Part 2
•ADDI ornament, (Luke 3:28), the son of Cosam, and father of Melchi, one of the progenitors of Christ.
•ADDON low, one of the persons named in Nehemiah 7:61 who could not "shew their father's house" on the return from captivity. This, with similar instances (ver. 63), indicates the importance the Jews attached to their genealogies.
•ADIEL ornament of God. (1.) The father of Azmaveth, who was treasurer under David and Solomon (1 Chronicles 27:25). (2.) A family head of the tribe of Simeon (1 Chronicles 4:36). (3.) A priest (1 Chronicles 9:12).
•ADIN effeminate. (1.) Ezra 8:6. (2.) Nehemiah 10:16.
•ADINA slender, one of David's warriors (1 Chronicles 11:42), a Reubenite.
•ADINO the Eznite, one of David's mighty men (2 Samuel 23:8). (See JASHOBEAM.)
•ADJURATION a solemn appeal whereby one person imposes on another the obligation of speaking or acting as if under an oath (1 Samuel 14:24; Joshua 6:26; 1 Kings 22:16).
We have in the New Testament a striking example of this (Matthew 26:63; Mark 5:7), where the high priest calls upon Christ to avow his true character. It would seem that in such a case the person so adjured could not refuse to give an answer.
The word "adjure", i.e., cause to swear is used with reference to the casting out of demons (Acts 19:13).
•ADMAH earth, one of the five cities of the vale of Siddim (Genesis 10:19). It was destroyed along with Sodom and Gomorrah (19:24; Deuteronomy 29:23). It is supposed by some to be the same as the Adam of Joshua 3:16, the name of which still lingers in Damieh, the ford of Jordan. (See ZEBOIM.)
•ADNAH delight. (1.) A chief of the tribe of Manasseh who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chronicles 12:20). (2.) A general under Jehoshaphat, chief over 300,000 men (2 Chronicles 17:14).
•ADONIBEZEK Lord of Bezek, a Canaanitish king who, having subdued seventy of the chiefs that were around him, made an attack against the armies of Judah and Simeon, but was defeated and brought as a captive to Jerusalem, where his thumbs and great toes were cut off. He confessed that God had requited him for his like cruelty to the seventy kings whom he had subdued (Judges 1:4-7; comp. 1 Samuel 15:33).
•ADONIJAH my Lord is Jehovah. (1.) The fourth son of David (2 Samuel 3:4). After the death of his elder brothers, Amnon and Absalom, he became heir-apparent to the throne. But Solomon, a younger brother, was preferred to him. Adonijah, however, when his father was dying, caused himself to be proclaimed king. But Nathan and Bathsheba induced David to give orders that Solomon should at once be proclaimed and admitted to the throne. Adonijah fled and took refuge at the altar, and received pardon for his conduct from Solomon on the condition that he showed himself "a worthy man" (1 Kings 1:5-53). He afterwards made a second attempt to gain the throne, but was seized and put to death (1 Kings 2:13-25).
(2.) A Levite sent with the princes to teach the book of the law to the inhabitants of Judah (2 Chronicles 17:8).
(3.) One of the "chiefs of the people" after the Captivity (Nehemiah 10:16).
•ADONIKAM whom the Lord sets up, one of those "which came with Zerubbabel" (Ezra 2:13). His "children," or retainers, to the number of 666, came up to Jerusalem (8:13).
•ADONIRAM (Adoram, 1 Kings 12:18), the son of Abda, was "over the tribute," i.e., the levy or forced labour. He was stoned to death by the people of Israel (1 Kings 4:6; 5:14)
•ADONI-ZEDEC Lord of justice or righteousness, was king in Jerusalem at the time when the Israelites invaded Palestine (Joshua 10:1,3). He formed a confederacy with the other Canaanitish kings against the Israelites, but was utterly routed by Joshua when he was engaged in besieging the Gibeonites. The history of this victory and of the treatment of the five confederated kings is recorded in Joshua 10:1-27. (Comp. Deuteronomy 21:23). Among the Tell Amarna tablets (see EGYPT) are some very interesting letters from Adoni-zedec to the King of Egypt. These illustrate in a very remarkable manner the history recorded in Joshua 10, and indeed throw light on the wars of conquest generally, so that they may be read as a kind of commentary on the book of Joshua. Here the conquering career of the Abiri (i.e., Hebrews) is graphically described: "Behold, I say that the land of the king my Lord is ruined", "The wars are mighty against me", "The Hebrew chiefs plunder all the king's lands", "Behold, I the chief of the Amorites am breaking to pieces." Then he implores the king of Egypt to send soldiers to help him, directing that the army should come by sea to Ascalon or Gaza, and thence march to Wru-sa-lim (Jerusalem) by the valley of Elah.
•ADOPTION the giving to any one the name and place and privileges of a son who is not a son by birth.
(1.) Natural. Thus Pharaoh's daughter adopted Moses (Exodus 2:10), and Mordecai Esther (Esther 2:7).
(2.) National. God adopted Israel (Exodus 4:22; Deuteronomy 7:6; Hos. 11:1; Romans 9:4).
(3.) Spiritual. An act of God's grace by which he brings men into the number of his redeemed family, and makes them partakers of all the blessings he has provided for them. Adoption represents the new relations
into which the believer is introduced by justification, and the privileges connected therewith, viz., an interest in God's peculiar love (John 17:23; Romans 5:5-8), a spiritual nature (2 Peter 1:4; John 1:13), the possession of a spirit becoming children of God (1 Peter 1:14; 2 John 4; Romans 8:15-21; Galatians 5:1; Hebrews 2:15), present protection, consolation, supplies (Luke 12:27-32; John 14:18; 1 Corinthians 3:21-23; 2 Corinthians 1:4), fatherly chastisements (Hebrews 12:5-11), and a future glorious inheritance (Romans 8:17,23; James 2:5; Phil. 3:21).
•ADORAM See ADONIRAM.
•ADORE to worship; to express reverence and homage. The forms of adoration among the Jews were putting off the shoes (Exodus 3:5; Joshua 5:15), and prostration (Genesis 17:3; Psalm 95:6; Isaiah 44:15, 17, 19; 46:6). To "kiss the Son" in Psalm 2:12 is to adore and worship him. (See Daniel 3:5, 6.) The word itself does not occur in Scripture.
•ADRAMMELECH Adar the king. (1.) An idol; a form of the sun-God worshipped by the inhabitants of Sepharvaim (2 Kings 17:31), and brought by the Sepharvite colonists into Samaria. (2.) A son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria (2 Kings 19:37; Isaiah 37:38).
•ADRAMYTTIUM a city of Asia Minor on the coast of Mysia, which in early times was called AEolis. The ship in which Paul embarked at Caesarea belonged to this city (Acts 27:2). He was conveyed in it only to Myra, in Lycia, whence he sailed in an Alexandrian ship to Italy. It was a rare thing for a ship to sail from any port of Palestine direct for Italy. It still bears the name Adramyti, and is a place of some traffic.
•ADRIA (Acts 27:27; R.V., "the sea of Adria"), the Adriatic Sea, including in Paul's time the whole of the Mediterranean lying between Crete and Sicily. It is the modern Gulf of Venice, the Mare Superum of the Romans, as distinguished from the Mare Inferum or Tyrrhenian Sea.
•ADRIEL flock of God, the son of Barzillai, the Meholathite, to whom Saul gave in marriage his daughter Merab (1 Samuel 18:19). The five sons that sprang from this union were put to death by the Gibeonites (2 Samuel 21:8, 9. Here it is said that Michal "brought up" [R.V., "bare"] these five sons, either that she treated them as if she had been their own mother, or that for "Michal" we should read "Merab," as in 1 Samuel 18:19).
•ADULLAM one of the royal cities of the Canaanites, now 'Aid-el-ma (Joshua 12:15; 15:35). It stood on the old Roman road in the valley of Elah (q.v.), which was the scene of David's memorable victory over Goliath (1 Samuel 17:2), and not far from Gath. It was one of the towns which Rehoboam fortified against Egypt (2 Chronicles 11:7). It was called "the glory of Israel" (Micah 1:15).
The Cave of Adullam has been discovered about 2 miles south of the scene of David's triumph, and about 13 miles west from Bethlehem. At this place is a hill some 500 feet high pierced with numerous caverns, in one of which David gathered together "every one that was in distress, and every one that was in debt, and every one that was discontented" (1 Samuel 22:2). Some of these caverns are large enough to hold 200 or 300 men. According to tradition this cave was at Wady Khureitun, between Bethlehem and the Dead Sea, but this view cannot be well maintained.
•ADULLAMITE an inhabitant of the city of Adullam (Genesis 38:1, 12, 20).
•ADULTERY conjugal infidelity. An adulterer was a man who had illicit intercourse with a married or a betrothed woman, and such a woman was an adulteress. Intercourse between a married man and an unmarried woman was fornication. Adultery was regarded as a great social wrong, as well as a great sin.
The Mosaic law (Numbers 5:11-31) prescribed that the suspected wife should be tried by the ordeal of the "water of jealousy." There is, however, no recorded instance of the application of this law. In subsequent times the Rabbis made various regulations with the view of discovering the guilty party, and of bringing about a divorce. It has been inferred from John 8:1-11 that this sin became very common during the age preceding the destruction of Jerusalem.
Idolatry, covetousness, and apostasy are spoken of as adultery spiritually (Jeremiah 3:6, 8, 9; Ezekiel 16:32; Hos. 1:2:3; Revelation 2:22). An apostate church is an adulteress (Isaiah 1:21; Ezekiel 23:4, 7, 37), and the Jews are styled "an adulterous generation" (Matthew 12:39). (Comp. Revelation 12.)
•ADUMMIM the red ones, a place apparently on the road between Jericho and Jerusalem, "on the south side of the torrent" Wady Kelt, looking
toward Gilgal, mentioned Joshua 15:7; 18:17. It was nearly half-way between Jerusalem and Jericho, and now bears the name of Tal-at-ed-Dumm. It is supposed to have been the place referred to in the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:30-37). Recently a new carriage-road has been completed, and carriages for the first time have come along this road from Jerusalem.
•ADVERSARY (Hebrews satan), an opponent or foe (1 Kings 5:4; 11:14, 23, 25; Luke 13:17); one that speaks against another, a complainant (Matthew 5:25; Luke 12:58); an enemy (Luke 18:3), and specially the devil (1 Peter 5:8).
•ADVOCATE (Gr. parakletos), one who pleads another's cause, who helps another by defending or comforting him. It is a name given by Christ three times to the Holy Ghost (John 14:16; 15:26; 16:7, where the Greek word is rendered "Comforter," q.v.). It is applied to Christ in 1 John 2:1, where the same Greek word is rendered "Advocate," the rendering which it should have in all the places where it occurs. Tertullus "the orator" (Acts 24:1) was a Roman advocate whom the Jews employed to accuse Paul before Felix.
•AENON springs, a place near Salim where John baptized (John 3:23). It was probably near the upper source of the Wady Far'ah, an open valley extending from Mount Ebal to the Jordan. It is full of springs. A place has been found called 'Ainun, four miles north of the springs.
•AFFECTION feeling or emotion. Mention is made of "vile affections" (Romans 1:26) and "inordinate affection" (Colossians 3:5). Christians are exhorted to set their affections on things above (Colossians 3:2). There is a distinction between natural and spiritual or gracious affections (Ezekiel 33:32).
•AFFINITY relationship by alliance (2 Chronicles 18:1) or by marriage (1 Kings 3:1). Marriages are prohibited within certain degrees of affinity, enumerated Leviticus 18:6-17. Consanguinity is relationship by blood.
•AFFLICTIONS common to all (Job 5:7; 14:1; Psalm 34:19); are for the good of men (James 1:2, 3, 12; 2 Corinthians 12:7) and the glory of God (2 Corinthians 12:7-10; 1 Peter 4:14), and are to be borne with patience by the Lord's people (Psalm 94:12; Proverbs 3:12). They are all directed by
God (Lamentations 3:33), and will result in the everlasting good of his people (2 Corinthians 4:16-18) in Christ Jesus (Romans 8:35-39).
•AGABUS a "prophet," probably one of the seventy disciples of Christ. He prophesied at Antioch of an approaching famine (Acts 11:27, 28). Many years afterwards he met Paul at Caesarea, and warned him of the bonds and affliction that awaited him at Jerusalem should he persist in going thither (Acts 21:10-12).
•AGAG flame, the usual title of the Amalekite kings, as "Pharaoh" was of the Egyptian. (1.) A king of the Amalekites referred to by Balaam (Numbers 24:7). He lived at the time of the Exodus.
(2.) Another king of the Amalekites whom Saul spared unlawfully, but whom Samuel on his arrival in the camp of Saul ordered, in retributive justice (Judges 1), to be brought out and cut in pieces (1 Samuel 15:8-33. Comp. Exodus 17:11; Numbers 14:45).
•AGAGITE a name applied to Haman and also to his father (Esther 3:1, 10; 8:3, 5). Probably it was equivalent to Amalekite.
•AGATE (Hebrews shebo), a precious stone in the breast-plate of the high priest (Exodus 28:19; 39:12), the second in the third row. This may be the agate properly so called, a semi-transparent crystallized quartz, probably brought from Sheba, whence its name. In Isaiah 54:12 and Ezekiel 27:16, this word is the rendering of the Hebrew cadcod, which means "ruddy," and denotes a variety of minutely crystalline silica more or less in bands of different tints.
This word is from the Greek name of a stone found in the river Achates in Sicily.
•AGE used to denote the period of a man's life (Genesis 47:28), the maturity of life (John 9:21), the latter end of life (Job 11:17), a generation of the human race (Job 8:8), and an indefinite period (Ephesians 2:7; 3:5, 21; Colossians 1:26). Respect to be shown to the aged (Leviticus 19:32). It is a blessing to communities when they have old men among them (Isaiah 65:20; Zechariah 8:4). The aged supposed to excel in understanding (Job 12:20; 15:10; 32:4, 9; 1 Kings 12:6, 8). A full age the reward of piety (Job 5:26; Genesis 15:15).
•AGEE fugitive, the father of Shammah, who was one of David's mighty men (2 Samuel 23:11)
•AGONY contest; wrestling; severe struggling with pain and suffering. Anguish is the reflection on evil that is already past, while agony is a struggle with evil at the time present. It is only used in the New Testament by Luke (22:44) to describe our Lord's fearful struggle in Gethsemane.
The verb from which the noun "agony" is derived is used to denote an earnest endeavour or striving, as "Strive [agonize] to enter" (Luke 13:24); "Then would my servants fight" [agonize] (John 18:36). Comp. 1 Corinthians 9:25; Colossians 1:29; 4:12; 1 Timothy 6:12; 2 Timothy 4:7, where the words "striveth," "labour," "conflict," "fight," are the renderings of the same Greek verb.
•AGRICULTURE Tilling the ground (Genesis 2:15; 4:2, 3, 12) and rearing cattle were the chief employments in ancient times. The Egyptians excelled in agriculture. And after the Israelites entered into the possession of the Promised Land, their circumstances favoured in the highest degree a remarkable development of this art. Agriculture became indeed the basis of the Mosaic commonwealth.
The year in Palestine was divided into six agricultural periods:-
I. SOWING TIME. Tisri, latter half (beginning about the autumnal equinox.) Marchesvan. Kisleu, former half. Early rain due = first showers of autumn.
II. UNRIPE TIME. Kisleu, latter half. Tebet. Sebat, former half.
III. COLD SEASON. Sebat, latter half. Adar. [Veadar.] Nisan, former half. Latter rain due (Deuteronomy 11:14; Jeremiah 5:24; Hos. 6:3; Zechariah 10:1; James 5:7; Job 29:23).
IV. HARVEST TIME. Nisan, latter half. (Beginning about vernal equinox. Barley green. Passover.) Ijar. Sivan, former half., Wheat ripe. Pentecost.
V. SUMMER (total absence of rain) Sivan, latter half. Tammuz. Ab, former half.
VI. SULTRY SEASON Ab, latter half. Elul. Tisri, former half., Ingathering of fruits.
The six months from the middle of Tisri to the middle of Nisan were occupied with the work of cultivation, and the rest of the year mainly with the gathering in of the fruits. The extensive and easily-arranged system of irrigation from the rills and streams from the mountains made the soil in every part of Palestine richly productive (Psalm 1:3; 65:10; Proverbs 21:1; Isaiah 30:25; 32:2, 20; Hos. 12:11), and the appliances of careful cultivation and of manure increased its fertility to such an extent that in the days of Solomon, when there was an abundant population, "20,000 measures of wheat year by year" were sent to Hiram in exchange for timber (1 Kings 5:11), and in large quantities also wheat was sent to the Tyrians for the merchandise in which they traded (Ezekiel 27:17). The wheat sometimes produced an hundredfold (Genesis 26:12; Matthew 13:23). Figs and pomegranates were very plentiful (Numbers 13:23), and the vine and the olive grew luxuriantly and produced abundant fruit (Deuteronomy 33:24).
Lest the productiveness of the soil should be exhausted, it was enjoined that the whole land should rest every seventh year, when all agricultural labour would entirely cease (Leviticus 25:1-7; Deuteronomy 15:1-10).
It was forbidden to sow a field with divers seeds (Deuteronomy 22:9). A passer-by was at liberty to eat any quantity of corn or grapes, but he was not permitted to carry away any (Deuteronomy 23:24, 25; Matthew 12:1). The poor were permitted to claim the corners of the fields and the gleanings. A forgotten sheaf in the field was to be left also for the poor. (See Leviticus 19:9, 10; Deuteronomy 24:19.)
Agricultural implements and operations.
The sculptured monuments and painted tombs of Egypt and Assyria throw much light on this subject, and on the general operations of agriculture. Ploughs of a simple construction were known in the time of Moses (Deuteronomy 22:10; comp. Job 1:14). They were very light, and
required great attention to keep them in the ground (Luke 9:62). They were drawn by oxen (Job 1:14), cows (1 Samuel 6:7), and asses (Isaiah 30:24); but an ox and an ass must not be yoked together in the same plough (Deuteronomy 22:10). Men sometimes followed the plough with a hoe to break the clods (Isaiah 28:24). The oxen were urged on by a "goad," or long staff pointed at the end, so that if occasion arose it could be used as a spear also (Judges 3:31; 1 Samuel 13:21).
When the soil was prepared, the seed was sown broadcast over the field (Matthew 13:3-8). The "harrow" mentioned in Job 39:10 was not used to cover the seeds, but to break the clods, being little more than a thick block of wood. In highly irrigated spots the seed was trampled in by cattle (Isaiah 32:20); but doubtless there was some kind of harrow also for covering in the seed scattered in the furrows of the field.
The reaping of the corn was performed either by pulling it up by the roots, or cutting it with a species of sickle, according to circumstances. The corn when cut was generally put up in sheaves (Genesis 37:7; Leviticus 23:10-15; Ruth 2:7, 15; Job 24:10; Jeremiah 9:22; Micah 4:12), which were afterwards gathered to the threshing-floor or stored in barns (Matthew 6:26).
The process of threshing was performed generally by spreading the sheaves on the threshing-floor and causing oxen and cattle to tread repeatedly over them (Deuteronomy 25:4; Isaiah 28:28). On occasions flails or sticks were used for this purpose (Ruth 2:17; Isaiah 28:27). There was also a "threshing instrument" (Isaiah 41:15; Amos 1:3) which was drawn over the corn. It was called by the Hebrews a moreg, a threshing roller or sledge (2 Samuel 24:22; 1 Chronicles 21:23; Isaiah 3:15). It was somewhat like the Roman tribulum, or threshing instrument.
When the grain was threshed, it was winnowed by being thrown up against the wind (Jeremiah 4:11), and afterwards tossed with wooden scoops (Isaiah 30:24). The shovel and the fan for winnowing are mentioned in Psalm 35:5, Job 21:18, Isaiah 17:13. The refuse of straw and chaff was burned (Isaiah 5:24). Freed from impurities, the grain was then laid up in granaries till used (Deuteronomy 28:8; Proverbs 3:10; Matthew 6:26; 13:30; Luke 12:18).
•AGRIPPA I. The Grandson Of Herod The Great, And Son Of Aristobulus And Bernice. The Roman Emperor Caligula Made Him
Governor First Of The Territories Of Philip, Then Of The Tetrarchy Of Lysanias, With The Title Of King ("King Herod"), And Finally Of That Of Antipas, Who Was Banished, And Of Samaria And Judea. Thus He Became Ruler Over The Whole Of Palestine. He Was A Persecutor Of The Early Christians. He Slew James, And Imprisoned Peter (Acts 12:1-4). He Died At Caesarea, Being "Eaten Of Worms" (Acts 12:23), A.D. 44. (Comp. Josephus, Ant. Xix. 8.)
•AGRIPPA II. Son Of The Foregoing, Was Born At Rome, A.D. 27. He Was The Brother Of Bernice And Drusilla. The Emperor Claudius (A.D. 48) Invested Him With The Office Of Superintendent Of The Temple Of Jerusalem, And Made Him Governor (A.D. 50) Of Chalcis. He Was Afterwards Raised To The Rank Of King, And Made Governor Over The Tetrarchy Of Philip And Lysanias (Acts 25:13; 26:2, 7). It Was Before Him That Paul Delivered (A.D. 59) His Speech Recorded In Acts 26. His Private Life Was Very Profligate. He Died (The Last Of His Race) At Rome, At The Age Of About Seventy Years, A.D. 100.
•AGUE the translation in Leviticus 26:16 (R.V., "fever") of the Hebrew word kaddah'ath, meaning "kindling", i.e., an inflammatory or burning fever. In Deuteronomy 28:22 the word is rendered "fever."
•AGUR gatherer; the collector, mentioned as author of the sayings in Proverbs 30. Nothing is known of him beyond what is there recorded.
•AH! An Exclamation Of Sorrow Or Regret (Psalm 35:25; Isaiah 1:4, 24; Jeremiah 1:6; 22:18; Mark 15:29).
•AHA! An Exclamation Of Ridicule (Psalm 35:21; 40:15; 70:3). In Isaiah 44:16 It Signifies Joyful Surprise, As Also In Job 39:25, R.V.
•AHAB father's brother. (1.) The son of Omri, whom he succeeded as the seventh king of Israel. His history is recorded in 1 Kings 16-22. His wife was Jezebel (q.v.), who exercised a very evil influence over him. To the calf-worship introduced by Jeroboam he added the worship of Baal. He was severely admonished by Elijah (q.v.) for his wickedness. His anger was on this account kindled against the prophet, and he sought to kill him. He undertook three campaigns against Ben-hadad II., king of Damascus. In the first two, which were defensive, he gained a complete victory over Ben-hadad, who fell into his hands, and was afterwards released on the condition of his restoring all the cities of Israel he then held, and granting
certain other concessions to Ahab. After three years of peace, for some cause Ahab renewed war (1 Kings 22:3) with Ben-hadad by assaulting the city of Ramoth-gilead, although the prophet Micaiah warned him that he would not succeed, and that the 400 false prophets who encouraged him were only leading him to his ruin. Micaiah was imprisoned for thus venturing to dissuade Ahab from his purpose. Ahab went into the battle disguised, that he might if possible escape the notice of his enemies; but an arrow from a bow "drawn at a venture" pierced him, and though stayed up in his chariot for a time he died towards evening, and Elijah's prophecy (1 Kings 21:19) was fulfilled. He reigned twenty-three years. Because of his idolatry, lust, and covetousness, Ahab is referred to as pre-eminently the type of a wicked king (2 Kings 8:18; 2 Chronicles 22:3; Micah 6:16).
(2.) A false prophet referred to by Jeremiah (Jeremiah 29:21), of whom nothing further is known.
•AHASUERUS There are three kings designated by this name in Scripture. (1.) The father of Darius the Mede, mentioned in Daniel 9:1. This was probably the Cyaxares I. known by this name in profane history, the king of Media and the conqueror of Nineveh.
(2.) The king mentioned in Ezra 4:6, probably the Cambyses of profane history, the son and successor of Cyrus (B.C. 529).
(3.) The son of Darius Hystaspes, the king named in the Book of Esther. He ruled over the kingdoms of Persia, Media, and Babylonia, "from India to Ethiopia." This was in all probability the Xerxes of profane history, who succeeded his father Darius (B.C. 485). In the LXX. version of the Book of Esther the name Artaxerxes occurs for Ahasuerus. He reigned for twenty-one years (B.C. 486-465). He invaded Greece with an army, it is said, of more than 2,000,000 soldiers, only 5,000 of whom returned with him. Leonidas, with his famous 300, arrested his progress at the Pass of Thermopylae, and then he was defeated disastrously by Themistocles at Salamis. It was after his return from this invasion that Esther was chosen as his queen.
•AHAVA water, the river (Ezra 8:21) by the banks of which the Jewish exiles assembled under Ezra when about to return to Jerusalem from Babylon. In all probability this was one of the streams of Mesopotamia which flowed into the Euphrates somewhere in the north-west of
Babylonia. It has, however, been supposed to be the name of a place (Ezra 8:15) now called Hit, on the Euphrates, east of Damascus.
•AHAZ possessor. (1.) A grandson of Jonathan (1 Chronicles 8:35; 9:42).
(2.) The son and successor of Jotham, king of Judah (2 Kings 16; Isaiah 7-9; 2 Chronicles 28). He gave himself up to a life of wickedness and idolatry. Notwithstanding the remonstrances and warnings of Isaiah, Hosea, and Micah, he appealed for help against Rezin, king of Damascus, and Pekah, king of Israel, who threatened Jerusalem, to Tiglath-pileser, the king of Assyria, to the great injury of his kingdom and his own humilating subjection to the Assyrians (2 Kings 16:7, 9; 15:29). He also introduced among his people many heathen and idolatrous customs (Isaiah 8:19; 38:8; 2 Kings 23:12). He died at the age of thirty-five years, after reigning sixteen years (B.C. 740-724), and was succeeded by his son Hezekiah. Because of his wickedness he was "not brought into the sepulchre of the kings."
•AHAZIAH held by Jehovah. (1.) The son and successor of Ahab. He followed the counsels of his mother Jezebel, and imitated in wickedness the ways of his father. In his reign the Moabites revolted from under his authority (2 Kings 3:5-7). He united with Jehoshaphat in an attempt to revive maritime trade by the Red Sea, which proved a failure (2 Chronicles 20:35-37). His messengers, sent to consult the God of Ekron regarding his recovery from the effects of a fall from the roof-gallery of his palace, were met on the way by Elijah, who sent them back to tell the king that he would never rise from his bed (1 Kings 22:51; 2 Kings 1:18).
(2.) The son of Joram, or Jehoram, and sixth king of Judah. Called Jehoahaz (2 Chronicles 21:17; 25:23), and Azariah (2 Chronicles 22:6). Guided by his idolatrous mother Athaliah, his reign was disastrous (2 Kings 8:24-29; 9:29). He joined his uncle Jehoram, king of Israel, in an expedition against Hazael, king of Damascus; but was wounded at the pass of Gur when attempting to escape, and had strength only to reach Megiddo, where he died (2 Kings 9:22-28). He reigned only one year.
•AHIAM mother's brother, one of David's thirty heroes (2 Samuel 23:33; 1 Chronicles 11:35).
•AHIEZER brother of help; i.e., "helpful." (1.) The chief of the tribe of Dan at the time of the Exodus (Numbers 1:12; 2:25; 10:25).
(2.) The chief of the Benjamite slingers that repaired to David at Ziklag (1 Chronicles 12:3).
•AHIHUD brother (i.e., "friend") of union. (1.) A son of Bela, the son of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 8:7).
(2.) Name different in Hebrew, meaning brother of Judah. Chief of the tribe of Asher; one of those appointed by Moses to superintend the division of Canaan among the tribe (Numbers 34:27).
•AHIJAH brother (i.e., "friend") of Jehovah. (1.) One of the sons of Bela (1 Chronicles 8:7, R.V.). In A.V. called "Ahiah."
(2.) One of the five sons of Jerahmeel, who was great-grandson of Judah (1 Chronicles 2:25).
(3.) Son of Ahitub (1 Samuel 14:3, 18), Ichabod's brother; the same probably as Ahimelech, who was high priest at Nob in the reign of Saul (1 Samuel 22:11). Some, however, suppose that Ahimelech was the brother of Ahijah, and that they both officiated as high priests, Ahijah at Gibeah or Kirjath-jearim, and Ahimelech at Nob.
(4.) A Pelonite, one of David's heroes (1 Chronicles 11:36); called also Eliam (2 Samuel 23:34).
(5.) A Levite having charge of the sacred treasury in the temple (1 Chronicles 26:20).
(6.) One of Solomon's secretaries (1 Kings 4:3).
(7.) A prophet of Shiloh (1 Kings 11:29; 14:2), called the "Shilonite," in the days of Rehoboam. We have on record two of his remarkable prophecies, 1 Kings 11:31-39, announcing the rending of the ten tribes from Solomon; and 1 Kings 14:6-16, delivered to Jeroboam's wife, foretelling the death of Abijah the king's son, the destruction of Jeroboam's house, and the captivity of Israel "beyond the river." Jeroboam bears testimony to the high esteem in which he was held as a prophet of God (1 Kings 14:2,3).
•AHIKAM brother of support = helper, one of the five whom Josiah sent to consult the prophetess Huldah in connection with the discovery of the book of the law (2 Kings 22:12-14; 2 Chronicles 34:20). He was the son of Shaphan, the royal secretary, and the father of Gedaliah, governor of Judea after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians (2 Kings 25:22; Jeremiah 40:5-16; 43:6). On one occasion he protected Jeremiah against the fury of Jehoiakim (Jeremiah 26:24). It was in the chamber of another son (Germariah) of Shaphan that Baruch read in the ears of all the people Jeremiah's roll.
•AHIMAAZ brother of anger = irascible. (1.) The father Ahinoam, the wife of Saul (1 Samuel 14:50).
(2.) The son and successor of Zadok in the office of high priest (1 Chronicles 6:8, 53). On the occasion of the revolt of Absalom he remained faithful to David, and was of service to him in conveying to him tidings of the proceedings of Absalom in Jerusalem (2 Samuel 15:24-37; 17:15-21). He was swift of foot, and was the first to carry to David tidings of the defeat of Absalom, although he refrained, from delicacy of feeling, from telling him of his death (2 Samuel 18:19-33).
•AHIMAN brother of a gift = liberal. (1.) One of the three giant Anakim brothers whom Caleb and the spies saw in Mount Hebron (Numbers 13:22) when they went in to explore the land. They were afterwards driven out and slain (Joshua 15:14; Judges 1:10).
(2.) One of the guardians of the temple after the Exile (1 Chronicles 9:17).
•AHIMELECH brother of the king, the son of Ahitub and father of Abiathar (1 Samuel 22:20-23). He descended from Eli in the line of Ithamar. In 1 Chronicles 18:16 he is called Abimelech, and is probably the same as Ahiah (1 Samuel 14:3, 18). He was the twelfth high priest, and officiated at Nob, where he was visited by David (to whom and his companions he gave five loaves of the showbread) when he fled from Saul (1 Samuel 21:1-9). He was summoned into Saul's presence, and accused, on the information of Doeg the Edomite, of disloyalty because of his kindness to David; whereupon the king commanded that he, with the other priests who stood beside him (86 in all), should be put to death. This sentence was carried into execution by Doeg in the most cruel manner (1 Samuel 22:9-23). Possibly Abiathar had a son also called Ahimelech, or the
two names, as some think, may have been accidentally transposed in 2 Samuel 8:17; 1 Chronicles 18:16, marg.; 24:3, 6, 31.
•AHINADAB brother of liberality = liberal, one of the twelve commissariat officers appointed by Solomon in so many districts of his kingdom to raise supplies by monthly rotation for his household. He was appointed to the district of Mahanaim (1 Kings 4:14), east of Jordan.
•AHINOAM brother of pleasantness = pleasant. (1.) The daughter of Ahimaaz, and wife of Saul (1 Samuel 14:50).
(2.) A Jezreelitess, the first wife of David (1 Samuel 25:43; 27:3). She was the mother of Amnon (2 Samuel 3:2). (See 1 Samuel 30:5, 18; 2 Samuel 2:2.)
•AHIO brotherly. (1.) One of the sons of Beriah (1 Chronicles 8:14).
(2.) One of the sons of Jehiel the Gibeonite (1 Chronicles 8:31; 9:37).
(3.) One of the sons of Abinadab the Levite. While Uzzah went by the side of the ark, he walked before it guiding the oxen which drew the cart on which it was carried, after having brought it from his father's house in Gibeah (1 Chronicles 13:7; 2 Samuel 6:3, 4).
•AHIRA brother of evil = unlucky, or my brother is friend, chief of the tribe of Naphtali at the Exodus (Numbers 1:15; 2:29).
•AHISHAR brother of song = singer, the officer who was "over the household" of Solomon (1 Kings 4:6).
•AHITHOPHEL brother of insipidity or impiety, a man greatly renowned for his sagacity among the Jews. At the time of Absalom's revolt he deserted David (Psalm 41:9; 55:12-14) and espoused the cause of Absalom (2 Samuel 15:12). David sent his old friend Hushai back to Absalom, in order that he might counteract the counsel of Ahithophel (2 Samuel 15:31-37). This end was so far gained that Ahithophel saw he had no longer any influence, and accordingly he at once left the camp of Absalom and returned to Giloh, his native place, where, after arranging his wordly affairs, he hanged himself, and was buried in the sepulchre of his fathers (2 Samuel 17:1-23). He was the type of Judas (Psalm 41:9).
•AHITUB brother of goodness = good. (1.) The son of Phinehas. On the death of his grandfather Eli he succeeded to the office of high priest, and was himself succeeded by his son Ahijah (1 Samuel 14:3; 22:9, 11, 12, 20).
(2.) The father of Zadok, who was made high priest by Saul after the extermination of the family of Ahimelech (1 Chronicles 6:7, 8; 2 Samuel 8:17).
•AHLAB fatness, a town of Asher lying within the unconquered Phoenician border (Judges 1:31), north-west of the Sea of Galilee; commonly identified with Giscala, now el-Jish.
•AHOAH brotherly, one of the sons of Bela, the son of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 8:4). He is also called Ahiah (ver. 7) and Iri (1 Chronicles 7:7). His descendants were called Ahohites (2 Samuel 23:9, 28).
•AHOHITE an epithet applied to Dodo, one of Solomon's captains (1 Chronicles 27:4); to his son Eleazar, one of David's three mightiest heroes (2 Samuel 23:9; 1 Chronicles 11:12); and to Zalmon, one of the thirty (2 Samuel 23:28; 1 Chronicles 11:29), from their descent from Ahoah.
•AHOLAH she has her own tent, a name used by Ezekiel (23:4, 5, 36, 44) as a symbol of the idolatry of the kingdom of Israel. This kingdom is described as a lewdwoman, an adulteress, given up to the abominations and idolatries of the Egyptians and Assyrians. Because of her crimes, she was
carried away captive, and ceased to be a kingdom. (Comp. Psalm 78:67-69; 1 Kings 12:25-33; 2 Chronicles 11:13-16.)
•AHOLIAB tent of the father, an artist of the tribe of Dan, appointed to the work of preparing materials for the tabernacle (Exodus 31:6; 35:34; 36:1, 2; 38:23).
•AHOLIBAH my tent is in her, the name of an imaginary harlot, applied symbolically to Jerusalem, because she had abandoned the worship of the true God and given herself up to the idolatries of foreign nations. (Ezekiel 23:4, 11, 22, 36, 44).
•AHOLIBAMAH tent of the height, the name given to Judith, the daughter of Beeri = Anah (Genesis 26:34; 36:2), when she became the wife of Esau. A district among the mountains of Edom, probably near Mount Hor, was called after her name, or it may be that she received her name from the district. From her descended three tribes of Edomites, founded by her three sons.
•AI ruins. (1.) One of the royal cities of the Canaanites (Joshua 10:1; Genesis 12:8; 13:3). It was the scene of Joshua's defeat, and afterwards of his victory. It was the second Canaanite city taken by Israel (Joshua 7:2-5; 8:1-29). It lay rebuilt and inhibited by the Benjamites (Ezra 2:28; Nehemiah 7:32; 11:31). It lay to the east of Bethel, "beside Beth-aven." The spot which is most probably the site of this ancient city is Haiyan, 2 miles east from Bethel. It lay up the Wady Suweinit, a steep, rugged valley, extending from the Jordan valley to Bethel.
(2.) A city in the Ammonite territory (Jeremiah 49:3). Some have thought that the proper reading of the word is Ar (Isaiah 15:1).
•AIJELETH SHAHAR hind of the dawn, a name found in the title of Psalm 22. It is probably the name of some song or tune to the measure of which the psalm was to be chanted. Some, however, understand by the name some instrument of music, or an allegorical allusion to the subject of the psalm.
•AIR the atmosphere, as opposed to the higher regions of the sky (1 Thessalonians 4:17; Revelation 9:2; 16:17). This word occurs once as the rendering of the Hebrew ruah (Job 41:16); elsewhere it is the rendering of shamaiyim, usually translated "heavens."
The expression "to speak into the air" (1 Corinthians 14:9) is a proverb denoting to speak in vain, as to "beat the air" (1 Corinthians 9:26) denotes to labour in vain.
•AJALON and Aij'alon, place of deer. (1.) A town and valley originally assigned to the tribe of Dan, from which, however, they could not drive the Amorites (Judges 1:35). It was one of the Levitical cities given to the Kohathites (1 Chronicles 6:69). It was not far from Beth-shemesh (2 Chronicles 28:18). It was the boundary between the kingdoms of Judah and Israel, and is frequently mentioned in Jewish history (2 Chronicles 11:10; 1 Samuel 14:31; 1 Chronicles 8:13). With reference to the valley named after the town, Joshua uttered the celebrated command, "Sun, stand thou still on Gibeon; and thou, Moon, in the valley of Ajalon" (Joshua 10:12). It has been identified as the modern Yalo, at the foot of the Beth-horon pass (q.v.). In the Tell Amarna letters Adoni-zedek (q.v.) speaks of the destruction of the "city of Ajalon" by the invaders, and describes himself as "afflicted, greatly afflicted" by the calamities that had come on the land, urging the king of Egypt to hasten to his help.
(2.) A city in the tribe of Zebulun (Judges 12:12), the modern Jalun, three miles north of Cabul.
•AKKUB (another form of Jacob). (1.) The head of one of the families of Nethinim (Ezra 2:45).
(2.) A Levite who kept the gate of the temple after the return from Babylon (1 Chronicles 9:17; Ezra 2:42; Nehemiah 7:45).
(3.) A descendant of David (1 Chronicles 3:24).
•AKRABBIM scorpions, probably the general name given to the ridge containing the pass between the south of the Dead Sea and Zin, es-Sufah, by which there is an ascent to the level of the land of Palestine. Scorpions are said to abound in this whole district, and hence the name (Numbers 34:4). It is called "Maaleh-acrabbim" in Joshua 15:3, and "the ascent of Akrabbim" in Numbers 34:4.
•ALABASTER occurs only in the New Testament in connection with the box of "ointment of spikenard very precious," with the contents of which a woman anointed the head of Jesus as he sat at supper in the house of Simon the leper (Matthew 26:7; Mark 14:3; Luke 7:37). These boxes were made from a stone found near Alabastron in Egypt, and from this circumstance the Greeks gave them the name of the city where they were made. The name was then given to the stone of which they were made; and finally to all perfume vessels, of whatever material they were formed. The woman "broke" the vessel; i.e., she broke off, as was usually done, the long and narrow neck so as to reach the contents. This stone resembles marble, but is softer in its texture, and hence very easily wrought into boxes. Mark says (14:5) that this box of ointment was worth more than 300 pence, i.e., denarii, each of the value of sevenpence halfpenny of our money, and therefore worth about 10 pounds. But if we take the denarius as the day's wage of a labourer (Matthew 20:2), say two shillings of our money, then the whole would be worth about 30 pounds, so costly was Mary's offering.
•ALAMOTH virgins, a musical term (1 Chronicles 15:20), denoting that the psalm which bears this inscription (Psalm 46) was to be sung by soprano or female voices.
•ALARM a particular quivering sound of the silver trumpets to give warning to the Hebrews on their journey through the wilderness (Numbers 10:5, 6), a call to arms, or a war-note (Jeremiah 4:19; 49:2; Zephaniah 1:16).
•ALEMETH covering. (1.) One of the nine sons of Becher, the son of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 7:8).
(2.) One of the sons of Jehoadah, or Jarah, son of Ahaz (1 Chronicles 8:36).
(3.) A sacerdotal city of Benjamin (1 Chronicles 6:60), called also Almon (Joshua 21:18), now Almit, a mile north-east of the ancient Anathoth.
•ALEXANDER man-defender. (1.) A relative of Annas the high priest, present when Peter and John were examined before the Sanhedrim (Acts 4:6).
(2.) A man whose father, Simon the Cyrenian, bore the cross of Christ (Mark 15:21).
(3.) A Jew of Ephesus who took a prominent part in the uproar raised there by the preaching of Paul (Acts 19:33). The Jews put him forward to plead their cause before the mob. It was probably intended that he should show that he and the other Jews had no sympathy with Paul any more than the Ephesians had. It is possible that this man was the same as the following.
(4.) A coppersmith who, with Hymenaeus and others, promulgated certain heresies regarding the resurrection (1 Timothy 1:19; 2 Timothy 4:14), and made shipwreck of faith and of a good conscience. Paul excommunicated him (1 Timothy 1:20; comp. 1 Corinthians 5:5).
•ALEXANDER THE GREAT the king of Macedonia, the great conqueror; probably represented in Daniel by the "belly of brass" (Daniel 2:32), and the leopard and the he-goat (7:6; 11:3,4). He succeeded his father Philip, and died at the age of thirty-two from the effects of intemperance, B.C. 323. His empire was divided among his four generals.
•ALEXANDRIA the ancient metropolis of Lower Egypt, so called from its founder, Alexander the Great (about B.C. 333). It was for a long period the greatest of existing cities, for both Nineveh and Babylon had been destroyed, and Rome had not yet risen to greatness. It was the residence of the kings of Egypt for 200 years. It is not mentioned in the Old Testament, and only incidentally in the New. Apollos, eloquent and mighty in the Scriptures, was a native of this city (Acts 18:24). Many Jews from Alexandria were in Jerusalem, where they had a synagogue (Acts 6:9), at the time of Stephen's martyrdom. At one time it is said that as many as 10,000 Jews resided in this city. It possessed a famous library of 700,000 volumes, which was burned by the Saracens (A.D. 642). It was here that the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek. This is called the Septuagint version, from the tradition that seventy learned men were
engaged in executing it. It was, however, not all translated at one time. It was begun B.C. 280, and finished about B.C. 200 or 150. (See VERSION.)
•ALGUM (2 Chronicles 2:8; 9:10,11), the same as almug (1 Kings 10:11).
•ALIEN a foreigner, or person born in another country, and therefore not entitled to the rights and privileges of the country where he resides. Among the Hebrews there were two classes of aliens.
(1.) Those who were strangers generally, and who owned no landed property.
(2.) Strangers dwelling in another country without being naturalized (Leviticus 22:10; Psalm 39:12).
Both of these classes were to enjoy, under certain conditions, the same rights as other citizens (Leviticus 19:33, 34; Deuteronomy 10:19). They might be naturalized and permitted to enter into the congregation of the Lord by submitting to circumcision and abandoning idolatry (Deuteronomy 23:3-8).
This term is used (Ephesians 2:12) to denote persons who have no interest in Christ.
•ALLEGORY used only in Galatians 4:24, where the apostle refers to the history of Isaac the free-born, and Ishmael the slave-born, and makes use of it allegorically.
Every parable is an allegory. Nathan (2 Samuel 12:1-4) addresses David in an allegorical narrative. In the eightieth Psalm there is a beautiful allegory: "Thou broughtest a vine out of Egypt," etc. In Ecclesiastes 12:2-6, there is a striking allegorical description of old age.
•ALLELUIA the Greek form (Revelation 19:1, 3, 4, 6) of the Hebrew Hallelujah = Praise ye Jehovah, which begins or ends several of the psalms (106, 111, 112, 113, etc.).
•ALLIANCE a treaty between nations, or between individuals, for their mutual advantage.
Abraham formed an alliance with some of the Canaanitish princes (Genesis 14:13), also with Abimelech (21:22-32). Joshua and the elders of Israel entered into an alliance with the Gibeonites (Joshua 9:3-27). When the
Israelites entered Palestine they were forbidden to enter into alliances with the inhabitants of the country (Leviticus 18:3, 4; 20:22, 23).
Solomon formed a league with Hiram (1 Kings 5:12). This "brotherly covenant" is referred to 250 years afterwards (Amos 1:9). He also appears to have entered into an alliance with Pharaoh (1 Kings 10:28, 29).
In the subsequent history of the kingdoms of Judah and Israel various alliances were formed between them and also with neighbouring nations at different times.
From patriarchal times a covenant of alliance was sealed by the blood of some sacrificial victim. The animal sacrificed was cut in two (except birds), and between these two parts the persons contracting the alliance passed (Genesis 15:10). There are frequent allusions to this practice (Jeremiah 34:18). Such alliances were called "covenants of salt" (Numbers 18:19; 2 Chronicles 13:5), salt being the symbol of perpetuity. A pillar was set up as a memorial of the alliance between Laban and Jacob (Genesis 31:52). The Jews throughout their whole history attached great importance to fidelity to their engagements. Divine wrath fell upon the violators of them (Joshua 9:18; 2 Samuel 21:1, 2; Ezekiel 17:16).
•ALLON oak. (1.) The expression in the Authorized Version of Joshua 19:33, "from Allon to Zaanannim," is more correctly rendered in the Revised Version, "from the oak in Zaanannim." The word denotes some remarkable tree which stood near Zaanannim, and which served as a landmark.
(2.) The son of Jedaiah, of the family of the Simeonites, who expelled the Hamites from the valley of Gedor (1 Chronicles 4:37).
•ALLON-BACHUTH oak of weeping, a tree near Bethel, at the spot where Deborah, Rebekah's nurse, was buried (Genesis 35:8). Large trees, from their rarity in the plains of Palestine, were frequently designated as landmarks. This particular tree was probably the same as the "palm tree of Deborah" (Judges 4:5).
•ALMODAD immeasurable, the first named of the sons of Joktan (Genesis 10:26), the founder of an Arabian tribe.
•ALMON hidden, one of the sacerdotal cities of Benjamin (Joshua 21:18), called also Alemeth (1 Chronicles 6:60).
•ALMOND a native of Syria and Palestine. In form, blossoms, and fruit it resembles the peach tree. Its blossoms are of a very pale pink colour, and appear before its leaves. Its Hebrew name, shaked, signifying "wakeful, hastening," is given to it on account of its putting forth its blossoms so early, generally in February, and sometimes even in January. In Ecclesiastes 12:5, it is referred to as illustrative, probably, of the haste with which old age comes. There are others, however, who still contend for the old interpretation here. "The almond tree bears its blossoms in the midst of winter, on a naked, leafless stem, and these blossoms (reddish or flesh-coloured in the beginning) seem at the time of their fall exactly like white snow-flakes. In this way the almond blossom is a very fitting symbol of old age, with its silvery hair and its wintry, dry, barren, unfruitful condition." In Jeremiah 1:11 "I see a rod of an almond tree [shaked]...for I will hasten [shaked] my word to perform it" the word is used as an emblem of promptitude. Jacob desired his sons (Genesis 43:11) to take with them into Egypt of the best fruits of the land, almonds, etc., as a present to Joseph, probably because this tree was not a native of Egypt. Aaron's rod yielded almonds (Numbers 17:8; Hebrews 9:4). Moses was directed to make certain parts of the candlestick for the ark of carved work "like unto almonds" (Exodus 25:33, 34). The Hebrew word luz, translated "hazel" in the Authorized Version (Genesis 30:37), is rendered in the Revised Version "almond." It is probable that luz denotes the wild almond, while shaked denotes the cultivated variety.
•ALMS Not found in the Old Testament, but repeatedly in the New. The Mosaic legislation (Leviticus 25:35; Deuteronomy 15:7) tended to promote a spirit of charity, and to prevent the occurrence of destitution among the people. Such passages as these, Psalm 41:1; 112:9; Proverbs
14:31; Isaiah 10:2; Amos 2:7; Jeremiah 5:28; Ezekiel 22:29, would also naturally foster the same benevolent spirit.
In the time of our Lord begging was common (Mark 10:46; Acts 3:2). The Pharisees were very ostentatious in their almsgivings (Matthew 6:2). The spirit by which the Christian ought to be actuated in this duty is set forth in 1 John 3:17. A regard to the state of the poor and needy is enjoined as a Christian duty (Luke 3:11; 6:30; Matthew 6:1; Acts 9:36; 10:2, 4), a duty which was not neglected by the early Christians (Luke 14:13; Acts 20:35; Galatians 2:10; Romans 15:25-27; 1 Corinthians 16:1-4). They cared not only for the poor among themselves, but contributed also to the necessities of those at a distance (Acts 11:29; 24:17; 2 Corinthians 9:12). Our Lord and his attendants showed an example also in this (John 13:29).
In modern times the "poor-laws" have introduced an element which modifies considerably the form in which we may discharge this Christian duty.
•ALMUG (1 Kings 10:11, 12) = algum (2 Chronicles 2:8; 9:10, 11), in the Hebrew occurring only in the plural almuggim (indicating that the wood was brought in planks), the name of a wood brought from Ophir to be used in the building of the temple, and for other purposes. Some suppose it to have been the white sandal-wood of India, the Santalum album of botanists, a native of the mountainous parts of the Malabar coasts. It is a fragrant wood, and is used in China for incense in idol-worship. Others, with some probability, think that it was the Indian red sandal-wood, the pterocarpus santalinus, a heavy, fine-grained wood, the Sanscrit name of which is valguka. It is found on the Coromandel coast and in Ceylon.
•ALOES (Hebrews 'ahalim), a fragrant wood (Numbers 24:6; Psalm 45:8; Proverbs 7:17; Cant. 4:14), the Aquilaria agallochum of botanists, or, as some suppose, the costly gum or perfume extracted from the wood. It is found in China, Siam, and Northern India, and grows to the height sometimes of 120 feet. This species is of great rarity even in India. There is another and more common species, called by Indians aghil, whence Europeans have given it the name of Lignum aquile, or eagle-wood. Aloewood was used by the Egyptians for embalming dead bodies. Nicodemus brought it (pounded aloe-wood) to embalm the body of Christ (John 19:39); but whether this was the same as that mentioned elsewhere is uncertain.
The bitter aloes of the apothecary is the dried juice of the leaves Aloe vulgaris.
•ALPHAEUS (1.) The father of James the Less, the apostle and writer of the epistle (Matthew 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13), and the husband of Mary (John 19:25). The Hebrew form of this name is Cleopas, or Clopas (q.v.).
(2.) The father of Levi, or Matthew (Mark 2:14).
•ALTAR (Hebrews mizbe'ah, from a word meaning "to slay"), any structure of earth (Exodus 20:24) or unwrought stone (20:25) on which sacrifices were offered. Altars were generally erected in conspicuous places (Genesis 22:9; Ezekiel 6:3; 2 Kings 23:12; 16:4; 23:8; Acts 14:13). The word is used in Hebrews 13:10 for the sacrifice offered upon it--the sacrifice Christ offered.
Paul found among the many altars erected in Athens one bearing the inscription, "To the unknown God" (Acts 17:23), or rather "to an [i.e., some] unknown God." The reason for this inscription cannot now be accurately determined. It afforded the apostle the occasion of proclaiming the gospel to the "men of Athens."
The first altar we read of is that erected by Noah (Genesis 8:20). Altars were erected by Abraham (Genesis 12:7; 13:4; 22:9), by Isaac (Genesis 26:25), by Jacob (33:20; 35:1, 3), and by Moses (Exodus 17:15, "Jehovah-nissi").
In the tabernacle, and afterwards in the temple, two altars were erected.
(1.) The altar of burnt offering (Exodus 30:28), called also the "brasen altar" (Exodus 39:39) and "the table of the Lord" (Malachi 1:7).
This altar, as erected in the tabernacle, is described in Exodus 27:1-8. It was a hollow square, 5 cubits in length and in breadth, and 3 cubits in height. It was made of shittim wood, and was overlaid with plates of brass. Its corners were ornamented with "horns" (Exodus 29:12; Leviticus 4:18).
In Exodus 27:3 the various utensils appertaining to the altar are enumerated. They were made of brass. (Comp. 1 Samuel 2:13, 14; Leviticus 16:12; Numbers 16:6, 7.)
In Solomon's temple the altar was of larger dimensions (2 Chronicles 4:1. Comp. 1 Kings 8:22, 64; 9:25), and was made wholly of brass, covering a structure of stone or earth. This altar was renewed by Asa (2 Chronicles 15:8). It was removed by Ahaz (2 Kings 16:14), and "cleansed" by Hezekiah, in the latter part of whose reign it was rebuilt. It was finally broken up and carried away by the Babylonians (Jeremiah 52:17).
After the return from captivity it was re-erected (Ezra 3:3, 6) on the same place where it had formerly stood. (Comp. 1 Macc. 4:47.) When Antiochus Epiphanes pillaged Jerusalem the altar of burnt offering was taken away.
Again the altar was erected by Herod, and remained in its place till the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans (70 A.D.).
The fire on the altar was not permitted to go out (Leviticus 6:9).
In the Mosque of Omar, immediately underneath the great dome, which occupies the site of the old temple, there is a rough projection of the natural rock, of about 60 feet in its extreme length, and 50 in its greatest breadth, and in its highest part about 4 feet above the general pavement. This rock seems to have been left intact when Solomon's temple was built. It was in all probability the site of the altar of burnt offering. Underneath this rock is a cave, which may probably have been the granary of Araunah's threshing-floor (1 Chronicles 21:22).
(2.) The altar of incense (Exodus 30:1-10), called also "the golden altar" (39:38; Numbers 4:11), stood in the holy place "before the vail that is by the ark of the testimony." On this altar sweet spices were continually burned with fire taken from the brazen altar. The morning and the evening services were commenced by the high priest offering incense on this altar. The burning of the incense was a type of prayer (Psalm 141:2; Revelation 5:8; 8:3, 4).
This altar was a small movable table, made of acacia wood overlaid with gold (Exodus 37:25, 26). It was 1 cubit in length and breadth, and 2 cubits in height.
In Solomon's temple the altar was similar in size, but was made of cedar-wood (1 Kings 6:20; 7:48) overlaid with gold. In Ezekiel 41:22 it is called "the altar of wood." (Comp. Exodus 30:1-6.)
In the temple built after the Exile the altar was restored. Antiochus Epiphanes took it away, but it was afterwards restored by Judas Maccabaeus (1 Macc. 1:23; 4:49). Among the trophies carried away by Titus on the destruction of Jerusalem the altar of incense is not found, nor is any mention made of it in Hebrews 9. It was at this altar Zacharias ministered when an angel appeared to him (Luke 1:11). It is the only altar which appears in the heavenly temple (Isaiah 6:6; Revelation 8:3,4).
•ALTASCHITH destroy not, the title of Psalm 57, 58, 59, and 75. It was probably the name of some song to the melody of which these psalms were to be chanted.
•ALUSH one of the places, the last before Rephidim, at which the Hebrews rested on their way to Sinai (Numbers 33:13, 14). It was probably situated on the shore of the Red Sea.
•AMALEK dweller in a valley, the son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau (Genesis 36:12; 1 Chronicles 1:36); the chief of an Idumean tribe (Genesis 36:16). His mother was a Horite, a tribe whose territory the descendants of Esau had seized.
•AMALEKITE a tribe that dwelt in Arabia Petraea, between the Dead Sea and the Red Sea. They were not the descendants of Amalek, the son of Eliphaz, for they existed in the days of Abraham (Genesis 14:7). They were probably a tribe that migrated from the shores of the Persian Gulf and settled in Arabia. "They dwelt in the land of the south...from Havilah until thou comest to Shur" (Numbers 13:29; 1 Samuel 15:7). They were a pastoral, and hence a nomadic race. Their kings bore the hereditary name of Agag (Numbers 24:7; 1 Samuel 15:8). They attempted to stop the Israelites when they marched through their territory (Deuteronomy 25:18), attacking them at Rephidim (Exodus 17:8-13; comp. Deuteronomy 25:17; 1 Samuel 15:2). They afterwards attacked the Israelites at Hormah (Numbers 14:45). We read of them subsequently as in league with the Moabites (Judges 3:13) and the Midianites (Judges 6:3). Saul finally desolated their territory and destroyed their power (1 Samuel 14:48; 15:3), and David recovered booty from them (1 Samuel 30:18-20). In the Babylonian inscriptions they are called Sute, in those of Egypt Sittiu, and the Amarna tablets include them under the general name of Khabbati, or "plunderers."
•AMANA perennial. (1.) The Hebrew margin of 2 Kings 5:12 gives this as another reading of Abana (q.v.), a stream near Damascus.
(2.) A mountain (Cant. 4:8), probably the southern summit of Anti-Libanus, at the base of which are the sources of the Abana.
•AMARIAH said by Jehovah. (1.) One of the descendants of Aaron by Eleazar (1 Chronicles 6:7,52). He was probably the last of the high priests
of Eleazar's line prior to the transfer of that office to Eli, of the line of Ithamar.
(2.) A Levite, son of Hebron, of the lineage of Moses (1 Chronicles 23:19; 24:23).
(3.) A "chief priest" who took an active part in the reformation under Jehoshaphat (2 Chronicles 19:11); probably the same as mentioned in 1 Chronicles 6:9.
(4.) 1 Chronicles 6:11; Ezra 7:3. (5.) One of the high priests in the time of Hezekiah (2 Chronicles 31:15). (6.) Zephaniah 1:1. (7.) Nehemiah 11:4. (8.) Nehemiah 10:3. (9.) Ezra 10:42.
•AMASA burden. (1.) The son of Abigail, a sister of king David (1 Chronicles 2:17; 2 Samuel 17:25). He was appointed by David to command the army in room of his cousin Joab (2 Samuel 19:13), who afterwards treacherously put him to death as a dangerous rival (2 Samuel 20:4-12).
(2.) A son of Hadlai, and chief of Ephraim (2 Chronicles 28:12) in the reign of Ahaz.
•AMASAI burdensome. (1.) A Levite, son of Elkanah, of the ancestry of Samuel (1 Chronicles 6:25, 35).
(2.) The leader of a body of men who joined David in the "stronghold," probably of Adullam (1 Chronicles 12:18).
(3.) One of the priests appointed to precede the ark with blowing of trumpets on its removal from the house of Obed-edom (1 Chronicles 15:24).
(4.) The father of a Levite, one of the two Kohathites who took a prominent part at the instance of Hezekiah in the cleansing of the temple (2 Chronicles 29:12).
•AMASHAI the son of Azareel, appointed by Nehemiah to reside at Jerusalem and do the work of the temple (Nehemiah 11:13).
•AMASIAH burden of (i.e., "sustained by") Jehovah, the "son of Zichri, who willingly offered himself unto the Lord," a captain over thousands under Jehoshaphat (2 Chronicles 17:16; comp. Judges 5:9).
•AMAZIAH strengthened by Jehovah. (1.) A Levite, son of Hilkiah, of the descendants of Ethan the Merarite (1 Chronicles 6:45).
(2.) The son and successor of Joash, and eighth king of the separate kingdom of Judah (2 Kings 14:1-4). He began his reign by punishing the murderers of his father (5-7; 2 Chronicles 25:3-5). He was the first to employ a mercenary army of 100,000 Israelite soldiers, which he did in his attempt to bring the Edomites again under the yoke of Judah (2 Chronicles 25:5, 6). He was commanded by a prophet of the Lord to send back the mercenaries, which he did (2 Chronicles 25:7-10, 13), much to their annoyance. His obedience to this command was followed by a decisive victory over the Edomites (2 Chronicles 25:14-16). Amaziah began to worship some of the idols he took from the Edomites, and this was his ruin, for he was vanquished by Joash, king of Israel, whom he challenged to battle. The disaster he thus brought upon Judah by his infatuation in proclaiming war against Israel probably occasioned the conspiracy by which he lost his life (2 Kings 14:8-14, 19). He was slain at Lachish, whither he had fled, and his body was brought upon horses to Jerusalem, where it was buried in the royal sepulchre (2 Kings 14:19, 20; 2 Chronicles 25:27, 28).
(3.) A priest of the golden calves at Bethel (Amos 7:10-17).
(4.) The father of Joshah, one of the Simeonite chiefs in the time of Hezekiah (1 Chronicles 4:34).
•AMBASSADOR In the Old Testament the Hebrew word tsir, meaning "one who goes on an errand," is rendered thus (Joshua 9:4; Proverbs 13:17; Isaiah 18:2; Jeremiah 49:14; Obad. 1:1). This is also the rendering of melits, meaning "an interpreter," in 2 Chronicles 32:31; and of malak, a "messenger," in 2 Chronicles 35:21; Isaiah 30:4; 33:7; Ezekiel 17:15. This is the name used by the apostle as designating those who are appointed by God to declare his will (2 Corinthians 5:20; Ephesians 6:20).
The Hebrews on various occasions and for various purposes had recourse to the services of ambassadors, e.g., to contract alliances (Joshua 9:4), to solicit favours (Numbers 20:14), to remonstrate when wrong was done (Judges 11:12), to condole with a young king on the death of his father (2 Samuel 10:2), and to congratulate a king on his accession to the throne (1 Kings 5:1).
To do injury to an ambassador was to insult the king who sent him (2 Samuel 10:5).
•AMBER (Ezekiel 1:4, 27; 8:2. Hebrews , hashmal, rendered by the LXX. elektron, and by the Vulgate electrum), a metal compounded of silver and gold. Some translate the word by "polished brass," others "fine brass," as in Revelation 1:15; 2:18. It was probably the mixture now called electrum. The word has no connection, however, with what is now called amber, which is a gummy substance, reckoned as belonging to the mineral kingdom though of vegetable origin, a fossil resin.
•AMBUSH Joshua at the capture of Ai lay in ambush, and so deceived the inhabitants that he gained an easy victory (Joshua 8:4-26). Shechem was taken in this manner (Judges 9:30-45. Comp. Jeremiah 51:12).
•AMEN This Hebrew word means firm, and hence also faithful (Revelation 3:14). In Isaiah 65:16, the Authorized Version has "the God of truth," which in Hebrew is "the God of Amen." It is frequently used by our Saviour to give emphasis to his words, where it is translated "verily." Sometimes, only, however, in John's Gospel, it is repeated, "Verily, verily." It is used as an epithet of the Lord Jesus Christ (Revelation 3:14).
It is found singly and sometimes doubly at the end of prayers (Psalm 41:13; 72:19; 89:52), to confirm the words and invoke the fulfilment of them. It is used in token of being bound by an oath (Numbers 5:22; Deuteronomy 27:15-26; Nehemiah 5:13; 8:6; 1 Chronicles 16:36). In the
primitive churches it was common for the general audience to say "Amen" at the close of the prayer (1 Corinthians 14:16).
The promises of God are Amen; i.e., they are all true and sure (2 Corinthians 1:20).
•AMETHYST one of the precious stones in the breastplate of the high priest (Exodus 28:19; 39:12), and in the foundation of the New Jerusalem (Revelation 21:20). The ancients thought that this stone had the power of dispelling drunkenness in all who wore or touched it, and hence its Greek name formed from a, "privative," and methuo, "to get drunk." Its Jewish name, ahlamah', was derived by the rabbins from the Hebrew word halam, "to dream," from its supposed power of causing the wearer to dream.
It is a pale-blue crystallized quartz, varying to a dark purple blue. It is found in Persia and India, also in different parts of Europe.
•AMITTAI true, the father of Jonah the prophet, a native of Gath-hepher (2 Kings 14:25; Jonah 1:1).
•AMMAH a cubit, the name of a hill which Joab and Abishai reached as the sun went down, when they were in pursuit of Abner (2 Samuel 2:24). It lay to the east of Gibeon.
•AMMI my people, a name given by Jehovah to the people of Israel (Hos. 2:1, 23. Comp. 1:9; Ezekiel 16:8; Romans 9:25, 26; 1 Peter 2:10).
•AMMIEL people of God. (1.) One of the twelve spies sent by Moses to search the land of Canaan (Numbers 13:12). He was one of the ten who perished by the plague for their unfavourable report (Numbers 14:37).
(2.) The father of Machir of Lo-debar, in whose house Mephibosheth resided (2 Samuel 9:4, 5; 17:27).
(3.) The father of Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah, and afterwards of David (1 Chronicles 3:5). He is called Eliam in 2 Samuel 11:3.
(4.) One of the sons of Obed-edom the Levite (1 Chronicles 26:5).
•AMMIHUD people of glory; i.e., "renowned." (1.) The father of the Ephraimite chief Elishama, at the time of the Exodus (Numbers 1:10; 2:18; 7:48, 53).
(2.) Numbers 34:20. (3.) Numbers 34:28.
(4.) The father of Talmai, king of Geshur, to whom Absalom fled after the murder of Amnon (2 Samuel 13:37).
(5.) The son of Omri, and the father of Uthai (1 Chronicles 9:4).
•AMMINADAB kindred of the prince. (1.) The father of Nahshon, who was chief of the tribe of Judah (Numbers 1:7; 2:3; 7:12, 17; 10:14). His daughter Elisheba was married to Aaron (Exodus 6:23).
(2.) A son of Kohath, the second son of Levi (1 Chronicles 6:22), called also Izhar (2, 18).
(3.) Chief of the 112 descendants of Uzziel the Levite (1 Chronicles 15:10, 11).
•AMMINADIB a person mentioned in Cant. 6:12, whose chariots were famed for their swiftness. It is rendered in the margin "my willing people," and in the Revised Version "my princely people."
•AMMISHADDAI people of the Almighty, the father of Ahiezer, who was chief of the Danites at the time of the Exodus (Numbers 1:12; 2:25). This is one of the few names compounded with the name of God, Shaddai, "Almighty."
•AMMIZABAD people of the giver, the son of Benaiah, who was the third and chief captain of the host under David (1 Chronicles 27:6).
•AMMON another form of the name Ben-ammi, the son of Lot (Genesis 19:38). This name is also used for his posterity (Psalm 83:7).
•AMMONITE the usual name of the descendants of Ammon, the son of Lot (Genesis 19:38). From the very beginning (Deuteronomy 2:16-20) of their history till they are lost sight of (Judges 5:2), this tribe is closely associated with the Moabites (Judges 10:11; 2 Chronicles 20:1; Zephaniah 2:8). Both of these tribes hired Balaam to curse Israel (Deuteronomy 23:4). The Ammonites were probably more of a predatory tribe, moving from place to place, while the Moabites were more settled. They inhabited the country east of the Jordan and north of Moab and the Dead Sea, from which they had expelled the Zamzummims or Zuzims (Deuteronomy 2:20; Genesis 14:5). They are known as the Beni-ammi (Genesis 19:38), Ammi or Ammon being worshipped as their chief God. They were of Semitic origin, and closely related to the Hebrews in blood and language. They showed no kindness to the Israelites when passing through their territory,
and therefore they were prohibited from "entering the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation" (Deuteronomy 23:3). They afterwards became hostile to Israel (Judges 3:13). Jephthah waged war against them, and "took twenty cities with a very great slaughter" (Judges 11:33). They were again signally defeated by Saul (1 Samuel 11:11). David also defeated them and their allies the Syrians (2 Samuel 10:6-14), and took their chief city, Rabbah, with much spoil (2 Samuel 10:14; 12:26-31). The subsequent events of their history are noted in 2 Chronicles 20:25; 26:8; Jeremiah 49:1; Ezekiel 25:3, 6. One of Solomon's wives was Naamah, an Ammonite. She was the mother of Rehoboam (1 Kings 14:31; 2 Chronicles 12:13).
The prophets predicted fearful judgments against the Ammonites because of their hostility to Israel (Zephaniah 2:8; Jeremiah 49:1-6; Ezekiel 25:1-5, 10; Amos 1:13-15).
The national idol worshipped by this people was Molech or Milcom, at whose altar they offered human sacrifices (1 Kings 11:5, 7). The high places built for this idol by Solomon, at the instigation of his Ammonitish wives, were not destroyed till the time of Josiah (2 Kings 23:13).
•AMNON faithful. (1.) One of the sons of Shammai, of the children of Ezra (1 Chronicles 4:20; comp. 17).
(2.) The eldest son of David, by Ahinoam of Jezreel (1 Chronicles 3:1; 2 Samuel 3:2). Absalom caused him to be put to death for his great crime in the matter of Tamar (2 Samuel 13:28, 29).
•AMON builder. (1.) The governor of Samaria in the time of Ahab. The prophet Micaiah was committed to his custody (1 Kings 22:26; 2 Chronicles 18:25).
(2.) The son of Manasseh, and fourteenth king of Judah. He restored idolatry, and set up the images which his father had cast down. Zephaniah (1:4; 3:4, 11) refers to the moral depravity prevailing in this king's reign.
He was assassinated (2 Kings 21:18-26: 2 Chronicles 33:20-25) by his own servants, who conspired against him.
(3.) An Egyptian God, usually depicted with a human body and the head of a ram, referred to in Jeremiah 46:25, where the word "multitudes" in the Authorized Version is more appropriately rendered "Amon" in the Revised Version. In Nah. 3:8 the expression "populous No" of the
Authorized version is rendered in the Revised Version "No-amon." Amon is identified with Ra, the sun-God of Heliopolis.
(4.) Nehemiah 7:59.
•AMORITES highlanders, or hillmen, the name given to the descendants of one of the sons of Canaan (Genesis 14:7), called Amurra or Amurri in the Assyrian and Egyptian inscriptions. On the early Babylonian monuments all Syria, including Palestine, is known as "the land of the Amorites." The southern slopes of the mountains of Judea are called the "mount of the Amorites" (Deuteronomy 1:7, 19, 20). They seem to have originally occupied the land stretching from the heights west of the Dead Sea (Genesis 14:7) to Hebron (13. Comp. 13:8; Deuteronomy 3:8; 4:46-48), embracing "all Gilead and all Bashan" (Deuteronomy 3:10), with the Jordan valley on the east of the river (4:49), the land of the "two kings of the Amorites," Sihon and Og (Deuteronomy 31:4; Joshua 2:10; 9:10). The five kings of the Amorites were defeated with great slaughter by Joshua (10:10). They were again defeated at the waters of Merom by Joshua, who smote them till there were none remaining (Joshua 11:8). It is mentioned as a surprising circumstance that in the days of Samuel there was peace between them and the Israelites (1 Samuel 7:14). The discrepancy supposed to exist between Deuteronomy 1:44 and Numbers 14:45 is explained by the circumstance that the terms "Amorites" and "Amalekites" are used synonymously for the "Canaanites." In the same way we explain the fact that the "Hivites" of Genesis 34:2 are the "Amorites" of 48:22. Comp. Joshua 10:6; 11:19 with 2 Samuel 21:2; also Numbers 14:45 with Deuteronomy 1:44. The Amorites were warlike mountaineers. They are represented on the Egyptian monuments with fair skins, light hair, blue eyes, aquiline noses, and pointed beards. They are supposed to have been men of great stature; their king, Og, is described by Moses as the last "of the remnant of the giants" (Deuteronomy 3:11). Both Sihon and Og were independent kings. Only one word of the Amorite language survives, "Shenir," the name they gave to Mount Hermon (Deuteronomy 3:9).