20 On anatomy (1550) CR XI, 939–46
20 On anatomy (1550)
CR XI, 939–46
Oration given by Jakob Milich, Doctor of Medicine, in announcing the degree of Doctor of Medicine for Paulus Vadianus, for the study of anatomy. Wittenberg, 6 November 15501
Human gatherings have been established for mankind by God's wonderful wisdom for the purpose that one teach the other about God and about the nature of things, and God wants the voice of doctrine to ring out in public among men, good things to be praised and evil ones to be disparaged. He wants mankind to be ruled by those agreeing on correct judgements, and He does not want dispersed and straggling individuals to invent their own beliefs, whose variety overwhelm truth. God is afflicted by insult, and endlessly grieved by mankind. Therefore the assemblies of students and teachers and public meetings are established not only for shaping judgements, but also for curbing and subduing the wantonness and vanity of people's characters. Thus, in order that the young see and hear what kinds of subjects and which arts and masters are approved of by the judgement of the elders, it is the custom to declare our testimony in public. At the same time, orations are also given in these meetings – not out of empty display, but in order to advise the young about what knowledge of arts should be sought and which beliefs are to be avoided, so that God be worshipped in the right way, and also human nature be preserved as joined to the laws and true arts. Therefore the young should not believe that they are gathering for useless spectacles or for games, but for a proper and salutary admonishment. Indeed, we are gathering in the temple by the altar because an oration on good things is a sacrifice most pleasing to God. And at the same time we must join our prayers here that God, the Maker of mankind and the fount of wisdom, protect and guide us, that He Himself dwell willingly among us and indeed that, as the Son of God demands, we be one in Him.
The contemplation of nature is often discussed here, and the scope of the argument exceeds the eloquence of all angels and men, for only then will nature be more properly known, when, in that heavenly school, the Architect shows us the image of the entire workings; therefore we shall discuss a different part elsewhere. But now I shall address the young and urge them to study the first principles of anatomy. Those who support or encourage
1 Jakob Milich was Dean of the faculty of medicine in 1550.
the study of it are truly doing mankind an admirable service. For this wisdom is both useful for morals and necessary for protecting health and driving out diseases. Therefore that wise antiquity was most studious in regard to this discipline.
As you know, natural philosophy has many parts. Some introduction is usually taught in the schools on the elements, on the fixed number of the primary qualities – by which God in His wonderful wisdom has, so to speak, put boundaries around roaming matter – on place, motion, time, the mixed bodies and on the differences of causes. It is necessary to become acquainted with all this introductory matter. However, these things must be taught in order and the deceptions of empty disputations must not be mixed in, such as those ancient ones of Democritus' atoms,2 and many recent ones, such as whether the whole is different from the parts taken together, and others. For, through people's vanity, it happens in this kind of discipline that – leaving behind the necessary matters, because they appeared to be known – far-off subtleties are pursued which are supposed to give rise to admiration because of their novelty, while in truth the moderate contemplation of things that God has made in nature, in which He willed His wisdom to be seen, is by far the greater wisdom than these empty discourses of words, which are of no use in life.
From these beginnings of natural philosophy the young are soon led to the observation of the human body, so that we may begin to recognise ourselves, who are indeed the principal work in this visible nature. And although the sweetness of knowledge in itself attracts good minds, let us nevertheless also be moved by the greatness of the usefulness which is indeed before our eyes. The method of protecting one's health cannot be sought daily from the precepts of the doctors, but in some ways it must be known to individuals because of daily perils. In order to get to know it, it is indeed necessary to know the position, substance, qualities and functions of many parts of the body, and to observe which of them are assisted or harmed by what. This knowledge, however slight, is useful for avoiding many diseases. Often recently originated diseases can even be driven out with philosophical diligence before they take root, while later the doctors apply remedies to them in vain. This cannot be done unless one has some knowledge of the structure of the human body. Often in sudden dangers,
2 Democritus was a Greek philosopher (c. fifth century BC), who propounded that the world was made up of indivisible atoms. His views were influential for the atomistic theories of Epicurus and Lucretius.
accidents befall the orifice of the stomach, which can be prevented easily when noticed in time, but bring death when neglected.
It is evident madness not to be moved by concern for protecting one's life and health, which concern God both enjoins and supports. For He wants humankind to exist and men to be prepared in this mortal life for the eternal fellowship of the heavenly Church. He does not want all men to be annihilated suddenly, but He wants some to be left for the sake of the education, instruction, protection and governing of the young. This will of God should often be reflected upon, both in order that we bear the burdens of life and the universal toils better, and that we assist these fragile bodies with greater diligence for the sake of the will of God and the need of others.
Since this first benefit of the contemplation of the human body is well known, I enter upon the others. The very sight of the structure of many parts in us is the nurse of many virtues. And since the foremost virtue is the recognition of the Maker God, the assent to providence is much strengthened when we contemplate the wonderful skill in the entire construction of man. It is not said at random about this latter that man is a small world, because the mind is the image of God, and man's summit, the brain, nerves and spirit – which govern all actions – reproduce celestial nature; the stomach which produces nourishment is more like earth and water. I reckon that the heart, which is the source of life and life-giving heat, is most rightly compared to the sun. Moreover, the individual parts of the body are so fittingly distributed by locations, and distinguished by material, shape and properties, that we are shown clearly by their order and skill that this nature of things has by no means emerged by chance, but that there is a creating mind that wants evidence of itself to exist in human nature, and wants us to recognise and understand it. It is true that this entire beautiful machine of the world is a temple of God, and that the traces of the Architect are engraved in many parts of it, but even more so man is the temple of God, because the other bodies, being without a mind, do not recognise the skill and the Maker. The human mind recognises the skill and the Maker, and it sees in itself, as the most explicit evidence of God, the notions of numbers and of order, and the distinction of worthy and vile actions, which in the human mind are set apart as if by an eternal wall. It is impossible that such great things are brought together in such a way by chance, out of atoms. And thus often, when I look at man, so to speak, and observe these traces of God in ourselves, I shudder all over my body, and I
grieve that such neglect of God has come upon us, since He has engraved upon us such clear and unconcealed evidence of Himself; the assent to providence would be stronger, and our respect towards God greater, if we beheld this structure often and with attention. Indeed, how much more wonderful is it that the Architect included the most diverse things in man, as if in a small world, such as the stomach and the mind.
Since man is made in the image and for the worship of God, and so that he may enjoy His wisdom and goodness for all eternity, what need is there for the stomach, which will be idle in that fellowship of the eternal Church? But without doubt the joining of these completely dissimilar things, the stomach and the mind, was made for the very reason that God wants the beginnings of that eternal light and life to be kindled in this life. Now, too, He wants us to be His temples, and therefore the studies that show the way to the recognition of Him should be more enthusiastic, and our concern for guiding our morals should be greater, just as that very voice of God ringing in our minds enjoins us. Not only does this order overwhelm us, so that we are forced to acknowledge that there is a God, but it also instructs us what He is like, and we carry around in us the image of divine guidance. All of antiquity distinguished the powers of man in that way; they said that in us there is the authoritative part (to hēgemonikon), the passionate part (to thymikon) and the nourishing part (to threptikon). The authoritative part (hēgemonikon) contains notions that rule our lives. Since they distinguish between worthy and vile things, they show us what God is like, that is, wise, truthful, good, generous, just, pure, acting in the most unconfined way and the avenger of crimes – thus we understand what that most excellent constructing mind is like, which certainly wants us, too, to agree with the Archetype.
And in order that this distinction between worthy and vile actions be stronger, He added the passionate part (thymikon) in the heart by eternal and unchangeable order, and deadly pain in the heart follows the violation of that distinction, so that the annihilation of nature show the Architect's judgement. For you see that the form of justice is depicted in man, the right notion shines forth in the authoritative part (hēgemonikōi), and its companion is a most just avenger, and unappeasable pain in the passionate part (thymikōi), which destroys nature by horrible punishment because of its crimes. Although nowadays, amidst this depravity of nature, other vicious impulses are also kindled in the heart, nevertheless, whenever this happens, the last and strongest companion is always the avenger who is the guardian
and executor of divine judgement. These traces of God are so well expressed in us and so clearly visible that it would be more than cyclopic madness not to want to recognise them, and those who behold themselves are forced to acknowledge that what we have said is absolutely true.
In God there is also the glory that is a free agent, and He also willed the image of His goodness to be seen in us, which is useful for the governing of morals, too: the nerves and the tools of voluntary motion obey the authoritative part (tōi hēgemonikōi), so that it can set in motion the outer limbs by its decision. The authoritative part (to hēgemonikon) restrains Achilles and hinders his hands so that they do not kill Agamemnon, but return the sword to its sheath [Iliad I.190–221]. This freedom has remained in us both in order that it be a curb to desires gone astray, and that it admonish3 us that God is in truth a free agent – for from slavish nature, like the God the Stoics imagine, a free agent cannot be made.
Besides, there are other images of God in us, engraved upon us, so that they would be reminders of Him as well as being seeds and incitements of virtues, that is, affection (storgai): the parents' love for offspring, the offspring's good will towards the parents, compassion towards those who are unfortunate, protection of petitioners, friendship between equals brought together by worthy duties. Even though it seems ridiculous to the Stoics to attribute emotions to God, nevertheless, whenever parents feel the wounds of love and grief in the misfortune of their offspring, they should consider that God has similar love towards His Son and us, for He said clearly about His Son: ‘This is my beloved son in whom I rejoice; listen to him’ [Mark 9:7]. In God there is true love, neither cold nor feigned, towards those who duly invoke Him, and great anger which is the avenger and guardian of justice. In some men there are also heroic flames, either of wisdom – as in those who prophesy, and outstanding masters whose judgements are similar to prophecies – or of courage, as in Alexander. These impulses also show God's friendship with men. Since we perceive in ourselves so many proofs of God, there is no doubt that the assent to providence is strengthened; and this assent is the source of many other virtues. It is necessary to ponder the structure of man, so that one can perceive and understand these proofs in one way or another.
Since we recognise this wonderful likeness of notions in human minds and in God's, let us contemplate that God truly cares for us, since He poured into us the best things in Himself, that is, the rays of His wisdom.
3 Reading commonefaciat for commonefaciant.
That our minds shape images by thought and that the spirits that are born in the heart spread the flames of the emotions are also shadows of divinity in us. These things are arranged so that when we hear the Son of God being called the image of the eternal Father, and the Word (kai logon), we understand that He arose from thought, and that the spirit is the flame of divine love. We have to acknowledge that in the contemplation of these greatest things we are assisted by pondering on the nature of man: for many traces of divinity are engraved upon us in order that we recognise the Architect, and that our entire life agree with the pattern of the divine mind, the semblance of which is poured into us. The nourishing part (threptikon) is added to the higher powers, and by this action it is proved that the Architect also has regard for the life of the body, and that He wants to nourish and support humankind. Thus divine providence and His love for us can be perceived in all parts of the structure.
Once the assent to providence is strengthened, then the other virtues follow, whose rules shine in the mind. Let us strive to protect this temple of God, let us not violate it with slaughter or intemperance, and let us not pollute it with the disorder of desires. Let us see that the individual parts are made for a fixed order and measure. Let us understand that it is justice to guide them as their nature demands it. If I had to speak here about the individual parts which serve the functions of various virtues, the oration would not be much longer, but nevertheless I recommend that your minds observe man himself, and that you contemplate the difference in the substances of the parts. The brain stands firm as the summit, and its cavities are filled with spirits, just as the heavens encompass the entire remaining mass.
The nature of the brain, too, is similar to that of the heavens, and in it wonderful actions are produced: cognition, reasoning, the conservation of images in memory, and recollection. There is no doubt that these actions are produced by the work of the spirits, and that they are, so to speak, pulsations of the spirits against the body of the brain. The spirit originates in the heart, and then it receives new powers and new light in the brain. Even though we do not yet examine these things, there should nevertheless exist in us wonder at such great works, and at the same time reverence towards the Artisan and Creator should be kindled. Neither the purity of the heavens, nor the glitter of the stars, nor the brightness of the sun surpasses that flame, which is called vital or animal spirit; let us recognise that most noble thing and abode of God within us, which is the author of the most
outstanding actions, and let us cherish it by our attentiveness as much as we can.4
But it is troubled in many ways: by a bad way of life, by intemperance, the conflagrations of desires, the immoderate ardours of emotions – anger, hatred, love or grief – and the afflation of evil demons. Marius burns with the desire for vengeance, and with the hatred of Sulla and the other leaders.5 The spirits set aflame by this ardour of disordered emotions drive him, so that he preserves order neither in thought nor in action, and he rushes furiously and gluts his cruelty. And the devils fan this turmoil and fury of the spirits even more, like storms. In that way the rage that is originated and increased destroys all peoples. These perils need to be understood so that, in nourishment and in all impulses, we apply greater care, contemplation, hesitation and moderation. And, indeed, let our prayer rise to God also, that He govern His abode within us.
The recognition of the frailty of this structure of the human body is also very beneficial for the care for one's health and for guiding morals. The fineness of the eyes is there for everyone to see, and in the same way nerves, veins, extremely thin fibres and extremely soft bodies are spread throughout the body, which are nevertheless the tools and channels of the principal actions, and can easily be harmed. How easily the harmony of properties in the members can be troubled, too. The heat of the stomach can be quenched by a slight accident, and then there follow faintness, obstruction and putrefaction of the liver. And indeed many destroy the power of these parts of the body by intemperance and the inability to restrain their desires. In many men hearts are destroyed by anger, hatred and sadness. Nor can the stronghold of the brain remain unharmed when the powers of the stomach, the liver or the heart are extinguished. Even though the frailty of our bodies can be known also without knowledge, by sad examples, nevertheless those who are forewarned by knowledge are less imprudent. The knowledge of anatomy also shows the connections of the parts among themselves.
Since therefore the usefulness of knowing the structure of the human body is remarkable, anatomy is by no means to be neglected. It is a matter
4 For an excellent study of theories of medical spirits in this period, see D. P. Walker, ‘Medical Spirits and God and the Soul’, in Spiritus. IVo Colloquio Internazionale Roma, 7–9 gennaio 1983, ed. M. Fattori and M. Bianchi (Rome, 1984), pp. 223–44.
5 Gaius Marius (157–86 BC), a successful commander, clashed with Sulla (138–78 BC), leader of the aristocratic party for the command against Mithridates. By popular resolution the command was transferred to Marius, but Sulla marched to Rome with six legions and Marius fled to Africa, and vowed to return: see Plutarch, Lives.
altogether worthy of man to behold the nature of things, and not to spurn the contemplation of this wonderful work of the world which is made with so much skill that it can be beheld like a theatre, and it should remind us of God and of His will. But it is nevertheless most fitting and beneficial to see in ourselves the sequence, shapes, combinations, powers and functions of the parts. They said that there was an oracle, ‘Know thyself’ (gnōthi seauton),6 which admonishes us about many things, but is also adapted so that we examine with zeal the things that are worthy of wonder in ourselves and are the sources of several actions in life. And since men are made for wisdom and justice, and true wisdom is the recognition of God and the contemplation of nature, we should acknowledge that we need to know anatomy in which the causes of many actions and changes can be observed in ourselves.
No one can deny that this our exhortation is sincere. We do not cry out for you to learn useless disputations or slyness which corrupt the powers of judgement, and later harm life and morals. But we lead you to the discipline that strengthens assent to providence and stirs up caution lest we upset the appropriate order of nature. And since it shows the dignity and frailty of man, it admonishes us to treat with more respect our own life and the lives of others, and to love and cherish this weak species. Indeed, since we see that we are made in such a way that we prepare ourselves in this life for the eternal fellowship with God, the zeal to know the true doctrine about God should also be kindled. There is no doubt that those who study the first principles of anatomy will understand straight away that they are helped by this contemplation, however slight, in protecting their health, and that they are admonished of many virtues, and taught about the parts of the human body, whose knowledge is necessary in other arts and in all of life.
I pray to the eternal God, Father of our Lord Jesus Christ – who without doubt is both the Maker and the preserver of humankind, and has made us for that very wisdom, so that we may behold the theatre of the world, and recognise Him, admonished by the traces which He engraved upon nature – that He mitigate the harshest punishments which are diffused throughout humankind, and that He protect the Church in these lands,
6 For the proverb ‘know thyself’ see Erasmus, Adages, I.V.95. For the proliferation of this phrase in anatomical literature in the sixteenth century, see W. Schupbach, The Paradox of Rembrandt's ‘Anatomy of Dr. Tulp’ (London, 1982), and Andrea Carlino, ‘‘‘Know thyself”, Anatomical Figures in Early Modern Europe’, Res 27 (1995), 52–69.
in which He is truly worshipped, and that He do not allow studies and proper discipline to be annihilated. Make this prayer with me with sincere lamentation, and I pray with all my heart that the eternal Father will grant it for the sake of His Son Jesus Christ, our highest Priest. I have spoken.