Section 21

 ² This thesis has been exemplarily championed by Basil Hall, ‘Calvin against the Calvinists’, in Gervase E. Duffield et al., John Calvin (Appleford: Sutton Courtenay Press, 1966), esp. pp. 25–30.

 ³ See first of all Richard A. Muller’s Post Reformation’s Reformed Dogmatics: The Rise and Development of Reformed Orthodoxy, ca. 1520 to ca. 1725, 4 vols (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 2003), as well as his collection of essays After Calvin. Studies in the Development of a Theological Tradition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). See also Carl R. Trueman and R.S. Clark (eds), Protestant Scholasticism: Essays in Reassessment (Carlisle: Pater Noster Press, 1999); Willem J. van Asselt and Eef Dekker (eds), Reformation and Scholasticism: An Ecumenical Enterprise (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 2001).

 ⁴ In his physics classes Gessner used for example along with Aristotle’s Physics also Ermolao Barbaro’s Naturalis scientiae totius compendium, and appreciated also the Commentary on Physics by Jakob Schegk (1511–87). Gessner praises this work as outstanding for its erudition, method and clarity. Cf. Conrad Gessner, Bibliotheca universalis (Zurich: Christoph Froschauer the Elder, 1545), fol. 362r: ‘Hos libros ego in gymnasio nostro Tigurino adolescentibus propono, cum nullius in hunc diem scripta viderim hoc in genere, quorum vel eruditio vel methodus et brevitas et sermonis honestas istis anteferri debeant’. See also Alfredo Serrai, Conrad Gesner (Rome: Bulzoni, 1990), pp. 41–3.

 ⁵ Conrad Gessner, Physicarum meditationum, annotationum et scholiorum lib[ri] (Zurich: Officina Froschoviana, 1586).

 ⁶ Otto Werdmüller, De dignitate, usu et methodo philosophiae moralis (Basel: Hieronymus Curio, 1545).

 ⁷ The only modern account of Werdmüller’s life is Leo Weisz, Die Werdmüller: Schicksale eines alten Zürcher Geschlechtes, vol. 1 (Zurich: Schulthess, 1949), pp. 60–72.

 ⁸ Similitudines ab omnium animalium genere desumtae, appended to Johannes Fabricius Montanus, Differentiae animalium quadrupedum secundum locos communes (Zurich: Andreas and Jakob Gessner, 1555).

 ⁹ It was Miles Coverdale (1488–1569), bishop of Exeter from 1551 to 1553, who was responsible for translating two treatises of Werdmüller’s into English: A spiritual and most precious perle, teachynge all men to love and imbrace ye crosse (London: Gwalter Lynne, 1550), originally published as Ein Kleinot von trost und hilff in allerley truebsalen (Zurich: Christoph Froschauer the Elder, 1548), and A moste frutefull, pithye and learned treatise, how a christen ma[n] ought to behave himself in the dau[n]ger of death (Wesel: Hugh Singleton, 1555), originally published as Der Tod. Wie sich ein Christ in seinen und anderer todsnoeten halten [soll] (Zurich: Augustin Fries, 1549). The English translation of the former treatise was reprinted in 1844 in a volume of Coverdale’s works issued by the Parker Society, cf. Myles Coverdale, Writings and Translations, ed. George Pearson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1844), pp. 91–194.

¹⁰ Quoted in the following as NE.

¹¹ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 3: ‘Cum multa divinitus a Tigurini collegii proceribus ad Dei gloriam et utilitatem ecclesiae instituta sunt, tum nihil praeclarius quam quod non solum Evangelii syncera doctrina publice proponitur, sed etiam ad id munus consecrati philosophia et honestis disciplinis a tenera aetate imbuuntur’.

¹² Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 143: ‘Ad multa disserendi praecepta foelicius intelligenda conducere X Ethicorum libros’.

¹³ On Rudolph Agricola’s logic see Wilhelm Risse, Logik der Neuzeit, vol. 1 (Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog, 1964), pp. 14–58; Wilhelm Schmidt-Biggemann, Topica Universalis (Hamburg: Felix Meiner, 1983), pp. 3–15.

¹⁴ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 204: ‘Egregium exemplum est apud Aristotelem puri, elegantis et proprii sermonis’.

¹⁵ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 11: ‘Philosophia divinarum et humanarum rerum atque adeo totius universitatis notitiam significat … quantam humana ratio per legitimam methodum suis viribus a Deo donatis, hoc est sine renovatione Spiritus sancti comparari potest’.

¹⁶ The definition of philosophy as ‘science of things human and divine’ is to be found in Cassiodorus’ Institutiones without specification of any source, but was attributed by Aetius in his Placita philosophorum to the Stoics. Cf. Cassiodorus, Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum 2,3,5, ed. R.A.B. Mynors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961), p. 110,15–16; Aetius, De placitis philosophorum 874E, ed. Guy Lachenaud (Paris: Les belles lettres, 1993), p. 69.

¹⁷ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 10: ‘Philosophia, quae ducem sequitur humanam rationem nec aliud quam a Deo conditarum rerum explicationem continet, egregium Christiani decus et ornamentum existit’.

¹⁸ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 11: ‘Haec ratio vel mens hominis … non tamen prorsus est deleta, ut nullum extet vestigium pristinae mentis’.

¹⁹ Ibid.: ‘Adhuc enim sana mens, qualis qualis est, per se intelligit de via docendi, de civilibus virtutibus, de naturalibus rebus plurima eaque dignissima’.

²⁰ John Calvin wrote in his Institutes (2,2,12): ‘Ac illa quidem vulgaris sententia quam sumpserunt ex Augustino, mihi placet, naturalia dona fuisse corrupta in homine per peccatum, supernaturalibus autem exaninanitum fuisse’ (John Calvin, Opera selecta, eds Peter Barth and Wilhelm Niesel, vol. 3 [Munich: Kaiser, 1928], p. 254,30–32). Probably he had a place from Peter Lombard’s Sentences in mind: ‘Vulneratus quidem [homo] in naturalibus bonis, quibus non est privatus … spoliatus vero gratuitis, quae per gratiam naturalibus addira fuerunt’ (Peter Lombard, Sententiae in IV libris disctinctae, ed. Collegium S. Bonaventurae ad Claras Aquas, vol. 1 [Grottaferrata, 1971], p. 465,9–12). On Calvin’s use of this distinction see also Dewey J. Hoitenga, John Calvin and the Will: A Critique and Corrective (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1997), pp. 70–73. The same distinction is also present in Theodore Beza, cf. Jeffrey Mallinson, Faith, Reason, and Revelation in Theodore Beza (1519–1605) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 115–18. See also Luca Baschera, ‘Total Depravity? The Consequences of Original Sin in John Calvin and Later Reformed Theology’, in Calvinus Clarissimus Theologus: Papers of the Tenth International Congress of Calvin Research, ed. Herman J. Selderhuis (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2012), pp. 37–58.

²¹ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 32f.: ‘Si Paulum de philosophia loquentem philosophiae peritus legat, quid Apostolus ibi reprehendat, clarius animadvertit, videlicet quod methodum docendi, operum Dei cognitionem, virtutes in hac vita necessarias aliasque philosophiae partes, Dei dotes eximias in Aristotelis scriptis eminentes, haudquaquam improbet, iudicium vero de Dei erga nos voluntate, de maximis in religione locis minime ex philosophia … sed e sacra scriptura sumendum esse moneat’. Similar readings of Col 2:8 are to be found in Melanchthon, Bullinger, Zanchi, and Calvin, cf. Luca Baschera, Tugend und Rechtfertigung: Peter Martyr Vermiglis Kommentar zur Nikomachischen Ethik im Spannungsfeld von Philosophie und Theologie (Zurich: Theologischer Verlag Zürich, 2008) (Zürcher Beiträge zur Reformationsgeschichte 26), p. 21.

²² Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 207: ‘Quantum ergo possum, adhortor omnes, qui ad veram et solidam eruditionem adspirant, Dei gloriam et salutem hominum provehere conantur, ut religioni velut dignissimae reginae philosophiam Aristotelis velut commodissimam famulam adiungant’.

²³ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 12f.: ‘Quamvis autem res ipsae, quas ethnici et christiani tradunt, toto coelo differant, non tamen est in via methodo discrimen, sed eadem methodus habet usum in omnium rerum inquisitione et explicatione’ (my emphasis). Cf. Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 143: ‘Necessariam esse cognitionem methodi, quam dialectica tradit, utpote sine qua nihil recte vel disci vel doceri queat in divinis et humanis rebus’.

²⁴ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 12: ‘Cum ipse de poenitentia, fide, charitate aut alia re concioneris, iterum tenere viam necesse est, quae quid proprie vel extrinsecus adhaereat rebus velut digito monstret; unde argumenta quoque ad vera munienda et falsa destruenda promuntur’.

²⁵ Ibid.: ‘Hanc vero methodum … non disces ex sacris literis, sed ex Aristotele perceptam in sacris literis deprehendes … Nec hodie quicquam extat de eadem re, quod non aut ab Aristotele desumptum aut ad Aristotelem melius intelligendum conscriptum videatur’.

²⁶ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 13: ‘Docendi methodum numerari debere inter Dei munera praestantissima’.

²⁷ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 18: ‘Tametsi nanque philosophia praecipuos christianae doctrinae locos de Trinitate, de Messiae duabus naturis, de remissione peccatorum, de vera in Deum fiducia penitus ignorat, tamen ex eleganti serie causarum, mirabili harmonia partium mundi et sempiterna conservatione specierum piissime ratiocinatur non solum existere Deum seu aeternam mentem, sed eandem quoque ineffabili virtute, sapientia, iustitia et benevolentia erga genus humanum esse praeditam’. The first two manners of demonstrating God’s existence Werdmüller mentions are redolent of Thomas Aquinas’ second and fifth ‘ways’, cf. Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae Ia q. 2 a. 3 co., in: S. Thomae Aquinatis opera omnia, ed. Roberto Busa, vol. 2 (Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog, 1980), p. 187f.

²⁸ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 22f.: ‘Haud absimiliter ad intelligenda reliqua verba citata, primum peritiae linguae requiritur … Mox perinde necessariae partes philosophiae rem ipsam docentes … quorum omnium doctrina, quantam humana mens assequi potest, apud physicos, astronomos, geographos et, ut summatim dicam, apud philosophos eosque solos invenitur’.

²⁹ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 23: ‘Adeo non obest igitur religioni philosophia sana, cuius patrocinium suscepimus, ut singulis ipsius partibus sine detrimento carere non liceat, et philosophiam contemnens, opera et oracula Dei contemnere videatur’.

³⁰ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 133f.: ‘Fatendum est tamen figurata dictione, Socraticis inductionibus, Pythagoricis numeris Platonem philosophiae suae nebulas offundere. A quibus Aristoteles alienus, perspicuam magis et methodicam philosophiam composuit’.

³¹ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 136f.: ‘Tametsi multi philosophi multa recte tradiderunt, unam tamen Aristotelis doctrinam ex omni genere philosophorum esse relictam, quae sanae rationi, quae naturae, id est divinae ordinationi, plusimum maximeque consentanea videatur’.

³² Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 135f.: ‘Huiusmodi falsas et sophisticas hyperbolas non docet Peripateticus noster, sed modis omnibus repugnat impudentibus et monstrosis paradoxis … Similiter in reliquis permotionibus naturalem praecipit modum Aristoteles minimeque gentium approbat Stoircorum apatheian, quae cum ipsa natura atque adeo cum Deo naturae authore (qui dedit organa quorundam affectionum) e diametro pugnat’.

³³ Cf. Philipp Melanchthon, Oratio de philosophia, in Corpus Reformatorum, eds Karl Gottlieb Bretschneider et al. (Berlin et al.: Schwetschke, 1834ff.) [cited as CR], vol. 11, col. 281: ‘Magno instrumento destitutus est theologus, qui nescit illas eruditissimas disputationes de anima, de sensibus, de causis appetitionum et affectuum, de noticia, de voluntate … Omnino est orbis quidam artium, quo inter se devinctae copulataeque sunt omnes, ut ad singulas percipiendas multa ex aliis accipere oportet. Quare ecclesiae opus est toto illo doctrinarum orbe’ (my emphasis).

³⁴ Philipp Melanchthon, Oratio de Aristoteles, in CR, vol. 11, col. 348: ‘Aristoteles … discentium utilitati consulere et scholas iuvare voluit. Haec voluntas etiam in philosopho magnam laudem meretur. Integre complexus est artes dialecticen, physicen et ethicen, et duas res adhibet, quae lumen afferunt in docendo, methodum et proprietatem sermonis … Platonica illa licentia in disputando parit incertas et ambiguas opiniones, non secus ac pictores ludentes pingunt chimeras aut centauros’.

³⁵ Cf. Philipp Melanchthon, Philosophiae moralis epitome, in CR, vol. 16, cols 50–56.

³⁶ Zanchi praised Aristotle in his preface to a Greek edition of Aristotle’s Physics, quoting also Melanchthon to corroborate his positive judgment of the Stagirite, cf. Girolamo Zanchi, De naturali auscultatione (Strasbourg: Windelin Rihel, 1554), fols b7v–c1v. On his turn, Vermigli taught ethics in Strasbourg from 1554 to 1556, basing his lactures on the NE. His commentary was edited by his famulus Giulio Santerenziano and published in Zurich in 1563, cf. Petrus Martyr Vermigli, Kommentar zur Nikomachischen Ethik des Aristoteles, eds Luca Baschera and Christian Moser (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2011) (Studies in Medieval and Reformation Traditions 158; Texts and Sources 1). Finally Theodore Beza did not hesitate to name Aristotle ‘the sharpest of all the philosophers’ (Mallinson, Faith, p. 53). On Beza’s Aristotelianism see Mallinson, Faith, pp. 53–63.

³⁷ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 143f.: ‘Ad multa disserendi praecepta foelicius intelligenda conducere X Ethicorum libros institui declarare. Etsi prudenti consilio Philosophus in Organo saepe literis a, b, g exemplorum vice utitur, aliquoties autem significantibus quidem vocibus, verum succinta brevitate expressis, alia quoque exempla rudioribus ex tota philosophia proponi debent. Ac sane cum Aristoteles tot seculorum consensu summus docendi artifex iudicetur et Ethica in populari quadam atque omnibus prope exposita materia versetur, ex Aristotelis Ethica valde idonea depromuntur exempla methodi, qua et simplices et compositae res breviter, perspicue, artificiose tractentur’.

³⁸ See Risse, Logik der Neuzeit, vol. 1, pp. 18 and 89f. Melanchthon did make also use of another classification of logic in definitio, divisio, and argumentatio, designating the distinction between inventio and iudicium as vetus divisio. Cf. Philipp Melanchthon, Erotemata dialectices 4, in CR, vol. 13, col. 641.

³⁹ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 144: ‘Certas constituunt dialectici sedes et domicilia, e quibus eruit Aristoteles, quae ad simplicis rei explicationem pertinent, omnia’.

⁴⁰ Cf. Rudolph Agricola, De inventione dialectica 2,1, ed. Lothar Mundt (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1991), p. 196,14–18: ‘Dialectices munus … duabus comprehensum est partibus: quarum una excogitandi argumenti viam docet, quam inveniendi vocat, cui parti omnis de locis destinatur disputatio’. Melanchthon, Erotemata dialectices 4, in CR, vol. 13, col. 641: ‘Haec ars [inventrix] vocatur topike, id est doctrina locorum, qui sunt veluti indices rerum vel investigandarum vel eligendarum’.

⁴¹ See Werdmüller, De dignitate, pp. 144–67. The loci which Werdmüller refers to are: definitio, divisio, proprium, coniugata, adiacentia, subiectum, materia, efficiens, finis, destinata, effectus, tempus, connexa, contingentia, nomen, pronunciata, exempla, similia, dissimile, opposita, collationes and cognata.

⁴² Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 167f.: ‘De simplicium inventione recitatis exemplis, aliquot argumentationes, quibus integrae quaestiones confirmantur, adducemus’.

⁴³ See Werdmüller, De dignitate, pp. 172–84. Werdmüller mentions the following loci: a definitione, a genere ad speciem, a speciebus ad genus, a partibus ad totum, a proprio, a coniugatis, ab actibus, a subiecto, a materia circa quam, ab efficiente, a fine, a posteriori vel experientia, a destinatis, a tempore, a pronunciatis, ab etymologia, ab exemplis, a pari, a maiori ad minus, a simili, a differentibus, a contrariis.

⁴⁴ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 95: ‘Scopus idem ac finis et ethicae et iurisprudentiae adparet, illa tamen universalem de virtutibus doctrinam continet, haec universalia virtutum praecepta’.

⁴⁵ See Werdmüller, De dignitate, pp. 106–9.

⁴⁶ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 112: ‘Illic [in the field of ius] ad varios casus ea, quae philosophia moralis, origo civilium legum, paucis et universaliter disseruit’.

⁴⁷ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 111f.: ‘In summa, quae scripsit Aristoteles libro 3. de voluntario, involuntario, mixto, electione, et libro 5. de tribus vel quatuor gradibus delictorum, mirifice conducunt ad ea dexterius intelligenda, quae in iure civili de dolo, lata culpa, levi, levissima, casu fortuito passim inveniuntur’.

⁴⁸ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 112f.: ‘Nam et leges praecipiunt omnia honesta et vetant omnis generis vitia … Sed Aristoteles integra methodo propositum exequitur, to dioti complectens honestorum officiorum; leges vero civiles sunt circiter 12.707, uno atque altero verbo consignatae, rationibus et causis earum plerumque omissis … Iam quia reparari non potest illa iactura, methodi nomine iuris scientiae praeferimus Aristotelem, apud quem haud deprehenduntur meri centones, sed breves et integri tractatus’.

⁴⁹ Cf. Raymond Klibansky et al., Saturn and Melancholy: Studies in the History of Natural Philosophy, Religion and Art (London: Nelson, 1964), pp. 8–10.

⁵⁰ The Latin technical term is affectus, which can also be translated as ‘passion’ or ‘emotion’.

⁵¹ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 115: ‘Quod enim acris dolor, fervens ira, effusa laetitia, anxius timor et alia pathe modum transgressa corporis vires debilitent et interdum extinguant, ex Hippocrate, Platone, Aristotele, Galeno declarabitur’. On Galen’s opinion about the influence of emotions on the blend of the body cf. Richard Sorabji, Emotion and Peace of Mind: From Stoic Agitation to Christian Temptation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 255.

⁵² Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 121f. quotes Galenus on this point: ‘In primis enim oportet nativum calorem intra sines sanitatis custodire, custoditur autem moderatis exercitiis tum corporis tum animi … Nos etiam quotannis haud paucos aegrotos immodicis motibus animi solis emendandis persanavimus’.

⁵³ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 114f.: ‘Eandem philosophiae partem [ethicam] medicis expedire absurdum videtur ignoranti moderationem affectuum in ethicis doceri, qua neglecta sanitas quoque minuitur’. See also ibid., p. 122: ‘Satis ergo iam apparet et medicum et philosophum de vita moribusque solicitus esse, hunc propter virtutem et honestatem potissimum per se colendam, illum ob valetudinem prosperam et reparandam et conservandam’.

⁵⁴ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 24: ‘Ethnici doctrina de moribus explicationem continet virtutum, quas humana ratio in hac vita summe necessarias iudicat; simulque vitiorum et scelerum, a quibus eadem ratio, quantum potest, dehortatur’.

⁵⁵ Ibid.: ‘Rationem hic appello naturae legem vel iudicium post Adami trangressionem hominibus insitum, a Spiritu sancto non illustratum denuo’.

⁵⁶ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 25.

⁵⁷ NE 1,7, 1098a 16–17.

⁵⁸ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 26.

⁵⁹ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 33: ‘[Aristoteles] moderationem affectuum et nescio quarum rerum contemplationem sufficere imaginetur ad bene beateque vivendi’.

⁶⁰ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 29: ‘Prophetae et Apostoli … foelicitatem proprie in Christi redemptione proponunt’.

⁶¹ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 30: ‘Christianus … quamvis videat disciplinam, assuefactionem et industriam hominis multum valere in civilibus virtutibus acquirendis, in his tamen ipsis et maxime spiritualibus parandis et augendis divinam gratiam implorat, quam adesse certo novit omnibus ex animo flagitantibus’.

⁶² Ibid.: ‘Quae christianum a probo Ethnico virtutes, quae vere foelicem a vere infoelici separant, hae non ut modo dictae ab humana ratione percipiuntur, imo supra, extra, contra captum hominum constitutae sunt. Christianus natura se filium irae nasci confitetur, quod non intelligit ullus ethnicus’.

⁶³ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 33: ‘Hunc igitur primum dicimus fructum, quem ex Aristotelis doctrina percipimus, quod in ea versati longe dexterius christianam fidem circunscribimus ab humana virtute, utpote diversa, non adversa distinguentes’.

⁶⁴ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 25: ‘Porro haec [de moribus doctrina] in Epitome philosophiae moralis … explanavit d[ominus] Philippus Melanchthon, praeceptor meus omni laude dignissimus’. The first edition of Melanchthon’s Epitome was printed at Strasbourg in 1538.

⁶⁵ Melanchthon, Philosophiae moralis epitome, in CR, vol. 16, col. 23: ‘Nam lex divina hominum mentibus impressa est, sed in hac imbecillitate naturae obscurata est … Sed manet iudicium de honestis actionibus exterioribus, idque nobiscum nascitur, quod ipsum tamen est lex naturae et pars legis divinae’.

⁶⁶ On Melanchthon’s creational foundation of ethics and its distinction from theology see Henning Ziebritzki, ‘Tugend und Affekt. Ansatz und Problematik von Melanchthons Tugendethik’, in Der Theologe Melanchthon, ed. Günter Frank (Stuttgart: Jan Thorbecke, 2000) (Melanchthon-Schriften der Stadt Bretten 5), pp. 363–5.

⁶⁷ Melanchthon, Philosophiae moralis epitome, in CR, vol. 16, col. 21: ‘Philosophia moralis est pars illa legis divinae, quae de externis actionibus praecipit’.

⁶⁸ Cf. Jill Kraye, ‘Melanchthon’s Ethics Commentaries and Textbooks’, in Jill Kraye, Classical Traditions in Renaissance Philosophy (Aldershot: Ashgate Variorum Reprints, 2002), p. 5f.

⁶⁹ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 34: ‘Divus sane Paulus ad Romanos, integram religionis methodum informans, postquam graviter accusavit omne genus hominum et veram iustitiam per fidem in Christum explicuit, tandem velut fructus fidei, de honestis moribus varia praecepta subiicit’.

⁷⁰ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 35: ‘Hoc discrimen animadvertendum, quod probus Ethnicus amore virtutis excitatur ad illa praestanda, christuanus vero mentem altius extollens, propter fidem ad Dei gloriam in primis respicit’.

⁷¹ See on this point Alister E. Mc Grath, Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 32–9. For an account of Calvin’s doctrine of justification and sanctification see John H. Leith, John Calvin’s Doctrine of the Christian Life (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1989), pp. 87–106; Cornelis P. Venema, Accepted and Renewed in Christ: The ‘Twofold Grace of God’ and the Interpretation of Calvin’s Theology (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2007).

⁷² Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 37: ‘Aristotelem igitur interpretandum existimamus adulescentiae, propterea quod de vitiis et virtutibus haud strictim, ut sacrae literae, sed integros singulorum continet tractatus’.

⁷³ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 93: ‘Quemadmodum Moses et Iosue hortantur populum, ut mediam viam ingrediatur neque declinet ad dextram aut sinistram … ita Aristoteles virtutes collocat inter excessum et defectum adeoque diligenter et pie secernit a cognatis vitiis, ut pleraque theologus hinc mutuari possit, quoties de civili iustitia, temperantia, liberalitate, fortitudine et his oppositis sermonem inducit’.

⁷⁴ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 90: ‘Verissime scribit idem de voluntario, involuntario, electione. Nam et Christus non tam honesta facta, quam animum et voluntatem propensam respicit. Ideoque pauperem viduam, quae multo minus quam divites in gazofylakion reposuit, magis commendat’.

⁷⁵ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 91: ‘In utroque Testamento peccatum latius patet, ut non solum significet voluntarium, sed originis vitium comprehendat, propter quod infantes omni iudicio carentes, obnoxii sunt peccato’.

⁷⁶ Werdmüller, De dignitate, p. 89: ‘In theologia plurimi loci ex ipsa philosophia ornari et illustrari possunt ac debent. Ex solis tamen sacris libris oportet iudicium et solida religionis argumenta depromere’.

⁷⁷ On this point see Markus Friedrich, Die Grenzen der Vernunft: Theologie, Philosophie und gelehrte Konflikte am Beispiel des Helmstedter Hofmannstreits und seiner Wirkungen auf das Luthertum um 1600 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2004) (Schriftenreihe der Historischen Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 69), pp. 223 and 235–8.

⁷⁸ Vermigli, Kommentar, eds Baschera and Moser, p. 436.

⁷⁹ Christoph Strohm, ‘Melanchthon-Rezeption in der Ethik des frühen Calvinismus’, in Melanchthon und der Calvinismus, eds Günter Frank and Herman J. Selderhuis (Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog, 2005) (Melanchthon-Schriften der Stadt Bretten 9), p. 149.

⁸⁰ Cf. Strohm, ‘Melanchthon-Rezeption’, p. 151.