many supposed he might be " the Christ." John 1 : 19-28. His manner of life was solitary, and even austere; for he seems to have shunned the habitations of men and to have subsisted on locusts and wild hone}^, while his dress was made of the coarse hair of camels, and a leathern girdle was about his loins.
John, moreover, announced to the -Tews the near approach of the Messiah's kingdom, called the '' kingdom of heaven." Matt. 3 : 2. Multitudes flocked to hear him, and to be baptized of him, from every part of the land ; and among the rest came Jesus of Nazareth, and applied for baptism John at first hesitated on account of the dignity of the person and his own unworthiness; but when Jesus told him that it was necessary, John acquiesced: heaven was opened, and the Holy Ghost descended on Jesus in the likeness of a dove, and a voice was heard from heaven, saying, " This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased." Matt. 3:17. By this, John knew most certainly that Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah, and afterward pointed him out to his own disciples and announced to the people that he was then among them. John 1: 26-36.
John was a man of profound humility; and although he foresaw that his fame would be eclipsed by the coming of Christ, as the brightness of the morning star is dimmed by the rising of the sun, yet he rejoiced sincerely in the event, saying, " He must increase, but I must decrease." The testimony of John to the divine nature and offices of the Redeemer is full and distinct. John 1: 29 ; 3 : 28-32. The message he sent by his disciples while he was in prison was for their sakes rather than his own, although it is not impossible that his own faith was temporarily clouded by the gloom of the prison. Matt. 11: 1-6. The preaching of John was awakening and alarming, and produced a deep impression on the minds of his hearers, but with most it was but temporary. They rejoiced in his light only for a season.
Among the hearers of John was Herod, the tetrarch of Galilee. This wicked prince not only heard him, but heard him with delight, and reformed his conduct in many points in consequence of j his solemn warnings, Mark 6:20; but ' there was one sin which he would not I relinquish. He had put away his own i wife, and had married Herodias, the [ wife of his brother Philip, who was still living. For this iniquity John faithfully reproved the tetrarch, by which he was so much offended that he would have killed the preacher had he not feared an insurrection of the people,
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for all men held John to be a prophet. Matt. 14 : 5. He went so far, however, as to shut him up in prison. The resentment of Herodias was still stronger and more implacable toward the man who had dared to reprove her sin. She therefore watched for some opportunity to wreak her vengeance on this prophet of the Lord. On Herod's birthday, when all the principal men of the country were feasting with him, -Salome, the daughter of Herodias, danced so gracefully before the company that Herod was charmed beyond measure, and declared with an oath that he would give her whatever she asked, even to the half of his kingdom. She immediately asked the advice of her mother, who told her to request the head of John the Baptist. Herod, whose resentment against him seems to have subsided, was exceedingly sorry, but out of regard to his oath, as he said, and respect for his company, he caused John to be beheaded. His head was brought on a platter and presented to the young dancer, who immediately gave it to her mother.
Thus terminated the life of him who, of all the prophets of old, came nearest to Christ, and was in this sense the greatest born among women, yet less than "least in the kingdom" of Christ. Matt. 11: 11. He was the promised Elijah— i. €. gifted with his power and spirit. He summed up the whole meaning of the Jewish dispensation, the Law, and the prophecy in its direct termination in Christ, who came to fulfil the Law and the promise.
Josephus, the Jewish historian, says of John, he " was a good man, and commanded the Jews to exercise virtue both as to righteousness toward one another, and piety toward God, and so to come to baptism." He also speaks of his " great influence over the people, who seemed ready to do anything he should advise." Josephus also confii-ms the gospel account of the murder of John. Antiq., xviii. 5^2.
4. John, the apostle and evangelint, was the son of Zebedee and Salome, and probably a cousin of Jesus (if Salome was a sister of Mary), as may be inferred from John 19 : 25, " his mother's sister." Comp. with Matt. 27 : 56 : Mark 15 : 40 ; Luke 23 : 49. He was probably born at Bethsaida. Matt. 4 : 18, 21. His parents were in comfortable circumstances, for 468
his father had hired servants, Mark 1: 20, and a partnership in business. Luke 5: 10. His mother was one of the women who gave of their substance for the support of Jesus, Luke 8 : 3, and came with spices to embalm his body. Mark 16 : 1.
The apostle himself was acquainted with the high priest and his court, John 18 : 15, and had property in Jerusalem. John 19: 27. He with James, his brother, carried on the business of fishing with their father. But the fame of the new prophet, John the Baptist, reached Galilee, and with his friends, Peter, Andrew, and Philip, he eagerly advocated the claims of the Baptist, and became one of his followers.
In this school he was prepared for a far higher service. He who faithfully obeyed the Forerunner was brought soon to the Lord. Doubtless John was one of the " two disciples " who heard the Baptist declare of Jesus, " Behold the Lamb of God !" John 1: .36. He followed Jesus unto his abode, saw the marvellous works he performed, and from that hour was a convert to the new faith. But not as yet was he called. He resumed his trade for a time, until Jesus, walking by the Sea of Galilee, caught a glimpse of his old acquaintances, Peter and Andrew, James and John, and by the same command, " Follow me," counted them among the twelve apostles who form the first layer of God's spiritual building. Eph. 2 : 20. Unto John was the tender and expressive epithet given, " The disciple whom Jesus loved." This was intimated in his very name, "Jehovah is gracious." Comp. the German Gottlieb. Did we know nothing more of him than this, we should know enough to stamp him as the worthiest of sinful mortals ; he who was the chosen friend of the sinless One must have possessed rare qualities of heart and mind. He was, along with James and Peter, the spectator of all the more private events of the Saviour's life. He saw the glories of the transfiguration, rejoiced in the restoration of Jairus's daughter, wondered at the resurrection of Lazarus, leaned on the Saviour's breast at the Last Supper, and was nearest to him in the garden. He alone of the apostles attended the crucifixion. It was, then, fitting that to him, at the cross, should be committed the care of the widowed mother of Jesus. John 19:
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26. With Peter he hastens to the sepulchre on Easter morning, is among the disciples when Jesus appears, and at our last glimpse of him in the Gospels he stands near to Peter, and the words are borne to us, '' If I will that he tarry till I come, what is that to thee?" John 21: 22.
After the ascension Peter, James, and John are the pillar apostles. Gal. 2 : 1-9. They work miracles, are the sources of counsel, and the heads of the infant Church. In the year 50, Paul meets them, and how cordial a greeting would the ardent lover of Jesus receive from John, whose mind was stored with those precious memories he was destined to write down for the edification and enjoyment of all future time! But when Paul for the last time visited Jerusalem, in 68, John was not there—so do we interpret Luke's silence. Acts 21: 18—having entered upon those wider labors which made him so much beloved.
He made Ephesus the centre of his operations, and had, after Paul's martyrdom, according to unanimous tradition, the supervision in general of the churches of Asia Minor. This oversight began in the year 64. Under Nero, A. D, 54-68, in the year 68, he was banished to Patmos, a solitary, barren, rocky island in the ^gean Sea. There he had the visions recorded in Revelation. Rev. 1 : 9. The usual view assigns the Revelation to the close of Domitian's reign, A. D. 95, and his return to Ephesus to the reign of Nerva, a. i>. 96; but strong internal evidence favors a date prior to the destruction of Jerusalem, a. d. 70.
One of the beautiful stories which are told of the aged apostle John is that when he was too old to jireach, he was accustomed to say to the congregation the characteristic words, " Little children, love one another;" and when asked why he always repeated this sentence only, he replied, " Because it is the commandment of the Lord, and enough is done if this one command be obeyed." Another story relates to an earlier period. It is said that once, on entering the bath at Ephesus, he perceived in it the heretic Cerinthus, the early Gnostic, whereupon John cried out, "Let us flee, that the roof do not fall upon us under which lingers Cerinthus, that enemy of the truth." These stories serve well to reveal the permanency of those traits
of character which come out in the Gospels. Down to the close John was ''the son of thunder," intense in his feeling and vehement in his affection, and the ** beloved disciple," of open mind and tender heart, of profound thought and burning zeal. When we compare him with the other apostles we learn his marked individuality. John is the " good " man, while James is the righteous man. John is the pensive, quiet, thoughtful man, while Peter is the active, practical man. " Both these disciples loved the Lord with all the heart, but, as Grotius finely remarks, Peter was more a friend of ' Christ,' John of 'Jesus'—that is, the one revered and loved the Saviour chiefly in his official Messianic character, the other was attached most of all to his person, and was therefore personally still nearer to him, being, so to speak, his bosom-friend. John and Paul have depth of knowledge in common. They are the two disciples who have left us the most complete systems of doctrine. But while Paul is the representative of genuine scholasticism in the best sense of the term, being an exceedingly acute thinker and an accomplished dialectician, John is a representative of all true mj'sti-cism, learning from intuition and contemplation. Not inaptly has Peter been styled the apostle of hope, Paul the apostle of faith, and John the apostle of love. The first is the representative of Catholicism, the second of Protestantism, the third of the ideal Church in which this great antagonism shall resolve itself into perfect harmony."— SciiAFF : Apost. Ch., pp. 410,411.
Full of days and of honors, highly privileged and richly endowed, about the close of the century " the disciple whom Jesus loved " was summoned by the Master to resume their loving companionship.
John, Gospel of. It was the last Gospel written, and was probably composed, or at least put in its present shape, at Ephesus, between A. d. 70 and 95. The ])articular design of it is expressed by the author to be that we might believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that, believing, we might have life through his name. John 20 : 31. Hence the subjects and discourses of this book have special relation to our Lord's character and offices, and are evidently intended to prove his
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nature, authority, and doctrines as divine. John probably had the other Gospels before him, or was familiar with their general contents. This fact affords substantial evidence of the genuineness of these writings, and also accounts for the omission of many important occurrences which are particularly stated by the other evangelists. We should not regard John, however, as attempting to correct the other evangelists, or merely to supplement them. This idea is at r)nce contradicted by his having many points in common with them. His work is all one effusion, and though it serves as a valuable complement to the other Gospels is yet a complete whole in itself. John wrought on a fixed plan. He grouped all the events around the several Jewish feasts, mentioning three—indeed, probably four—Passovers, 2:13:5: 1; 6:4; 11 : 55 ; 12:1 ; 13 :1, one feast of tabernacles, 7:2, and one feast of dedication, 10:22, But there is likewise a certain inward order, a progressive development of the relation of Jesus to his disciples and the world; especially is this to be traced in the growth of love and devotion on the one hand, and of hate and rage of the unbelieving Jews on the other. All through the history we hear the sound of the hammer in the making of his cross, but more loudly the shouting of the coming saints.
The Gospel contains—A. The prologue, ch. 1 : 1-18; B, The history, ch, 1: 19 to ch, 21. 1, The preparation for Jesus' public ministry, (n) by John, 1 : 19-36; {b) by the choice of disciples. 1 : 37-51. 2. The public labors of Jesus in doctrine and miracle, chs. 2-12, 3. Jesus in the private circle of his disciples, chs. 13-17. 4. The history of the passion and resurrection or public glorification of the Lord, chs. 18-21.
" The Gospel of John is the Gospel of Gospels. It is the most remarkable as well as most important literary production ever composed. . , , It is a marvel even in the marvellous Book of books. It is the most spiritual and ideal of Gospels. It brings us, as it were, into the immediate presence of Jesus. It gives us the clearest view of his incarnate divinity and his perfect humanity." — Sj)ecial Introd. by Dr. Schaff to Lange on John.
The Gospel of John is a battlefield 470
of modern criticism, but the fight is in the main between belief and unbelief. It must also be confessed that the latter is fairly defeated. Both parties recognize the crucial character of the Gospel, Grant to it authenticity and genuineness, then the divinity of Christ, to which the Gospel testifies in the plainest, simplest, but also profoundest way, must be acknowledged as taught in the N, T. It is this fact which gives bitterness to the frequent and often learned and plausible attacks made upon it. The attempt has been made to assign it to some great''unknown" author in the second century, but at that time it was already widely known, and the second century is so far below the apostolic age that it could not possibly have produced such a work. Up to a quite modern date the genuineness of this Gospel was undisputed. The verses 24 and 25 of ch. 21 give the contemporary Ephesian testimony. 2 Pet. 1: 14 alludes to 21:18. Ignatius, Poly-carp, the Epistle to Diognetus, Basilides, Justin Martyr, Tatian (especially in the light of the recent discovery of a commentary of Ephraem Syrus on Tatian's Diatessaron), impliedly quote from it. This carries the date up to the middle of the second century, when it was in current use. The external evidence is in favor of John's authorship, while internally it is so befitting the known character and opportunities of John that it is either from him or else it is a forgery. But it cannot be a forgery ; it is too self-possessed, too well-balanced, too original, too profound, too divine. The heart of Christ throbs in no liar's breast. The high-priestly prayer came from the hand of no hypocritical or designing man. Read the Gospel and compare it with the productions of the Fathers, and you will endorse the statement, " Verily, no man in the second century, or of any other subsequent century, could have written the work. No man in the first century but John the apostle could have Avritten it, and even John himself could not have written it without inspiration."— Schaff. And in this conclusion the heart of Christendom will always abide.
The Epistles of John are three in number. They were written in Ephesus, after the Gospel, though before the date
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of the Revelation. Dr. Lange assigns them between the years 96 and 100. The First has always been attributed to John, though his name is neither prefixed nor subscribed. It is a kind of practical application of the Gospel. It is addressed to Christians, and does not aim, therefore, to produce, but to nourish, the Christian life, to warn them against all errors, and to induct them into the mysteries of redeeming love and into the principles and duties which the religion of Christ enjoins, and to furnish them with certain signs or criteria by which to determine the genuineness of their faith.
The Second Epistle is addressed to the " elect lady and her children." The elect lady is supposed to have been some honorable woman distinguished for piety, and well known in the churches as a disciple of Christ. Some, however, have thought some particular church and its members might be denoted. Those who adopt the latter opinion apply the term to the church at Jerusalem, and the term " elect sister/' v. 13, to the church at Ephesus.
The title of " elder " was indicative of the apostle's office, with a reference also to his great age, then not far from 100 years, as it is supposed. The substance of this letter is an exhortation to continual obedience and an admonition against deceivers, especially against a new form of error, that Christ was a man in appearance only, and not in reality, and therefore his sufferings and death were not real.
The Third Epistle, which is addressed to Gains, or Caius, a private individual, and is commendatory of his piety, was written about the same time with the others.
' John, Revelation of. See Revelation.
i JOI'ADA [whom Jehovah favors), one of the high priests. Neh. 12:10, 11, |22.
I JOI'AKIM {whom Jehovah has set up). The name is a contraction of Jehoi-akim. A high priest, the son and successor of Jeshua. Neh. 12 : 10, 12, 26.
JOI'ARIB (whom Jehovah defends). 1. A man commissioned by Ezra to bring " ministers for the house of our God," priests qualified to give instruction. Ezr. 8 : 16,
2. A descendant of Judah. Neh.
11 : 5.
3. The founder of one of the courses of priests. Neh. 11: 10. In 1 Chr. 9 : 10 his full name is given, Jehoiarib.
JOK'DEAM {possessed hij people?), a city in the mountains of Judah, Josh. 15 : 56, apparently south of Hebron.
JO'KIM {ivhom Jehovah has set vp), one of Shelah's sons, and Judah's grandsons. 1 Chr. 4:22.
JOK'MEAM (gathered hi/ the ])eo-ple), a city of Ephraim given to the Levites. 1 Chr. 6 : 68. From 1 Kgs. 4:
12 (where the A. V. incorrectly reads " Jokneam " for " Jokmeam "), it must have been in the Jordan Valley, between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea.
JOK'NEAM {gathered by the people), a city of the tribe of Zebulun, allotted with its suburbs to the Levites. Josh. 21 : 34. Its modern site is Tell Keimtln, near the east end of Carmel and about 12 miles south-west of Nazareth. See Jokmeam.
JOK'SHAN {a folder), the son of Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 25: 2, 3; 1 Chr. 1: 32.
JOK'TAN {who is made small), a descendant of Shem, ancestor of the Joktanite Arabs. Gen. 10 : 25-30 ; 1 Chr. 1:19-23.
JOK'THEEL {snbdued of God). 1. A city in the territory of .Judah, and near Lachish, on the Philistine plain. Josh. 15:38.
2. The name given to Sela after it was taken by Amaziah, 2 Kgs. 14 : 7 ; 2 Chr. 25:11, 12; perhaps the stronghold of Petra. See Sela.
JO'NA {whom Jehovah bestows), the father of Peter. John 1: 42. See Jonas, 2.
JON'ADAB {whom Jehovah impels). 1. The son of Shimeah, and nephew of David. '* He seems to have been one of those characters who, in the midst of great or royal families, pride themselves and are renowned for being acquainted with the secrets of the whole circle in which they move."— Stanley. He advised the rape of Tamar. 2 Sam. 13 : 3-5.
2. The form, oft repeated, in Jer. 35 for Jehonadab, which see.
JO'NAH {dove), the prophet, son of Amittai, and born at Gath-hepher. Jon. 1:1 ; 2 Kgs. 14 : 25. Nothing certain is known of his history beyond what is recorded in bis book. He was sent by the
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Lord about B. c. 825 to Nineveh, the metropolis of ancient Assyria, to preach repentance. Instead of obeying the command, he took passage at Joppa for Tarshish (Tartessus in Spain). In punishment, God caused a great storm to arise. The sailors cast lots to find out who was the guilty one. The lot fell upon Jonah, who confessed his sin and told them to cast him into the sea ; so should the storm cease. Although loth to do it, they after a time obeyed. Jonah was swallowed by " ji great fish," probably a shark or sea-dog, since these creatures are found in the Mediterranean. After three days he was vomited out upon the dry land. The Lord's command being repeated, Jonah went to Nineveh, delivered his message, and then sat down to see the destruction of the city. But the Ninevites repented; the threatened punishment was averted, and Jonah was very angry. He withdrew from the city and sat down under a booth he built. The Lord, greatly to his comfort, caused a gourd to grow up, but then to wither away ; and this singular book ends with the debate carried on between Jehovah and his servant, in which the gourd is mentioned, and in which the divine mercy extending over all creatures is plainly declared. See Gourd. And so the most intensely Jewish of the Hebrew prophets is compelled by the Spirit to pen words of a truly Christian import. See Nineveh.
The difficulty with the book is the story of the great fish. The miracle is not that he was swallowed by a fish— for horses have beeu found whole in the bellies of sharks—but that he was kept alive within it for three days. But this miracle receives the strongest possible confirmation to a Christian from the use made of it by our Lord, who sees in it a type of the resurrection. Matt. 12: 39-41 ; 16 : 4. He also refers to the preaching of Jonah. Luke 11 : 29-32.
Jonah, the Book op consists of two parts: I. Jonah's commission, refusal, and miraculous escape from death ; his prayer in the great fish. Chs. Iand2. II. His second commission, obedience, the repentance of the Ninevites, and Jonah's hard spirit. The book is variously regarded ; it has been called a fiction, a myth, a parable, but it is hhtory, as is proven by its place in the Jewish canon, 472
and by Christ's use of it, as already quoted. Some infidels went so far as to deny there was a city called Nineveh, but all such objectors have been grandly
Traditional Tomb of Jonah.
silenced by the excavations of Layard, Botta, and others, which have caused this old city on the Tigris to live again.
The lesson of the book is that God's providence and his mercy extend beyond the covenant people unto the heathens. Although Jonah was at first the narrowest of Jews, his book is the most catholic in the 0. T. It approaches most nearly the catholicity of Christianity.
JO'NAN {whom Jehovah bestows), son of Eliakim, in the genealogy of Christ. Luke 3 : 30.
JO'NAS. 1. The Greek form of Jonah. Matt. 12 : 39-41 ; 16 : 4; Luke 11 : 30-32.
2. The father of Peter and Andrew, John 21: 15-17 ; called also Jona, 1: 42.
JON'ATHAN {tvhom Jehovah t/ave). 1. A Gershonite Levite who became by request the priest of Micah and afterward went with the Danites to Laish, where he and his posterity were priests. Jud. 17:7-13 and 18.
2. The son of Saul, and distinguished for piety and valor. He and his armor-bearer, being encouraged by an intimation from God, attacked a Philistine garrison, slew 20 men, and put the garrison to flight. Having ignorantly violated a decree of his father (the king) that no man should stop, on pain of death, in
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the pursuit of the enemy to taste of food, the people interposed, and saved him from the penalty, which his father was ready to inflict. 1 Sam. 14 : o7-45.
After David's defeat of the giant, Jonathan became acquainted with him, and their friendship for each other was so remarkable as to be minutely described b}' the sacred historian. 1 Sam. 18 : l-i: 19:2. The opportunity to show their friendship for each other was greatly extended by the bitter and x"e-lentless hostility of Saul to David. 1 Sam. 19, 20, etc. Jonathan fell with his father and two brothers in the battle at Gilboa. The lamentation of David for his friend, 2 Sam. 1: 17-27, is justly regarded as inimitably pathetic and beautiful, and his treatment of Mephib-osheth, Jonathan's son, shows the sincerity and strength of his aflfeetion for the father. 2 Sam. 9.
3. The son of Abiathar, the high priest. 2 Sam. 16:27, 36; 17:17, 20 j 1 Kgs. 1: 42, 43.
4. David's nephew, who slew a giant in Gath. 2 Sam. 21: 20, 21 ; 1 Chr. 20 : 6,7.
5. One of David's valiant men. 2 Sam. 23: 32 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 34.
6. A descendant of Jerahmeel. 1 Chr. 2 : 32, 33. '
7. One of David's uncles. 1 Chr. 27: 32.
8. The father of one who returned with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 6.
9. One who, with Ezra, investigated the mixed marriages. Ezr. 10 : 15.
10. A high priest for 32 years, Neh. 12 : 11; called Johanan in verses 22, 23.
11. A priest. Neh. 12: 14.
12. A priest, and the father of one who joined in the dedication of the wall. Neh. 12 : 35.
13. He in whose house was Jeremiah's prison. Jer. 37 : 15, 20 ; 38 : 26.
14. A son of Kareah, and brother of Johanan. Jer. 40 : 8.
JO'NATH-E'LEM - RECIIO' -
Kirtt {a diuiib dove of dint<tnt places), part of the title to Ps. 56; not found elsewhere in the Bible. Most likely it was the name of some popular melody to which tune the Psalm was to be sung. JOP'PA (heauti/), an ancient maritime city in the territory of Dan, on the Mediterranean, about 30 miles south of Cajsarea, 35 miles north-west of Jerusa-
lem, and upon a promontory, 116 feet high, jutting out into the sea. From its summit there is a fine view of the coast and the sea. Ezr. 3:7; Jon. 1:3; Acts 9 : 36-43 ; 10 : 5-32; 11 : 5-13. It is also called *'Japho," Josh. 19:40; 2 Chr. 2:16, margin. The modern name of the city is Yd/d or Jaffa.
Hintory. —Joppa is said to be one of the oldest towns in the world. A Roman writer says that it antedates the deluge. When the chosen people divided the Holy Land amongst the several tribes, Japho, a Phoenician colony in the land of the Philistines, was one of the landmarks designating the territory of the tribe of Dan. Josh. 19: 46. It was the seaport to which wood from Lebanon was brought for the building of Solomon's temple, 2 Chr. 2: 16, and when the house of the Lord was rebuilt after the Captivity. Cedar trees were brought from Lebanon to Joppa. Ezr. 3:7. It was at this port also that Jonah took ship for Tarshish. Jon. 1: 3. Thus the city is mentioned four times (once as Japho) in the 0. T.
In an inscription relating the victorious campaigns of Sennacherib, the town is called Ja-ap-pu, and its situation is correctly described. The Maccabees brought the city under the Jewish yoke. Afterward it fell successively under the Greek and the Roman sway. The Romans took it B. c. 63. In the N. T., Joppa is only mentioned in the book of Acts, and in connection with two events: (1) The raising of Tabitha to life by Peter, Acts 9:36-43; (2) Peter's vision on the housetop. Acts 10: 11. Several bishops of Joppa are mentioned as having attended various Church synods. During the Crusades, Joppa was several times captured by opposing forces, and partially destroyed. Toward the end of the eighteenth century the town was surrounded by walls, which enabled the inhabitants to resist for several days the attacks of the French army under Kle-ber. The place was taken by storm, and 4000 prisoners were massacred by order of Napoleon, March 4, 1799.
Present Appearance. —To the traveller approaching Jop])a by sea the city presents a beautiful a])pearance, but a closer contact is disappointing. Steamers are obliged to anchor half a mile from the quay, and passengers and baggage are
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taken ashore in boats. The quay is very badly paved, and becomes a pond of mud after a rain. The streets are narrow, dirty, crooked, and steep. The houses, built of tufa-stone, are crowded together without any order. Among the prominent buildings are the Greek monastery, the Latin hospice (founded in 1654), and the Armenian monastery. The traditional "house of Tabitha" and " the house of Simon the tanner " are still pointed out.
Exterior of the supposed house of Simon tlie Tanner. {From Photograph of Pal. Fund.)
The open space is the Utile courtyard at the rear of the house, between the house and the wall overlookiug the sea. The spectator has his back to the sea. The well from which Peter is said to have baptized is sunk in the ground on the right.
In population Joppa has greatly increased within 25 years. A Turkish calendar enumerates 865 Moslem, 135 Greek, 70 Greek Catholic, 50 Latin, 6 Maronite, and 5 Armenian families, which would give a total of about 8000 inhabitants. To these must be added a flourishing German Protestant colony of the Temple Society, which settled there in 1857 under the lead of Rev. Christopher Hoffman, and introduced various industries. Miss Arnot, a Scotch lady, conducts a good school for girls. A considerable trade is carried on with Egypt, Syria, and Constantinople. But one of the chief means of livelihood for the people is the annual passage of numerous pilgrims and travellers through the town. It is the landing-place of most travellers to Palestine, and is connected with Jerusalem by a rough carriage-road —the only one in that country. A railroad has been projected and may be built before maoy years. The oranges 474
of Joppa are famous and supply the market at Jerusalem.
JO'RAH {early rain), one whose descendants returned with ZerubbabeL Ezr. 2 : 18.
JO'RAI {whom Jehovah teaches), a chieftain of Gad. 1 Chr. 5: 13.
JO'RAM [lohoin Jehovah hati exalted). 1. A son of Toi, the king of Ha-math, sent to congratulate David on his victory over Hadadezer. 2 Sam. 8:10. ^
2. The son of Ahab. 2 Kgs. 8:1, See Jehoram, 2.
3. The son of Jehoshaphat. 2 Kgs. 8: 24. See Jehoram, 1.
4. A Levite of David's day. 1 Chr. 26 : 25.
JOR'DAN (the descender), the great river of Palestine, as the Nile is of Egypt.
Name. —" Jordan" (the Hebrew Vftr-den) signifies, from its derivation, "the descender." It is always joined with the article in the 0. T., with two exceptions, Ps. 42 : 6; Job 40 : 23. The Arabs call it esh-Sheriuh, or "the watering-place." A tradition as old as St. Jerome, A. D. 400, says that the Jordan derived its name from two rivers, the Jor, rising at Banias, and the Dan, rising at Tell el-Kadi. But this tradition seems to be erroneous; for according to Gen. 13 : 10, the river was known to Abraham as the Jordan long before the children of Dan gave their name to Leshem, Josh. 19 : 47, or Laish. Jud. 18 : 29.
Sources. — The Jordan rises among the mountains of Anti-Lebanon, and has foyr sources: (1). The Jfasbdin/, which issues from the large fountain 'A in Fnrar, near Hasbeya, at an altitude of 1700 feet above the sea. This pool, which the natives say is 1000 feet deep, Macgregor found to have a depth of 11 feet. (2) The Banias, which rises near the ruins of Banias (Caesarea-Phil-ippi), at the base of Mount Hermon, 1140 feet above the sea-level. (3) The Ledddn, rising in a large fountain on the west side of the Tell el-Kadi ("hill of the judge," the site of the city of Dan). In the midst of a thicket of oleander bushes is a large pool, 50 or 60 yards wide, with the water bubbling out of the ground in a full-grown stream. This, which Josephus calls the Little Jordan, is the most copious source. (4) The Esh-Shar, a minor tributary, only one or two yards broad. Besides the
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above four sources, there are numerous small streams from the springs of Lebanon, which find their way into the swamp above Lake Huleli, and contribute to swell the Jordan.
Course of the Stream. —At a point about 4 miles below Tell el-Kadi the Hashdnif unites with the other two principal sources. At this point the Jordan is 45 feet wide, and flows in a channel from 12 to 30 feet below the level of the plain. After emerging from a broad morass the waters expand into Lake el-Huleh, 4^ miles long, 2|^ miles wide, having descended 1434 feet. See Merom, The Waters of. Issuing from the lake in a sluggish current, the descent soon makes it a rapid torrent, which in a course of 9 miles descends 897 feet to the Sea of Galilee, 682^ feet below the Mediterranean. See Galilee, Sea of.
The popular notion that the waters of the river do not seem to mingle with those of the lake,"but pass through in a united stream, is a '' fable." From the Sea of Tiberias to the Dead Sea there is one deep depression, the hills from the east and west nearly meeting in many places. This depression is filled up to a certain level with an alluvial deposit, forming a vast plain called the Jordan Valley, or Ghor (the hollow). This is the " upper plain." It varies in width from 1 to 12 miles. The river has cut out for itself a plain lower than the preceding by some 50 to 100 feet, and from a quarter of a mile to a mile wide. This is the " lower plain," through which the river, some 60 yards wide, winds its way. During the spring floods this lower plain is inundated. Although the distance in a straight line between Tiberias and the Dead Sea is only 66 miles, the actual distance the stream flows, on account of its many windings, is 200 miles, and the fall 667 feet. Twenty-seven threatening rai)ids were counted by Lieut. Lynch, besides many others of minor importance. The whole distance from the sources of the river to its mouth is not more than 136 miles in a straight line. The whole descent is 2999 feet to the Dead Sea, which, according to the latest determination of the British Survey, is 1292 feet below the sea-level, although Lynch had reported it at 1.317 feet. See Salt Sea. The width of the 476
stream varies from 45 to 180 feet, and its depth from 3 to 12 feet.
Tributaries. —Between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea two considerable rivers enter the Jordan from the east. (1) Wady Mandhur (the Jarmuk or Yarmuk of the Rabbins, and the Hiero-max of Pliny). This stream formerly divided Bashan and Gilead. (2) Wady Zerka, the Jabbok, which enters the Jordan 20 miles north of Jericho and was formerly the northern boundary of Amnion. Between the above two Dr. Selah Merrill found " no less than eleven living streams, more than half of which can be called large ones." Between the Jabbok and the Wady Nimrin there are no streams and the region is barren, but below the Wady Nimrin several living streams were noted. Hot springs of considerable size have been found in as many as ten different localities in the Jordan Valley. The temperature of those at El-Hama, near the Yarmuk, is from 100 to 115 degrees.
Bridcjes and Fords. —There are the remains of several bridges crossing the river, which date back to Roman times. One of these, a few hundred yards above Damieh (the "Adam" of Josh. 3 : 16), marks the crossing-place of the great road from central Palestine to the East. Dr. Merrill says there is reason to believe that this bridge existed in Christ's time, and it is on the road by which the Saviour went from Galilee to Jerusalem. Below Lake Hide.h is a bridge called *' Bridge of Jacob's Daughter," probably built in the fifteenth century.
There are four principal fords over the river: the lower one, opposite Jericho, near the famous bathing-place of the pilgrims ; another, eastward of Sakut; and two others, nearer the Sea of Galilee. At low water there are many other points at which the river might be easily forded, and the British Survey discovered evidences of various fords. During the floods the Arabs are frequently obliged to swim their horses across the river.
Climate and Vegetation. —The great depression of the Jordan Valley gives to it a semi-tropical character. " In its natural products it stands unique, a tropical oasis sunk in the temperate zone." Under the intense heat vegetation advances with wonderful rapidity,
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