Part 4
(2.) The "recorder" in the time of Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:18, 37).
(3.) The "keeper of the king's forest," to whom Nehemiah requested from Artaxerxes a "letter" that he might give him timber for the temple at Jerusalem (Nehemiah 2:8).
•ASCENSION See CHRIST.
•ASENATH an Egyptian name, meaning "gift of the sun-God", daughter of Potipherah, priest of On or Heliopolis, wife of Joseph (Genesis 41:45). She was the mother of Manasseh and Ephraim (50-52; 46:20).
•ASH (Hebrews o'ren, "tremulous"), mentioned only Isaiah 44:14 (R.V., "fir tree"). It is rendered "pine tree" both in the LXX. and Vulgate versions. There is a tree called by the Arabs aran, found still in the valleys of Arabia Petraea, whose leaf resembles that of the mountain ash. This may be the tree meant. Our ash tree is not known in Syria.
•ASHDOD stronghold, a Philistine city (Joshua 15:47), about midway between Gaza and Joppa, and 3 miles from the Mediterranean. It was one of the chief seats of the worship of Dagon (1 Samuel 5:5). It belonged to the tribe of Judah (Joshua 15:47), but it never came into their actual possession. It was an important city, as it stood on the highroad from Egypt to Palestine, and hence was strongly fortified (2 Chronicles 26:6; Isaiah 20:1). Uzziah took it, but fifty years after his death it was taken by the Assyrians (B.C. 758). According to Sargon's record, it was captured by him in B.C. 711. The only reference to it in the New Testament, where it is called Azotus, is in the account of Philip's return from Gaza (Acts 8:40). It is now called Eshdud.
•ASHDOTH-PISGAH (Deuteronomy 3:17; Joshua 12:3; 13:20) in Authorized Version, but in Revised Version translated "slopes of Pisgah." In Deuteronomy 4:49 it is translated in the Authorized Version "springs of Pisgah." The name Ashdoth is translated "springs" in the Authorized Version, but "slopes" in the Revised Version, of Joshua 10:40 and 12:8. It has been identified with the springs under Mount Nebo, now called 'Ayun Musa.
•ASHER happy, Jacob's eigth son; his mother was Zilpah, Leah's handmaid (Genesis 30:13). Of the tribe founded by him nothing is recorded beyond its holding a place in the list of the tribes (35:26; 46:17; Exodus 1:4, etc.) It increased in numbers twenty-nine percent, during the thirty-eight years' wanderings. The place of this tribe during the march
through the desert was between Dan and Naphtali (Numbers 2:27). The boundaries of the inheritance given to it, which contained some of the richest soil in Palestine, and the names of its towns, are recorded in Joshua 19:24-31; Judges 1:31, 32. Asher and Simeon were the only tribes west of the Jordan which furnished no hero or judge for the nation. Anna the prophetess was of this tribe (Luke 2:36).
•ASHERAH and pl. Asherim in Revised Version, instead of "grove" and "groves" of the Authorized Version. This was the name of a sensual Canaanitish goddess Astarte, the feminine of the Assyrian Ishtar. Its symbol was the stem of a tree deprived of its boughs, and rudely shaped into an image, and planted in the ground. Such religious symbols ("groves") are frequently alluded to in Scripture (Exodus 34:13; Judges 6:25; 2 Kings 23:6; 1 Kings 16:33, etc.). These images were also sometimes made of silver or of carved stone (2 Kings 21:7; "the graven image of Asherah," R.V.). (See GROVE [1].).
•ASHES The ashes of a red heifer burned entire (Numbers 19:5) when sprinkled on the unclean made them ceremonially clean (Hebrews 9:13).
To cover the head with ashes was a token of self-abhorrence and humiliation (2 Samuel 13:19; Esther 4:3; Jeremiah 6:26, etc.).
To feed on ashes (Isaiah 44:20), means to seek that which will prove to be vain and unsatisfactory, and hence it denotes the unsatisfactory nature of idol-worship. (Comp. Hos. 12:1).
•ASHKELON =Askelon=Ascalon, was one of the five cities of the Philistines (Joshua 13:3; 1 Samuel 6:17). It stood on the shore of the Mediterranean, 12 miles north of Gaza. It is mentioned on an inscription at Karnak in Egypt as having been taken by king Rameses II., the oppressor of the Hebrews. In the time of the judges (Judges 1:18) it fell into the possession of the tribe of Judah; but it was soon after retaken by the Philistines (2 Samuel 1:20), who were not finally dispossessed till the time of Alexander the Great. Samson went down to this place from Timnath, and slew thirty men and took their spoil. The prophets foretold its destruction (Jeremiah 25:20; 47:5, 7). It became a noted place in the Middle Ages, having been the scene of many a bloody battle between the Saracens and the Crusaders. It was beseiged and taken by Richard the Lion-hearted, and "within its walls and towers now standing he held his court." Among the Tell Amarna tablets (see EGYPT) are found letters or
official despatches from Yadaya, "captain of horse and dust of the king's feet," to the "great king" of Egypt, dated from Ascalon. It is now called 'Askalan.
•ASHKENAZ one of the three sons of Gomer (Genesis 10:3), and founder of one of the tribes of the Japhetic race. They are mentioned in connection with Minni and Ararat, and hence their original seat must have been in Armenia (Jeremiah 51:27), probably near the Black Sea, which, from their founder, was first called Axenus, and afterwards the Euxine.
•ASHPENAZ the master of the eunuchs of Nebuchadnezzar (Daniel 1:3), the "Rabsaris" of the court. His position was similar to that of the Kislar-aga of the modern Turkish sultans.
•ASHTAROTH a city of Bashan, in the kingdom of Og (Deuteronomy 1:4; Joshua 12:4; 13:12; 9:10). It was in the half-tribe of Manasseh (Joshua 13:12), and as a Levitical city was given to the Gershonites (1 Chronicles 6:71). Uzzia, one of David's valiant men (1 Chronicles 11:44), is named as of this city. It is identified with Tell Ashterah, in the Hauran, and is noticed on monuments B.C. 1700-1500. The name Beesh-terah (Joshua 21:27) is a contraction for Beth-eshterah, i.e., "the house of Ashtaroth."
•ASHTEROTH KARNAIM Ashteroth of the two horns, the abode of the Rephaim (Genesis 14:5). It may be identified with Ashtaroth preceding; called "Karnaim", i.e., the "two-horned" (the crescent moon). The Samaritan version renders the word by "Sunamein," the present es-Sunamein, 28 miles south of Damascus.
•ASHTORETH the moon goddess of the Phoenicians, representing the passive principle in nature, their principal female deity; frequently associated with the name of Baal, the sun-God, their chief male deity (Judges 10:6; 1 Samuel 7:4; 12:10). These names often occur in the plural (Ashtaroth, Baalim), probably as indicating either different statues or different modifications of the deities. This deity is spoken of as Ashtoreth of the Zidonians. She was the Ishtar of the Accadians and the Astarte of the Greeks (Jeremiah 44:17; 1 Kings 11:5, 33; 2 Kings 23:13). There was a temple of this goddess among the Philistines in the time of Saul (1 Samuel 31:10). Under the name of Ishtar, she was one of the great deities of the Assyrians. The Phoenicians called her Astarte. Solomon introduced the worship of this idol (1 Kings 11:33). Jezebel's 400 priests were probably
employed in its service (1 Kings 18:19). It was called the "queen of heaven" (Jeremiah 44:25).
•ASHURITES mentioned among those over whom Ish-bosheth was made king (2 Samuel 2:9).
•ASIA is used to denote Proconsular Asia, a Roman province which embraced the western parts of Asia Minor, and of which Ephesus was the capital, in Acts 2:9; 6:9; 16:6; 19:10,22; 20:4, 16, 18, etc., and probably Asia Minor in Acts 19:26, 27; 21:27; 24:18; 27:2. Proconsular Asia contained the seven churches of the Apocalypse (Revelation 1:11). The "chiefs of Asia" (Acts 19:31) were certain wealthy citizens who were annually elected to preside over the games and religious festivals of the several cities to which they belonged. Some of these "Asiarchs" were Paul's friends.
•ASNAPPER probably the same as Assur-bani-pal (Sardanapalos of the Greeks), styled the "great and noble" (Ezra 4:10), was the son and successor (B.C. 668) of Esar-haddon (q.v.). He was "luxurious, ambitious, and cruel, but a magnificent patron of literature." He formed at Nineveh a library of clay tablets, numbering about 10,000. These are now mostly in the British Museum. They throw much light on the history and antiquities of Assyria.
Assur-bani-pal was a munificent patron of literature, and the conqueror of Elam. Towards the middle of his reign his empire was shaken by a great rebellion headed by his brother in Babylon. The rebellion was finally put down, but Egypt was lost, and the military power of Assyria was so exhausted that it could with difficulty resist the hordes of Kimmerians who poured over Western Asia. (See NINEVEH.)
•ASP (Hebrews pethen), Deuteronomy 32:33; Job 20:14, 16; Isaiah 11:8. It was probably the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje), which was very poisonous (Romans 3:13; Gr. aspis). The Egyptians worshipped it as the uraeus, and it was found in the desert and in the fields. The peace and security of Messiah's reign is represented by the figure of a child playing on the hole of the asp. (See ADDER.)
•ASS frequently mentioned throughout Scripture. Of the domesticated species we read of, (1.) The she ass (Hebrews 'athon), so named from its slowness (Genesis 12:16; 45:23; Numbers 22:23; 1 Samuel 9:3). (2.) The
male ass (Hebrews hamor), the common working ass of Western Asia, so called from its red colour. Issachar is compared to a strong ass (Genesis 49:14). It was forbidden to yoke together an ass and an ox in the plough (Deuteronomy 22:10). (3.) The ass's colt (Hebrews 'air), mentioned Judges 10:4; 12:14. It is rendered "foal" in Genesis 32:15; 49:11. (Comp. Job 11:12; Isaiah 30:6.) The ass is an unclean animal, because it does not chew the cud (Leviticus 11:26. Comp. 2 Kings 6:25). Asses constituted a considerable portion of wealth in ancient times (Genesis 12:16; 30:43; 1 Chronicles 27:30; Job 1:3; 42:12). They were noted for their spirit and their attachment to their master (Isaiah 1:3). They are frequently spoken of as having been ridden upon, as by Abraham (Genesis 22:3), Balaam (Numbers 22:21), the disobedient prophet (1 Kings 13:23), the family of Abdon the judge, seventy in number (Judges 12:14), Zipporah (Exodus 4:20), the Shunammite (1 Samuel 25:30), etc. Zechariah (9:9) predicted our Lord's triumphal entrance into Jerusalem, "riding upon an ass, and upon a colt," etc. (Matthew 21:5, R.V.).
Of wild asses two species are noticed, (1) that called in Hebrew 'arod, mentioned Job 39:5 and Daniel 5:21, noted for its swiftness; and (2) that called pe're, the wild ass of Asia (Job 39:6-8; 6:5; 11:12; Isaiah 32:14; Jeremiah 2:24; 14:6, etc.). The wild ass was distinguished for its fleetness and its extreme shyness. In allusion to his mode of life, Ishmael is likened to a wild ass (Genesis 16:12. Here the word is simply rendered "wild" in the Authorized Version, but in the Revised Version, "wild-ass among men").
•ASSHUR second son of Shem (Genesis 10:22; 1 Chronicles 1:17). He went from the land of Shinar and built Nineveh, etc. (Genesis 10:11,12). He probably gave his name to Assyria, which is the usual translation of the word, although the form Asshur is sometimes retained (Numbers 24:22, 24; Ezekiel 27:23, etc.). In Genesis 2:14 "Assyria" ought to be "Asshur," which was the original capital of Assyria, a city represented by the mounds of Kalah Sherghat, on the west bank of the Tigris. This city was founded by Bel-kap-kapu about B.C. 1700. At a later date the capital was shifted to Ninua, or Nineveh, now Koyunjik, on the eastern bank of the river. (See CALAH; NINEVEH.)
•ASSOS a sea-port town of Proconsular Asia, in the district of Mysia, on the north shore of the Gulf of Adramyttium. Paul came hither on foot along the Roman road from Troas (Acts 20:13, 14), a distance of 20 miles.
It was about 30 miles distant from Troas by sea. The island of Lesbos lay opposite it, about 7 miles distant.
•ASSURANCE The resurrection of Jesus (Acts 17:31) is the "assurance" (Gr. pistis, generally rendered "faith") or pledge God has given that his revelation is true and worthy of acceptance. The "full assurance [Gr. plerophoria, 'full bearing'] of faith" (Hebrews 10:22) is a fulness of faith in God which leaves no room for doubt. The "full assurance of understanding" (Colossians 2:2) is an entire unwavering conviction of the truth of the declarations of Scripture, a joyful steadfastness on the part of any one of conviction that he has grasped the very truth. The "full assurance of hope" (Hebrews 6:11) is a sure and well-grounded expectation of eternal glory (2 Timothy 4:7, 8). This assurance of hope is the assurance of a man's own particular salvation.
This infallible assurance, which believers may attain unto as to their own personal salvation, is founded on the truth of the promises (Hebrews 6:18), on the inward evidence of Christian graces, and on the testimony of the Spirit of adoption (Romans 8:16). That such a certainty may be attained appears from the testimony of Scripture (Romans 8:16; 1 John 2:3; 3:14), from the command to seek after it (Hebrews 6:11; 2 Peter 1:10), and from the fact that it has been attained (2 Timothy 1:12; 4:7, 8; 1 John 2:3; 4:16).
This full assurance is not of the essence of saving faith. It is the result of faith, and posterior to it in the order of nature, and so frequently also in the order of time. True believers may be destitute of it. Trust itself is something different from the evidence that we do trust. Believers, moreover, are exhorted to go on to something beyond what they at present have when they are exhorted to seek the grace of full assurance (Hebrews 10:22; 2 Peter 1:5-10). The attainment of this grace is a duty, and is to be diligently sought.
"Genuine assurance naturally leads to a legitimate and abiding peace and joy, and to love and thankfulness to God; and these from the very laws of our being to greater buoyancy, strength, and cheerfulness in the practice of obedience in every department of duty."
This assurance may in various ways be shaken, diminished, and intermitted, but the principle out of which it springs can never be lost. (See FAITH.)
•ASSYRIA the name derived from the city Asshur on the Tigris, the original capital of the country, was originally a colony from Babylonia, and was ruled by viceroys from that kingdom. It was a mountainous region lying to the north of Babylonia, extending along the Tigris as far as to the high mountain range of Armenia, the Gordiaean or Carduchian mountains. It was founded in B.C. 1700 under Bel-kap-kapu, and became an independent and a conquering power, and shook off the yoke of its Babylonian masters. It subdued the whole of Northern Asia. The Assyrians were Semites (Genesis 10:22), but in process of time non-Semite tribes mingled with the inhabitants. They were a military people, the "Romans of the East."
Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyria little is positively known. In B.C. 1120 Tiglath-pileser I., the greatest of the Assyrian kings, "crossed the Euphrates, defeated the kings of the Hittites, captured the city of Carchemish, and advanced as far as the shores of the Mediterranean." He may be regarded as the founder of the first Assyrian empire. After this the Assyrians gradually extended their power, subjugating the states of Northern Syria. In the reign of Ahab, king of Israel, Shalmaneser II. marched an army against the Syrian states, whose allied army he encountered and vanquished at Karkar. This led to Ahab's casting off the yoke of Damascus and allying himself with Judah. Some years after this the Assyrian king marched an army against Hazael, king of Damascus. He besieged and took that city. He also brought under tribute Jehu, and the cities of Tyre and Sidon.
About a hundred years after this (B.C. 745) the crown was seized by a military adventurer called Pul, who assumed the name of Tiglath-pileser III. He directed his armies into Syria, which had by this time regained its independence, and took (B.C. 740) Arpad, near Aleppo, after a siege of three years, and reduced Hamath. Azariah (Uzziah) was an ally of the king of Hamath, and thus was compelled by Tiglath-pileser to do him homage and pay a yearly tribute.
In B.C. 738, in the reign of Menahem, king of Israel, Pul invaded Israel, and imposed on it a heavy tribute (2 Kings 15:19). Ahaz, the king of Judah, when engaged in a war against Israel and Syria, appealed for help to this Assyrian king by means of a present of gold and silver (2 Kings 16:8); who accordingly "marched against Damascus, defeated and put Rezin to death, and besieged the city itself." Leaving a portion of his army to
continue the siege, "he advanced through the province east of Jordan, spreading fire and sword," and became master of Philistia, and took Samaria and Damascus. He died B.C. 727, and was succeeded by Shalmanezer IV., who ruled till B.C. 722. He also invaded Syria (2 Kings 17:5), but was deposed in favour of Sargon (q.v.) the Tartan, or commander-in-chief of the army, who took Samaria (q.v.) after a siege of three years, and so put an end to the kingdom of Israel, carrying the people away into captivity, B.C. 722 (2 Kings 17:1-6, 24; 18:7, 9). He also overran the land of Judah, and took the city of Jerusalem (Isaiah 10:6, 12, 22, 24, 34). Mention is next made of Sennacherib (B.C. 705), the son and successor of Sargon (2 Kings 18:13; 19:37; Isaiah 7:17, 18); and then of Esar-haddon, his son and successor, who took Manasseh, king of Judah, captive, and kept him for some time a prisoner at Babylon, which he alone of all the Assyrian kings made the seat of his government (2 Kings 19:37; Isaiah 37:38).
Assur-bani-pal, the son of Esarhaddon, became king, and in Ezra 4:10 is referred to as Asnapper. From an early period Assyria had entered on a conquering career, and having absorbed Babylon, the kingdoms of Hamath, Damascus, and Samaria, it conquered Phoenicia, and made Judea feudatory, and subjected Philistia and Idumea. At length, however, its power declined. In B.C. 727 the Babylonians threw off the rule of the Assyrians, under the leadership of the powerful Chaldean prince Merodach-baladan (2 Kings 20:12), who, after twelve years, was subdued by Sargon, who now reunited the kingdom, and ruled over a vast empire. But on his death the smouldering flames of rebellion again burst forth, and the Babylonians and Medes successfully asserted their independence (B.C. 625), and Assyria fell according to the prophecies of Isaiah (10:5-19), Nahum (3:19), and Zephaniah (3:13), and the many separate kingdoms of which it was composed ceased to recognize the "great king" (2 Kings 18:19; Isaiah 36:4). Ezekiel (31) attests (about B.C. 586) how completely Assyria was overthrown. It ceases to be a nation. (See NINEVEH; BABYLON.)
•ASTROLOGER (Daniel 1:20; 2:2, 10, 27, etc.) Hebrews 'ashshaph', an enchanter, one who professes to divine future events by the appearance of the stars. This science flourished among the Chaldeans. It was positively forbidden to the Jews (Deuteronomy 4:19; 18:10; Isaiah 47:13).
•ASTRONOMY The Hebrews were devout students of the wonders of the starry firmanent (Amos 5:8; Psalm 19). In the Book of Job, which is
the oldest book of the Bible in all probability, the constellations are distinguished and named. Mention is made of the "morning star" (Revelation 2:28; comp. Isaiah 14:12), the "seven stars" and "Pleiades," "Orion," "Arcturus," the "Great Bear" (Amos 5:8; Job 9:9; 38:31), "the crooked serpent," Draco (Job 26:13), the Dioscuri, or Gemini, "Castor and Pollux" (Acts 28:11). The stars were called "the host of heaven" (Isaiah 40:26; Jeremiah 33:22).
The oldest divisions of time were mainly based on the observation of the movements of the heavenly bodies, the "ordinances of heaven" (Genesis 1:14-18; Job 38:33; Jeremiah 31:35; 33:25). Such observations led to the division of the year into months and the mapping out of the appearances of the stars into twelve portions, which received from the Greeks the name of the "zodiac." The word "Mazzaroth" (Job 38:32) means, as the margin notes, "the twelve signs" of the zodiac. Astronomical observations were also necessary among the Jews in order to the fixing of the proper time for sacred ceremonies, the "new moons," the "passover," etc. Many allusions are found to the display of God's wisdom and power as seen in the starry heavens (Psalm 8; 19:1-6; Isaiah 51:6, etc.)
•ASUPPIM (1 Chronicles 26:15, 17, Authorized Version; but in Revised Version, "storehouse"), properly the house of stores for the priests. In Nehemiah 12:25 the Authorized Version has "thresholds," marg. "treasuries" or "assemblies;" Revised Version, "storehouses."
•ATAD buckthorn, a place where Joseph and his brethren, when on their way from Egypt to Hebron with the remains of their father Jacob, made for seven days a "great and very sore lamentation." On this account the Canaanites called it "Abel-mizraim" (Genesis 50:10, 11). It was probably near Hebron. The word is rendered "bramble" in Judges 9:14, 15, and "thorns" in Psalm 58:9.
•ATAROTH crowns. (1.) A city east of Jordan, not far from Gilead (Numbers 32:3).
(2.) A town on the border of Ephraim and Benjamin (Joshua 16:2, 7), called also Ataroth-adar (16:5). Now ed-Da'rieh.
(3.) "Ataroth, the house of Joab" (1 Chronicles 2:54), a town of Judah inhabited by the descendants of Caleb.
•ATER shut; lame. (1.) Ezra 2:16. (2.) Nehemiah 10:17. (3.) Ezra 2:42.
•ATHALIAH whom God afflicts. (1.) The daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, and the wife of Jehoram, king of Judah (2 Kings 8:18), who "walked in the ways of the house of Ahab" (2 Chronicles 21:6), called "daughter" of Omri (2 Kings 8:26). On the death of her husband and of her son Ahaziah, she resolved to seat herself on the vacant throne. She slew all Ahaziah's children except Joash, the youngest (2 Kings 11:1,2). After a reign of six years she was put to death in an insurrection (2 Kings 11:20; 2 Chronicles 21:6; 22:10-12; 23:15), stirred up among the people in connection with Josiah's being crowned as king.
(2.) Ezra 8:7. (3.) 1 Chronicles 8:26.
•ATHENS the capital of Attica, the most celebrated city of the ancient world, the seat of Greek literature and art during the golden period of Grecian history. Its inhabitants were fond of novelty (Acts 17:21), and were remarkable for their zeal in the worship of the gods. It was a sarcastic saying of the Roman satirist that it was "easier to find a God at Athens than a man."
On his second missionary journey Paul visited this city (Acts 17:15; comp. 1 Thessalonians 3:1), and delivered in the Areopagus his famous speech (17:22-31). The altar of which Paul there speaks as dedicated "to the [properly "an"] unknown God" (23) was probably one of several which bore the same inscription. It is supposed that they originated in the practice of letting loose a flock of sheep and goats in the streets of Athens on the occasion of a plague, and of offering them up in sacrifice, at the spot where they lay down, "to the God concerned."
•ATONEMENT This word does not occur in the Authorized Version of the New Testament except in Romans 5:11, where in the Revised Version the word "reconciliation" is used. In the Old Testament it is of frequent occurrence.
The meaning of the word is simply at-one-ment, i.e., the state of being at one or being reconciled, so that atonement is reconciliation. Thus it is used to denote the effect which flows from the death of Christ.
But the word is also used to denote that by which this reconciliation is brought about, viz., the death of Christ itself; and when so used it means satisfaction, and in this sense to make an atonement for one is to make
satisfaction for his offences (Exodus 32:30; Leviticus 4:26; 5:16; Numbers 6:11), and, as regards the person, to reconcile, to propitiate God in his behalf.
By the atonement of Christ we generally mean his work by which he expiated our sins. But in Scripture usage the word denotes the reconciliation itself, and not the means by which it is effected. When speaking of Christ's saving work, the word "satisfaction," the word used by the theologians of the Reformation, is to be preferred to the word "atonement." Christ's satisfaction is all he did in the room and in behalf of sinners to satisfy the demands of the law and justice of God. Christ's work consisted of suffering and obedience, and these were vicarious, i.e., were not merely for our benefit, but were in our stead, as the suffering and obedience of our vicar, or substitute. Our guilt is expiated by the punishment which our vicar bore, and thus God is rendered propitious, i.e., it is now consistent with his justice to manifest his love to transgressors. Expiation has been made for sin, i.e., it is covered. The means by which it is covered is vicarious satisfaction, and the result of its being covered is atonement or reconciliation. To make atonement is to do that by virtue of which alienation ceases and reconciliation is brought about. Christ's mediatorial work and sufferings are the ground or efficient cause of reconciliation with God. They rectify the disturbed relations between God and man, taking away the obstacles interposed by sin to their fellowship and concord. The reconciliation is mutual, i.e., it is not only that of sinners toward God, but also and pre-eminently that of God toward sinners, effected by the sin-offering he himself provided, so that consistently with the other attributes of his character his love might flow forth in all its fulness of blessing to men. The primary idea presented to us in different forms throughout the Scripture is that the death of Christ is a satisfaction of infinite worth rendered to the law and justice of God (q.v.), and accepted by him in room of the very penalty man had incurred. It must also be constantly kept in mind that the atonement is not the cause but the consequence of God's love to guilty men (John 3:16; Romans 3:24, 25; Ephesians 1:7; 1 John 1:9; 4:9). The atonement may also be regarded as necessary, not in an absolute but in a relative sense, i.e., if man is to be saved, there is no other way than this which God has devised and carried out (Exodus 34:7; Joshua 24:19; Psalm 5:4; 7:11; Nahum 1:2, 6; Romans 3:5). This is God's plan, clearly revealed; and that is enough for us to know.
•ATONEMENT, DAY OF the great annual day of humiliation and expiation for the sins of the nation, "the fast" (Acts 27:9), and the only one commanded in the law of Moses. The mode of its observance is described in Leviticus 16:3-10; 23:26-32; and Numbers 29:7-11.
It was kept on the tenth day of the month Tisri, i.e., five days before the feast of Tabernacles, and lasted from sunset to sunset. (See AZAZEL.)
•AUGUSTUS the cognomen of the first Roman emperor, C. Julius Caesar Octavianus, during whose reign Christ was born (Luke 2:1). His decree that "all the world should be taxed" was the divinely ordered occasion of Jesus' being born, according to prophecy (Micah 5:2), in Bethlehem. This name being simply a title meaning "majesty" or "venerable," first given to him by the senate (B.C. 27), was borne by succeeding emperors. Before his death (A.D. 14) he associated Tiberius with him in the empire (Luke 3:1), by whom he was succeeded.
•AUGUSTUS BAND (Acts 27:1.: literally, of Sebaste, the Greek form of Augusta, the name given to Caesarea in honour of Augustus Caesar). Probably this "band" or cohort consisted of Samaritan soldiers belonging to Caesarea.
•AVA a place in Assyria from which colonies were brought to Samaria (2 Kings 17:24). It is probably the same with Ivah (18:34; 19:13; Isaiah 37:13). It has been identified with Hit on the Euphrates.
•AVEN nothingness; vanity. (1.) Hosea speaks of the "high places of Aven" (10:8), by which he means Bethel. He also calls it Beth-aven, i.e., "the house of vanity" (4:15), on account of the golden calves Jeroboam had set up there (1 Kings 12:28).
(2.) Translated by the LXX. "On" in Ezekiel 30:17. The Egyptian Heliopolis or city of On (q.v.).
(3.) In Amos 1:5 it denotes the Syrian Heliopolis, the modern Baalbec.
•AVENGER OF BLOOD (Hebrews goel, from verb gaal, "to be near of kin," "to redeem"), the nearest relative of a murdered person. It was his right and duty to slay the murderer (2 Samuel 14:7, 11) if he found him outside of a city of refuge. In order that this law might be guarded against abuse, Moses appointed six cities of refuge (Exodus 21:13; Numbers 35:13; Deuteronomy 19:1,9). These were in different parts of the country,
and every facility was afforded the manslayer that he might flee to the city that lay nearest him for safety. Into the city of refuge the avenger durst not follow him. This arrangement applied only to cases where the death was not premeditated. The case had to be investigated by the authorities of the city, and the wilful murderer was on no account to be spared. He was regarded as an impure and polluted person, and was delivered up to the goel (Deuteronomy 19:11-13). If the offence was merely manslaughter, then the fugitive must remain within the city till the death of the high priest (Numbers 35:25).
•AVIM a people dwelling in Hazerim, or "the villages" or "encampments" on the south-west corner of the sea-coast (Deuteronomy 2:23). They were subdued and driven northward by the Caphtorim. A trace of them is afterwards found in Joshua 13:3, where they are called Avites.
•AWL an instrument only referred to in connection with the custom of boring the ear of a slave (Exodus 21:6; Deuteronomy 15:17), in token of his volunteering perpetual service when he might be free. (Comp. Psalm 40:6; Isaiah 50:5).
•AXE used in the Authorized Version of Deuteronomy 19:5; 20:19; 1 Kings 6:7, as the translation of a Hebrew word which means "chopping." It was used for felling trees (Isaiah 10:34) and hewing timber for building. It is the rendering of a different word in Judges 9:48, 1 Samuel 13:20, 21, Psalm 74:5, which refers to its sharpness. In 2 Kings 6:5 it is the translation of a word used with reference to its being made of iron. In Isaiah 44:12 the Revised Version renders by "axe" the Hebrew maatsad, which means a "hewing" instrument. In the Authorized Version it is rendered "tongs." It is also used in Jeremiah 10:3, and rendered "axe." The "battle-axe" (army of Medes and Persians) mentioned in Jeremiah 51:20 was probably, as noted in the margin of the Revised Version, a "maul" or heavy mace. In Psalm 74:6 the word so rendered means "feller." (See the figurative expression in Matthew 3:10; Luke 3:9.)
•AZAL (Zechariah 14:5) should perhaps be rendered "very near" = "the way of escape shall be made easy." If a proper name, it may denote some place near the western extremity of the valley here spoken of near Jerusalem.
•AZARIAH whom Jehovah helps. (1.) Son of Ethan, of the tribe of Judah (1 Chronicles 2:8).
(2.) Son of Ahimaaz, who succeeded his grandfather Zadok as high priest (1 Chronicles 6:9; 1 Kings 4:2) in the days of Solomon. He officiated at the consecration of the temple (1 Chronicles 6:10).
(3.) The son of Johanan, high priest in the reign of Abijah and Asa (2 Chronicles 6:10, 11).
(4.) High priest in the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah (2 Kings 14:21; 2 Chronicles 26:17-20). He was contemporary with the prophets Isaiah, Amos, and Joel.
(5.) High priest in the days of Hezekiah (2 Chronicles 31:10-13). Of the house of Zadok.
(6.) Several other priests and Levites of this name are mentioned (1 Chronicles 6:36; Ezra 7:1; 1 Chronicles 9:11; Nehemiah 3:23, etc.).
(7.) The original name of Abed-nego (Daniel 1:6, 7, 11, 16). He was of the royal family of Judah, and with his other two companions remarkable for his personal beauty and his intelligence as well as piety.
(8.) The son of Oded, a remarkable prophet in the days of Asa (2 Chronicles 15:1). He stirred up the king and the people to a great national reformation.
•AZAZEL (Leviticus 16:8, 10, 26, Revised Version only here; rendered "scape-goat" in the Authorized Version). This word has given rise to many different views. Some Jewish interpreters regard it as the name of a place some 12 miles east of Jerusalem, in the wilderness. Others take it to be the name of an evil spirit, or even of Satan. But when we remember that the two goats together form a type of Christ, on whom the Lord "laid the iniquity of us all," and examine into the root meaning of this word (viz., "separation"), the interpretation of those who regard the one goat as representing the atonement made, and the other, that "for Azazel," as representing the effect of the great work of atonement (viz., the complete removal of sin), is certainly to be preferred. The one goat which was "for Jehovah" was offered as a sin-offering, by which atonement was made. But the sins must also be visibly banished, and therefore they were symbolically laid by confession on the other goat, which was then "sent away for Azazel" into the wilderness. The form of this word indicates intensity, and therefore signifies the total separation of sin: it was wholly carried away. It was important that the result of the sacrifices offered by
the high priest alone in the sanctuary should be embodied in a visible transaction, and hence the dismissal of the "scape-goat." It was of no consequence what became of it, as the whole import of the transaction lay in its being sent into the wilderness bearing away sin. As the goat "for Jehovah" was to witness to the demerit of sin and the need of the blood of atonement, so the goat "for Azazel" was to witness to the efficacy of the sacrifice and the result of the shedding of blood in the taking away of sin.
•AZAZIAH whom Jehovah strengthened. (1.) One of the Levitical harpers in the temple (1 Chronicles 15:21).
(2.) The father of Hoshea, who was made ruler over the Ephraimites (1 Chronicles 27:20).
(3.) One who had charge of the temple offerings (2 Chronicles 31:13).
•AZEKAH dug over, a town in the Shephelah or low hills of Judah (Joshua 15:35), where the five confederated Amoritish kings were defeated by Joshua and their army destroyed by a hailstrom (10:10, 11). It was one of the places re-occupied by the Jews on their return from the Captivity (Nehemiah 11:30).
•AZEL noble, a descendant of king Saul (1 Chronicles 8:37; 9:43, 44).
•AZMAVETH strong as death. (1.) One of David's thirty warriors (2 Samuel 23:31).
(2.) An overseer over the royal treasury in the time of David and Solomon (1 Chronicles 27:25).
(3.) A town in the tribe of Judah, near Jerusalem (Nehemiah 12:29; Ezra 2:24).
(4.) 1 Chronicles 8:36
•AZOTUS the Grecized form (Acts 8:40, etc.) of Ashdod (q.v.).
•AZUBAH deserted. (1.) The wife of Caleb (1 Chronicles 2:18, 19).
(2.) The daughter of Shilhi, and mother of king Jehoshaphat (1 Kings 22:42).
•AZUR AND AZZUR helper. (1.) The father of Hananiah, a false prophet (Jeremiah 28:1).
(2.) The father of Jaazaniah (Ezekiel 11:1).
(3.) One of those who sealed the covenant with Jehovah on the return from Babylon (Nehemiah 10:17).
•BAAL Lord. (1.) The name appropriated to the principal male God of the Phoenicians. It is found in several places in the plural BAALIM (Judges 2:11; 10:10; 1 Kings 18:18; Jeremiah 2:23; Hos. 2:17). Baal is identified with Molech (Jeremiah 19:5). It was known to the Israelites as Baal-peor (Numbers 25:3; Deuteronomy 4:3), was worshipped till the time of Samuel (1 Sam 7:4), and was afterwards the religion of the ten tribes in the time of Ahab (1 Kings 16:31-33; 18:19, 22). It prevailed also for a time in the kingdom of Judah (2 Kings 8:27; comp. 11:18; 16:3; 2 Chronicles 28:2), till finally put an end to by the severe discipline of the Captivity (Zephaniah 1:4-6). The priests of Baal were in great numbers (1 Kings 18:19), and of various classes (2 Kings 10:19). Their mode of offering sacrifices is described in 1 Kings 18:25-29. The sun-God, under the general title of Baal, or "Lord," was the chief object of worship of the Canaanites. Each locality had its special Baal, and the various local Baals were summed up under the name of Baalim, or "lords." Each Baal had a wife, who was a colourless reflection of himself.
(2.) A Benjamite, son of Jehiel, the progenitor of the Gibeonites (1 Chronicles 8:30; 9:36).
(3.) The name of a place inhabited by the Simeonites, the same probably as Baal-ath-beer (1 Chronicles 4:33; Joshua 19:8).
•BAALAH mistress; city. (1.) A city in the south of Judah (Joshua 15:29), elsewhere called Balah (Joshua 19:3) and Bilhah (1 Chronicles 4:29). Now Khurbet Zebalah.
(2.) A city on the northern border of the tribe of Judah (Joshua 15:10), called also Kirjath-jearim, q.v. (15:9; 1 Chronicles 13:6), now Kuriet-el-Enab, or as some think, 'Erma.
(3.) A mountain on the north-western boundary of Judah and Dan (Joshua 15:11).
•BAALATH a town of the tribe of Dan (Joshua 19:44). It was fortified by Solomon (1 Kings 9:18; 2 Chronicles 8:6). Some have identified it with Bel'ain, in Wady Deir Balut.
•BAALATH-BEER Baalah of the well, (Joshua 19:8, probably the same as Baal, mentioned in 1 Chronicles 4:33, a city of Simeon.
•BAALBEC called by the Greeks Heliopolis i.e., "the city of the sun", because of its famous Temple of the Sun, has by some been supposed to be Solomon's "house of the forest of Lebanon" (1 Kings 7:2; 10:17; 2 Chronicles 9:16); by others it is identified with Baal-gad (q.v.). It was a city of Coele-Syria, on the lowest declivity of Anti-Libanus, about 42 miles north-west of Damascus. It was one of the most splendid of Syrian cities, existing from a remote antiquity. After sustaining several sieges under the Moslems and others, it was finally destroyed by an earthquake in 1759. Its ruins are of great extent.
•BAAL-BERITH covenant Lord, the name of the God worshipped in Shechem after the death of Gideon (Judges 8:33; 9:4). In 9:46 he is called simply "the God Berith." The name denotes the God of the covenant into which the Israelites entered with the Canaanites, contrary to the command of Jehovah (Exodus 34:12), when they began to fall away to the worship of idols.
•BAALE OF JUDAH lords of Judah, a city in the tribe of Judah from which David brought the ark into Jerusalem (2 Samuel 6:2). Elsewhere (1 Chronicles 13:6) called Kirjath-jearim. (See BAALAH.)
•BAAL-GAD Lord of fortune, or troop of Baal, a Canaanite city in the valley of Lebanon at the foot of Hermon, hence called Baal-hermon (Judge. 3:3; 1 Chronicles 5:23), near the source of the Jordan (Joshua 13:5; 11:17; 12:7). It was the most northern point to which Joshua's conquests extended. It probably derived its name from the worship of Baal. Its modern representative is Banias. Some have supposed it to be the same as Baalbec.
•BAAL-HAMON place of a multitude, a place where Solomon had an extensive vineyard (Cant. 8:11). It has been supposed to be identical with Baal-gad, and also with Hammon in the tribe of Asher (Joshua 19:28). Others identify it with Belamon, in Central Palestine, near Dothaim.
•BAAL-HANAN Lord of grace. (1.) A king of Edom, son of Achbor (Genesis 36:38, 39; 1 Chronicles 1:49, 50).
(2.) An overseer of "the olive trees and sycomore trees in the low plains" (the Shephelah) under David (1 Chronicles 27:28).
•BAAL-HAZOR having a courtyard, or Baal's village, the place on the borders of Ephraim and Benjamin where Absalom held the feast of sheep-shearing when Amnon was assassinated (2 Samuel 13:23). Probably it is the same with Hazor (Nehemiah 11:33), now Tell' Asur, 5 miles north-east of Bethel.
•BAAL-HERMON Lord of Hermon. (1.) A city near Mount Hermon inhabited by the Ephraimites (1 Chronicles 5:23). Probably identical with Baal-gad (Joshua 11:17).
(2.) A mountain east of Lebanon (Judges 3:3). Probably it may be the same as Mount Hermon, or one of its three peaks.
•BAALI my Lord, a title the prophet (Hos. 2:16) reproaches the Jewish church for applying to Jehovah, instead of the more endearing title Ishi, meaning "my husband."
•BAALIM plural of Baal; images of the God Baal (Judges 2:11; 1 Samuel 7:4).
•BAALIS king of the Ammonites at the time of the Babylonian captivity (Jeremiah 40:14). He hired Ishmael to slay Gedaliah who had been appointed governor over the cities of Judah.
•BAAL-MEON Lord of dwelling, a town of Reuben (Numbers 32:38), called also Beth-meon (Jeremiah 48:23) and Beth-baal-meon (Joshua 13:17). It is supposed to have been the birth-place of Elisha. It is identified with the modern M'ain, about 3 miles south-east of Heshbon.
•BAAL-PEOR Lord of the opening, a God of the Moabites (Numbers 25:3; 31:16; Joshua 22:17), worshipped by obscene rites. So called from Mount Peor, where this worship was celebrated, the Baal of Peor. The Israelites fell into the worship of this idol (Numbers 25:3, 5, 18; Deuteronomy 4:3; Psalm 106:28; Hos. 9:10).
•BAAL-PERAZIM Baal having rents, bursts, or destructions, the scene of a victory gained by David over the Philistines (2 Samuel 5:20; 1 Chronicles
14:11). Called Mount Perazim (Isaiah 28:21). It was near the valley of Rephaim, west of Jerusalem. Identified with the modern Jebel Aly.
•BAAL-SHALISHA Lord of Shalisha, a place from which a man came with provisions for Elisha, apparently not far from Gilgal (2 Kings 4:42). It has been identified with Sirisia, 13 miles north of Lydda.
•BAAL-TAMAR Lord of palm trees, a place in the tribe of Benjamin near Gibeah of Saul (Judges 20:33). It was one of the sanctuaries or groves of Baal. Probably the palm tree of Deborah (Judges 4:5) is alluded to in the name.
•BAAL-ZEBUB fly-Lord, the God of the Philistines at Ekron (2 Kings 1:2, 3, 16). This name was given to the God because he was supposed to be able to avert the plague of flies which in that region was to be feared. He was consulted by Ahaziah as to his recovery.
•BAAL-ZEPHON Baal of the north, an Egyptian town on the shores of the Gulf of Suez (Exodus 14:2; Numbers 33:7), over against which the children of Israel encamped before they crossed the Red Sea. It is probably to be identified with the modern Jebel Deraj or Kulalah, on the western shore of the Gulf of Suez. Baal-zapuna of the Egyptians was a place of worship.
•BAANA son of affliction. (1.) One of Solomon's purveyors (1 Kings 4:12).
(2.) Son of Hushai, another of Solomon's purveyors (1 Kings 4:16).
(3.) Father of Zadok (Nehemiah 3:4).
•BAANAH son of affliction. (1.) One of the two sons of Rimmon the Beerothite, a captain in Saul's army. He and his brother Rechab assassinated Ishbosheth (2 Samuel 4:2), and were on this account slain by David, and their mutilated bodies suspended over the pool at Hebron (5, 6, 12).
(2.) The father of Heled, who was one of David's thirty heroes (2 Samuel 23:29; 1 Chronicles 11:30).
•BAASHA bravery, the third king of the separate kingdom of Israel, and founder of its second dynasty (1 Kings 15; 16; 2 Chronicles 16:1-6). He was the son of Ahijah of the tribe of Issachar. The city of Tirzah he made
the capital of his kingdom, and there he was buried, after an eventful reign of twenty-four years (1 Kings 15:33). On account of his idolatries his family was exterminated, according to the word of the prophet Jehu (1 Kings 16:3, 4, 10-13).
•BABE used of children generally (Matthew 11:25; 21:16; Luke 10:21; Romans 2:20). It is used also of those who are weak in Christian faith and knowledge (1 Corinthians 3:1; Hebrews 5:13; 1 Peter 2:2). In Isaiah 3:4 the word "babes" refers to a succession of weak and wicked princes who reigned over Judah from the death of Josiah downward to the destruction of Jerusalem.
•BABEL, TOWER OF the name given to the tower which the primitive fathers of our race built in the land of Shinar after the Deluge (Genesis 11:1-9). Their object in building this tower was probably that it might be seen as a rallying-point in the extensive plain of Shinar, to which they had emigrated from the uplands of Armenia, and so prevent their being scattered abroad. But God interposed and defeated their design by condounding their language, and hence the name Babel, meaning "confusion." In the Babylonian tablets there is an account of this event, and also of the creation and the deluge. (See CHALDEA.)
The Temple of Belus, which is supposed to occupy its site, is described by the Greek historian Herodotus as a temple of great extent and magnificence, erected by the Babylonians for their God Belus. The treasures Nebuchadnezzar brought from Jerusalem were laid up in this temple (2 Chronicles 36:7).
The Birs Nimrud, at ancient Borsippa, about 7 miles south-west of Hillah, the modern town which occupies a part of the site of ancient Babylon, and 6 miles from the Euphrates, is an immense mass of broken and fire-blasted fragments, of about 2,300 feet in circumference, rising suddenly to the height of 235 feet above the desert-plain, and is with probability regarded as the ruins of the tower of Babel. This is "one of the most imposing ruins in the country." Others think it to be the ruins of the Temple of Belus.
•BABYLON the Greek form of BABEL; Semitic form Babilu, meaning "The Gate of God." In the Assyrian tablets it means "The city of the dispersion of the tribes." The monumental list of its kings reaches back to B.C. 2300, and includes Khammurabi, or Amraphel (q.v.), the contemporary of Abraham. It stood on the Euphrates, about 200 miles
above its junction with the Tigris, which flowed through its midst and divided it into two almost equal parts. The Elamites invaded Chaldea (i.e., Lower Mesopotamia, or Shinar, and Upper Mesopotamia, or Accad, now combined into one) and held it in subjection. At length Khammu-rabi delivered it from the foreign yoke, and founded the new empire of Chaldea (q.v.), making Babylon the capital of the united kingdom. This city gradually grew in extent and grandeur, but in process of time it became subject to Assyria. On the fall of Nineveh (B.C. 606) it threw off the Assyrian yoke, and became the capital of the growing Babylonian empire. Under Nebuchadnezzar it became one of the most splendid cities of the ancient world.
After passing through various vicissitudes the city was occupied by Cyrus, "king of Elam," B.C. 538, who issued a decree permitting the Jews to return to their own land (Ezra 1). It then ceased to be the capital of an empire. It was again and again visited by hostile armies, till its inhabitants were all driven from their homes, and the city became a complete desolation, its very site being forgotten from among men.
On the west bank of the Euphrates, about 50 miles south of Bagdad, there is found a series of artificial mounds of vast extent. These are the ruins of this once famous proud city. These ruins are principally (1) the great mound called Babil by the Arabs. This was probably the noted Temple of Belus, which was a pyramid about 480 feet high. (2) The Kasr (i.e., "the palace"). This was the great palace of Nebuchadnezzar. It is almost a square, each side of which is about 700 feet long. The little town of Hillah, near the site of Babylon, is built almost wholly of bricks taken from this single mound. (3) A lofty mound, on the summit of which stands a modern tomb called Amran ibn-Ali. This is probably the most ancient portion of the remains of the city, and represents the ruins of the famous hanging-gardens, or perhaps of some royal palace. The utter desolation of the city once called "The glory of kingdoms" (Isaiah 13:19) was foretold by the prophets (Isaiah 13:4-22; Jeremiah 25:12; 50:2, 3; Daniel 2:31-38).
The Babylon mentioned in 1 Peter 5:13 was not Rome, as some have thought, but the literal city of Babylon, which was inhabited by many Jews at the time Peter wrote.
In Revelation 14:8; 16:19; 17:5; and 18:2, "Babylon" is supposed to mean Rome, not considered as pagan, but as the prolongation of the ancient
power in the papal form. Rome, pagan and papal, is regarded as one power. "The literal Babylon was the beginner and supporter of tyranny and idolatry...This city and its whole empire were taken by the Persians under Cyrus; the Persians were subdued by the Macedonians, and the Macedonians by the Romans; so that Rome succeeded to the power of old Babylon. And it was her method to adopt the worship of the false deities she had conquered; so that by her own act she became the heiress and successor of all the Babylonian idolatry, and of all that was introduced into it by the immediate successors of Babylon, and consequently of all the idolatry of the earth." Rome, or "mystical Babylon," is "that great city which reigneth over the kings of the earth" (17:18).
•BABYLONISH GARMENT a robe of rich colours fabricated at Babylon, and hence of great value (Joshua 7:21).
•BABYLON, KINGDOM OF called "the land of the Chaldeans" (Jeremiah 24:5; Ezek, 12:13), was an extensive province in Central Asia along the valley of the Tigris from the Persian Gulf northward for some 300 miles. It was famed for its fertility and its riches. Its capital was the city of Babylon, a great commercial centre (Ezekiel 17:4; Isaiah 43:14). Babylonia was divided into the two districts of Accad in the north, and Summer (probably the Shinar of the Old Testament) in the south. Among its chief cities may be mentioned Ur (now Mugheir or Mugayyar), on the western bank of the Euphrates; Uruk, or Erech (Genesis 10:10) (now Warka), between Ur and Babylon; Larsa (now Senkereh), the Ellasar of Genesis 14:1, a little to the east of Erech; Nipur (now Niffer), south-east of Babylon; Sepharvaim (2 Kings 17:24), "the two Sipparas" (now Abu-Habba), considerably to the north of Babylon; and Eridu, "the good city" (now Abu-Shahrein), which lay originally on the shore of the Persian Gulf, but is now, owing to the silting up of the sand, about 100 miles distant from it. Another city was Kulunu, or Calneh (Genesis 10:10).
The salt-marshes at the mouths of the Euphrates and Tigris were called Marratu, "the bitter" or "salt", the Merathaim of Jeremiah 50:21. They were the original home of the Kalda, or Chaldeans.
The most famous of the early kings of Babylonia were Sargon of Accad (B.C.3800) and his son, Naram-Sin, who conquered a large part of Western Asia, establishing their power in Palestine, and even carrying their arms to the Sinaitic peninsula. A great Babylonian library was founded in the reign
of Sargon. Babylonia was subsequently again broken up into more than one state, and at one time fell under the domination of Elam. This was put an end to by Khammu-rabi (Amraphel), who drove the Elamites out of the country, and overcame Arioch, the son of an Elamite prince. From this time forward Babylonia was a united monarchy. About B.C. 1750 it was conquered by the Kassi, or Kosseans, from the mountains of Elam, and a Kassite dynasty ruled over it for 576 years and 9 months.
In the time of Khammu-rabi, Syria and Palestine were subject to Babylonia and its Elamite suzerain; and after the overthrow of the Elamite supremacy, the Babylonian kings continued to exercise their influence and power in what was called "the land of the Amorites." In the epoch of the Kassite dynasty, however, Canaan passed into the hands of Egypt.
In B.C. 729, Babylonia was conquered by the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III.; but on the death of Shalmaneser IV. it was seized by the Kalda or "Chaldean" prince Merodach-baladan (2 Kings 20:12-19), who held it till B.C. 709, when he was driven out by Sargon.
Under Sennacherib, Babylonia revolted from Assyria several times, with the help of the Elamites, and after one of these revolts Babylon was destroyed by Sennacherib, B.C. 689. It was rebuilt by Esarhaddon, who made it his residence during part of the year, and it was to Babylon that Manasseh was brought a prisoner (2 Chronicles 33:11). After the death of Esarhaddon, Saul-sumyukin, the viceroy of Babylonia, revolted against his brother the Assyrian king, and the revolt was suppressed with difficulty.
When Nineveh was destroyed, B.C. 606, Nabopolassar, the viceroy of Babylonia, who seems to have been of Chaldean descent, made himself independent. His son Nebuchadrezzar (Nabu-kudur-uzur), after defeating the Egyptians at Carchemish, succeeded him as king, B.C. 604, and founded the Babylonian empire. He strongly fortified Babylon, and adorned it with palaces and other buildings. His son, Evil-merodach, who succeeded him in B.C. 561, was murdered after a reign of two years. The last monarch of the Babylonian empire was Nabonidus (Nabu-nahid), B.C. 555-538, whose eldest son, Belshazzar (Bilu-sar-uzur), is mentioned in several inscriptions. Babylon was captured by Cyrus, B.C. 538, and though it revolted more than once in later years, it never succeeded in maintaining its independence.
•BACA, VALLEY OF (Psalm 84:6; R.V., "valley of weeping," marg., "or balsam trees"), probably a valley in some part of Palestine, or generally some one of the valleys through which pilgrims had to pass on their way to the sanctuary of Jehovah on Zion; or it may be figuratively "a valley of weeping."
•BACKBITE In Psalm 15:3, the rendering of a word which means to run about tattling, calumniating; in Proverbs 25:23, secret talebearing or slandering; in Romans 1:30 and 2 Corinthians 12:20, evil-speaking, maliciously defaming the absent.
•BACKSLIDE to draw back or apostatize in matters of religion (Acts 21:21; 2 Thessalonians 2:3; 1 Timothy 4:1). This may be either partial (Proverbs 14:14) or complete (Hebrews 6:4-6; 10:38, 39). The apostasy may be both doctrinal and moral.
•BADGER this word is found in Exodus 25:5; 26:14; 35:7, 23; 36:19; 39:34; Numbers 4:6, etc. The tabernacle was covered with badgers' skins; the shoes of women were also made of them (Ezekiel 16:10). Our translators seem to have been misled by the similarity in sound of the Hebrew tachash and the Latin taxus, "a badger." The revisers have correctly substituted "seal skins." The Arabs of the Sinaitic peninsula apply the name tucash to the seals and dugongs which are common in the Red Sea, and the skins of which are largely used as leather and for sandals. Though the badger is common in Palestine, and might occur in the wilderness, its small hide would have been useless as a tent covering. The dugong, very plentiful in the shallow waters on the shores of the Red Sea, is a marine animal from 12 to 30 feet long, something between a whale and a seal, never leaving the water, but very easily caught. It grazes on seaweed, and is known by naturalists as Halicore tabernaculi.
•BAG (1.) A pocket of a cone-like shape in which Naaman bound two pieces of silver for Gehazi (2 Kings 5:23). The same Hebrew word occurs elsewhere only in Isaiah 3:22, where it is rendered "crisping-pins," but denotes the reticules (or as R.V., "satchels") carried by Hebrew women.
(2.) Another word (kees) so rendered means a bag for carrying weights (Deuteronomy 25:13; Proverbs 16:11; Micah 6:11). It also denotes a purse (Proverbs 1:14) and a cup (23:31).
(3.) Another word rendered "bag" in 1 Samuel 17:40 is rendered "sack" in Genesis 42:25; and in 1 Samuel 9:7; 21:5 "vessel," or wallet for carrying food.
(4.) The word rendered in the Authorized Version "bags," in which the priests bound up the money contributed for the restoration of the temple (2 Kings 12:10), is also rendered "bundle" (Genesis 42:35; 1 Samuel 25:29). It denotes bags used by travellers for carrying money during a journey (Proverbs 7:20; Hag. 1:6).
(5.) The "bag" of Judas was a small box (John 12:6; 13:29).
•BAHURIM young men, a place east of Jerusalem (2 Samuel 3:16; 19:16), on the road to the Jordan valley. Here Shimei resided, who poured forth vile abuse against David, and flung dust and stones at him and his party when they were making their way down the eastern slopes of Olivet toward Jordan (16:5); and here Jonathan and Ahimaaz hid themselves (17:18).
With the exception of Shimei, Azmaveth, one of David's heroes, is the only other native of the place who is mentioned (2 Samuel 23:31; 1 Chronicles 11:33).
•BAJITH house, probably a city of Moab, which had a celebrated idol-temple (Isaiah 15:2). It has also been regarded as denoting simply the temple of the idol of Moab as opposed to the "high place."
•BAKE The duty of preparing bread was usually, in ancient times, committed to the females or the slaves of the family (Genesis 18:6; Leviticus 26:26; 1 Samuel 8:13); but at a later period we find a class of public bakers mentioned (Hos. 7:4, 6; Jeremiah 37:21).
The bread was generally in the form of long or round cakes (Exodus 29:23; 1 Samuel 2:36), of a thinness that rendered them easily broken (Isaiah 58:7; Matthew 14:19; 26:26; Acts 20:11). Common ovens were generally used; at other times a jar was half-filled with hot pebbles, and the dough was spread over them. Hence we read of "cakes baken on the coals" (1 Kings 19:6), and "baken in the oven" (Leviticus 2:4). (See BREAD.)
•BAKE-MEATS baked provisions (Genesis 40:17), literally "works of the baker," such as biscuits and cakes.
•BALAAM Lord of the people; foreigner or glutton, as interpreted by others, the son of Beor, was a man of some rank among the Midianites (Numbers 31:8; comp. 16). He resided at Pethor (Deuteronomy 23:4), in Mesopotamia (Numbers 23:7). It is evident that though dwelling among idolaters he had some knowledge of the true God; and was held in such reputation that it was supposed that he whom he blessed was blessed, and he whom he cursed was cursed. When the Israelites were encamped on the plains of Moab, on the east of Jordan, by Jericho, Balak sent for Balaam "from Aram, out of the mountains of the east," to curse them; but by the remarkable interposition of God he was utterly unable to fulfil Balak's wish, however desirous he was to do so. The apostle Peter refers (2 Peter 2:15, 16) to this as an historical event. In Micah 6:5 reference also is made to the relations between Balaam and Balak. Though Balaam could not curse Israel, yet he suggested a mode by which the divine displeasure might be caused to descend upon them (Numbers 25). In a battle between Israel and the Midianites (q.v.) Balaam was slain while fighting on the side of Balak (Numbers 31:8).
The "doctrine of Balaam" is spoken of in Revelation 2:14, in allusion to the fact that it was through the teaching of Balaam that Balak learned the way by which the Israelites might be led into sin. (See NICOLAITANES.) Balaam was constrained to utter prophecies regarding the future of Israel of wonderful magnificence and beauty of expression (Numbers 24:5-9, 17).
•BALADAN he has given a son, the father of the Babylonian king (2 Kings 20:12; Isaiah 39:1) Merodach-baladan (q.v.).
•BALAH a city in the tribe of Simeon (Joshua 19:3), elsewhere called Bilhah (1 Chronicles 4:29) and Baalah (Joshua 15:29).
•BALAK empty; spoiler, a son of Zippor, and king of the Moabites (Numbers 22:2, 4). From fear of the Israelites, who were encamped near the confines of his territory, he applied to Balaam (q.v.) to curse them; but in vain (Joshua 24:9).
•BALANCE occurs in Leviticus 19:36 and Isaiah 46:6, as the rendering of the Hebrew kanch', which properly means "a reed" or "a cane," then a rod or beam of a balance. This same word is translated "measuring reed" in
Ezekiel 40:3,5; 42:16-18. There is another Hebrew word, mozena'yim, i.e., "two poisers", also so rendered (Daniel 5:27). The balances as represented on the most ancient Egyptian monuments resemble those now in use. A "pair of balances" is a symbol of justice and fair dealing (Job 31:6; Psalm 62:9; Proverbs 11:1). The expression denotes great want and scarcity in Revelation 6:5.
•BALDNESS from natural causes was uncommon (2 Kings 2:23; Isaiah 3:24). It was included apparently under "scab" and "scurf," which disqualified for the priesthood (Leviticus 21:20). The Egyptians were rarely subject to it. This probably arose from their custom of constantly shaving the head, only allowing the hair to grow as a sign of mourning. With the Jews artificial baldness was a sign of mourning (Isaiah 22:12; Jeremiah 7:29; 16:6); it also marked the conclusion of a Nazarite's vow (Acts 18:18; 21:24; Numbers 6:9). It is often alluded to (Micah 1:16; Amos 8:10; Jeremiah 47:5). The Jews were forbidden to follow the customs of surrounding nations in making themselves bald (Deuteronomy 14:1).
•BALM contracted from Bal'sam, a general name for many oily or resinous substances which flow or trickle from certain trees or plants when an incision is made through the bark.
(1.) This word occurs in the Authorized Version (Genesis 37:25; 43:11; Jeremiah 8:22; 46:11; 51:8; Ezekiel 27:17) as the rendering of the Hebrew word tsori or tseri, which denotes the gum of a tree growing in Gilead (q.v.), which is very precious. It was celebrated for its medicinal qualities, and was circulated as an article of merchandise by Arab and Phoenician merchants. The shrub so named was highly valued, and was almost peculiar to Palestine. In the time of Josephus it was cultivated in the neighbourhood of Jericho and the Dead Sea. There is an Arab tradition that the tree yielding this balm was brought by the queen of Sheba as a present to Solomon, and that he planted it in his gardens at Jericho.
(2.) There is another Hebrew word, basam or bosem, from which our word "balsam," as well as the corresponding Greek balsamon, is derived. It is rendered "spice" (Cant. 5:1, 13; 6:2; margin of Revised Version, "balsam;" Exodus 35:28; 1 Kings 10:10), and denotes fragrance in general. Basam also denotes the true balsam-plant, a native of South Arabia (Cant. l.c.).
•BAMAH a height, a name used simply to denote a high place where the Jews worshipped idols (Ezekiel 20:29). The plural is translated "high places" in Numbers 22:41 and Ezekiel 36:2.
•BAMOTH heights, the forty-seventh station of the Israelites (Numbers 21:19,20) in the territory of the Moabites.
•BAMOTH-BAAL heights of Baal, a place on the river Arnon, or in the plains through which it flows, east of Jordan (Joshua 13:17; comp. Numbers 21:28). It has been supposed to be the same place as Bamoth.
•BANDS (1) of love (Hos. 11:4); (2) of Christ (Psalm 2:3); (3) uniting together Christ's body the church (Colossians 2:19; 3:14; Ephesians 4:3); (4) the emblem of the captivity of Israel (Ezekiel 34:27; Isaiah 28:22; 52:2); (5) of brotherhood (Ezekiel 37:15-28); (6) no bands to the wicked in their death (Psalm 73:4; Job 21:7; Psalm 10:6). Also denotes chains (Luke 8:29); companies of soldiers (Acts 21:31); a shepherd's staff, indicating the union between Judah and Israel (Zechariah 11:7).
•BANI built. (1.) 1 Chronicles 6:46. (2.) One of David's thirty-seven warriors, a Gadite (2 Samuel 23:36). (3.) Ezra 2:10; 10:29,34,38. (4.) A Levite who was prominent in the reforms on the return from Babylon (Nehemiah 8:7; 9:4,5). His son Rehum took part in rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem (Nehemiah 3:17).
•BANNER (1.) The flag or banner of the larger kind, serving for three tribes marching together. These standards, of which there were four, were worked with embroidery and beautifully ornamented (Numbers 1:52; 2:2, 3, 10, 18, 25; Cant. 2:4; 6:4, 10).
(2.) The flag borne by each separate tribe, of a smaller form. Probably it bore on it the name of the tribe to which it belonged, or some distinguishing device (Numbers 2:2,34).
(3.) A lofty signal-flag, not carried about, but stationary. It was usually erected on a mountain or other lofty place. As soon as it was seen the war-trumpets were blown (Psalm 60:4; Isaiah 5:26; 11:12; 13:2; 18:3; 30:17; Jeremiah 4:6 21; Ezekiel 27:7).
(4.) A "sign of fire" (Jeremiah 6:1) was sometimes used as a signal.
The banners and ensigns of the Roman army had idolatrous images upon them, and hence they are called the "abomination of desolation" (q.v.). The
principal Roman standard, however, was an eagle. (See Matthew 24:28; Luke 17:37, where the Jewish nation is compared to a dead body, which the eagles gather together to devour.)
God's setting up or giving a banner (Psalm 20:5; 60:4; Cant. 2:4) imports his presence and protection and aid extended to his people.
•BANQUET a feast provided for the entertainment of a company of guests (Esther 5; 7; 1 Peter 4:3); such as was provided for our Lord by his friends in Bethany (Matthew 26:6; Mark 14:3; comp. John 12:2). These meals were in the days of Christ usually called "suppers," after the custom of the Romans, and were partaken of toward the close of the day. It was usual to send a second invitation (Matthew 22:3; Luke 14:17) to those who had been already invited. When the whole company was assembled, the master of the house shut the door with his own hands (Luke 13:25; Matthew 25:10).
The guests were first refreshed with water and fragrant oil (Luke 7:38; Mark 7:4). A less frequent custom was that of supplying each guest with a robe to be worn during the feast (Ecclesiastes 9:8; Revelation 3:4, 5; Matthew 22:11). At private banquets the master of the house presided; but on public occasions a "governor of the feast" was chosen (John 2:8). The guests were placed in order according to seniority (Genesis 43:33), or according to the rank they held (Proverbs 25:6,7; Matthew 23:6; Luke 14:7).
As spoons and knives and forks are a modern invention, and were altogether unknown in the East, the hands alone were necessarily used, and were dipped in the dish, which was common to two of the guests (John 13:26). In the days of our Lord the guests reclined at table; but the ancient Israelites sat around low tables, cross-legged, like the modern Orientals. Guests were specially honoured when extra portions were set before them (Genesis 43:34), and when their cup was filled with wine till it ran over (Psalm 23:5). The hands of the guests were usually cleaned by being rubbed on bread, the crumbs of which fell to the ground, and were the portion for dogs (Matthew 15:27; Luke 16:21).
At the time of the three annual festivals at Jerusalem family banquets were common. To these the "widow, and the fatherless, and the stranger" were welcome (Deuteronomy 16:11). Sacrifices also included a banquet (Exodus 34:15; Judges 16:23). Birthday banquets are mentioned (Genesis 40:20;
Matthew 14:6). They were sometimes protracted, and attended with revelry and excess (Genesis 21:8; 29:22; 1 Samuel 25:2,36; 2 Samuel 13:23). Portions were sometimes sent from the table to poorer friends (Nehemiah 8:10; Esther 9:19, 22). (See MEALS.)
•BAPTISM, CHRISTIAN an ordinance immediately instituted by Christ (Matthew 28:19, 20), and designed to be observed in the church, like that of the Supper, "till he come." The words "baptize" and "baptism" are simply Greek words transferred into English. This was necessarily done by the translators of the Scriptures, for no literal translation could properly express all that is implied in them.
The mode of baptism can in no way be determined from the Greek word rendered "baptize." Baptists say that it means "to dip," and nothing else. That is an incorrect view of the meaning of the word. It means both (1) to dip a thing into an element or liquid, and (2) to put an element or liquid over or on it. Nothing therefore as to the mode of baptism can be concluded from the mere word used. The word has a wide latitude of meaning, not only in the New Testament, but also in the LXX. Version of the Old Testament, where it is used of the ablutions and baptisms required by the Mosaic law. These were effected by immersion, and by affusion and sprinkling; and the same word, "washings" (Hebrews 9:10, 13, 19, 21) or "baptisms," designates them all. In the New Testament there cannot be found a single well-authenticated instance of the occurrence of the word where it necessarily means immersion. Moreover, none of the instances of baptism recorded in the Acts of the Apostles (2:38-41; 8:26-39; 9:17, 18; 22:12-16; 10:44-48; 16:32-34) favours the idea that it was by dipping the person baptized, or by immersion, while in some of them such a mode was highly improbable.
The gospel and its ordinances are designed for the whole world, and it cannot be supposed that a form for the administration of baptism would have been prescribed which would in any place (as in a tropical country or in polar regions) or under any circumstances be inapplicable or injurious or impossible.
Baptism and the Lord's Supper are the two symbolical ordinances of the New Testament. The Supper represents the work of Christ, and Baptism the work of the Spirit. As in the Supper a small amount of bread and wine used in this ordinance exhibits in symbol the great work of Christ, so in
Baptism the work of the Holy Spirit is fully seen in the water poured or sprinkled on the person in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. That which is essential in baptism is only "washing with water," no mode being specified and none being necessary or essential to the symbolism of the ordinance.
The apostles of our Lord were baptized with the Holy Ghost (Matthew 3:11) by his coming upon them (Acts 1:8). The fire also with which they were baptized sat upon them. The extraordinary event of Pentecost was explained by Peter as a fulfilment of the ancient promise that the Spirit would be poured out in the last days (2:17). He uses also with the same reference the expression shed forth as descriptive of the baptism of the Spirit (33). In the Pentecostal baptism "the apostles were not dipped into the Spirit, nor plunged into the Spirit; but the Spirit was shed forth, poured out, fell on them (11:15), came upon them, sat on them." That was a real and true baptism. We are warranted from such language to conclude that in like manner when water is poured out, falls, comes upon or rests upon a person when this ordinance is administered, that person is baptized. Baptism is therefore, in view of all these arguments "rightly administered by pouring or sprinkling water upon the person."
The subjects of baptism. This raises questions of greater importance than those relating to its mode.
1. The controversy here is not about "believers' baptism," for that is common to all parties. Believers were baptized in apostolic times, and they have been baptized in all time by all the branches of the church. It is altogether a misrepresentation to allege, as is sometimes done by Baptists, that their doctrine is "believers' baptism." Every instance of adult baptism, or of "believers' baptism," recorded in the New Testament (Acts 2:41; 8:37; 9:17, 18; 10:47; 16:15; 19:5, etc.) is just such as would be dealt with in precisely the same way by all branches of the Protestant Church, a profession of faith or of their being "believers" would be required from every one of them before baptism. The point in dispute is not the baptism of believers, but whether the infant children of believers, i.e., of members of the church, ought to be baptized.