8 Preface to Cicero's On Duties (1534) 1 CR XI, 257–61
8 Preface to Cicero's On Duties (1534)1
CR XI, 257–61
It appears to me that the Greeks have laid down, with unique judgement, in the definition of art that it must have some usefulness for life. For all arts are tools for either preserving private life or for ruling the state. There is no need for expounding the individual arts here, or for showing the use for which they were invented and transmitted with great care from the elders to posterity. Rather it is necessary to exhort those who enter upon these studies of literature to consider at the beginning what the goal of these arts is, what benefit is to be derived from them, so that those who know may recognise the power and dignity of the arts more clearly, and choose more carefully the one that is most profitable to learn. They never achieve the perfect teaching whose minds do not look out for the certain goal of their studies, and they wander at random and without order or reason from one discipline to the other. ‘An art is the compound of concepts practised for some useful purpose in life’ (Technē esti systēma enkatalēpseōn engegymnasmenōn pros ti telos euchreston tōn eni tōi biōi) [Galen, Medical Definitions XlX.350]; it is proved from the definition of art itself that the goal or benefit in all arts has to be envisaged from the beginning. This was also the reason why Quintilian searched for the purpose of rhetoric with such great care in chapter eighteen of book two.2
Every teaching contains knowledge either of things or of words, and since words are the signs of things, the knowledge of words comes first; and although the arts of grammar, dialectic and rhetoric are necessary for obtaining that knowledge, nevertheless the arts are ineffectual without examples. Therefore we must read good authors from whom we may learn the diction of a language, and from the imitation of whom we may obtain for ourselves the kind of speech which can be applied to the explanation of serious subjects, and which can shed light on obscure matters, such as when people need to be taught about great things, as happens frequently. Now everyone knows that Cicero is the best master of speech. Indeed, this book has great qualities, it contains many commonplaces and there is a great variety of figures of speech in them, as well as accounts which contribute greatly to eloquence. Antony says in Cicero that the part of a speech
1 In 1534, Melanchthon taught the On Duties. K. Hartfelder, Philip Melanchthon ah Praeceptor Germaniae (Berlin, 1889), p. 560.
2 Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (c. 35–c.95), author of the Education of the Orator (Institutio Oratoria), a highly influential text on rhetoric.
which is most difficult to achieve is a clear narrative. Therefore it is very profitable to have outstanding examples of narration, which we set out for ourselves to consider with attention, so that in speaking we may achieve something similar to them.
First, therefore, at the beginning of this work the reader will think that perusal will be useful for promoting his skill with words. And so, while contemplating the entire sequence and diction of speech, he may pick out, like flowers, remarkable figures of speech, pleasant narrations and particularly memorable sentences, for we must constantly strive to convey something from there to our own use, so that our speech becomes enriched by it. For these works are not to be glanced at in passing, as we behold admirably painted pictures set before us to look at, only for the sake of enjoyment, and obtain nothing from them for ourselves, but we should contemplate them like the most pleasant gardens, in which here and there we gather the most delightful fruit and flowers.
There should be a further consideration of the knowledge of things, of which we can introduce scientific knowledge, knowledge of which we can adduce here. It is profitable to hold and grasp in one's mind some order of the arts, and to see their purposes and uses. Some discuss the nature of things, others involve religion, others the method of ruling the state and of judging disputes in the law-court, others involve the precepts for civic morals, which are necessary in all walks of life. Therefore, when we read anything, we need to ponder to which order of arts it belongs: whether it will be useful for the administration of the state or for private life; and this consideration not only stimulates studying, but it also contributes very much to understanding and grasping the arts better. For it is easier to grasp those whose territories, so to speak, lie wide open, and of which we discern the boundaries.
This book of Cicero concerns moral philosophy, for it contains the definitions of virtues, and, besides the definitions, many precepts for civic morals, and most of this in oratorical mode, in the style of a popular oration, so that men endowed with common sense can understand them and imitate them in the habit of everyday life; for dry disputations, such as are found in Aristotle, contain some teaching that is not ignoble, but somewhat obscure and almost deliberately distant from the intellect and judgement of the inexperienced. Cicero's definitions can more easily be understood and adapted to everyday use in life. Moreover it is generally acknowledged that everyone needs some teaching on morals and a description of virtues,
so that we understand in our manners and in judging about human business what is proper and what is not, what is done rightly and what is ill done. Accordingly, it is necessary to have forms and images of virtues, which we follow in all decisions and in our judgements on all matters. This teaching is strictly speaking to be called humanity, and it shows the way to live properly and as a citizen; those who do not know it are not very different from beasts.
Although it may on other occasions be more appropriate to show what the distinction is between that teaching and that of the Gospel, I have nevertheless thought that listeners need to be warned to banish the error which already occupied their minds, namely that the writings of the pagans are unworthy of being read by Christian people, and that Christians should give a wide berth to philosophy. Let me therefore expound my opinion on this matter. Philosophy does not provide confirmation of the will of God, nor does it instruct on the fear of God and the trust in Him; that pertains properly to the Gospel. However, apart from these things, precepts for civic life are necessary, which teach how men may live peacefully with each other. These are propounded in philosophy, and their causes are put in relation and perceived by excellent men. And one must not think that Christ came into this world to teach these precepts; He expounded something else, about the will of God and trust in God, which human reason could not understand. However, God also favours civic duties and requires them from all ages, and by that discipline He wants men to be restrained, in no other way than by the laws and institutions of the magistrates, which have great affinity with those precepts, for all laws and all justice has sprung from them as if from springs. For this reason this teaching is very useful, because, by demonstrating the causes of the laws and of public justice, it helps much with the understanding of all discussions of civic matters. Since Christians should cherish and support this civil society, this teaching of civic morals and duties has to be known by them. It is not piety to live like the Cyclopes, without justice, without laws, without teaching, or without any of the other things helpful for life that are contained in literature. Therefore those who disparage philosophy not only wage war against human nature, but they also severely injure the glory of the Gospel, which commands that men be restrained by civic discipline; and nature decorates with the highest prizes the honourable institutions that contain the civil society of men. Therefore philosophers and other writers teaching honourable precepts for life are not to be spurned, but they are to be read
diligently, so that they may sharpen one's judgement on public affairs and on morals. Wise men occupied with the state can admonish much that they know by habit, which makes us more prudent in performing great things.
I have expounded what these books contribute to the richness of words as well as to the knowledge of things, for they nourish the power of speech and confirm one's judgement on morals, and both of these are highly necessary in life. But there is another use to these books, pertaining to eloquence; it is pre-eminent, or it seems so to me. All learned men enjoin us to furnish ourselves with commonplaces, from which we may take a speech on honourable things whenever there is the need. For all business in life is judged from commonplaces on virtues and vices, and because of that one has to refer to them [i.e. commonplaces] in a speech, whatever the topic. First of all it is useful to have passages that one knows perfectly, because the subject itself, when perfectly grasped, produces the discourse. It is even more useful, though, to have at the ready topics discussed and embellished by Cicero, so that we can borrow words or embellishments from there, or at least imitate them. For what does Cicero do if not collect commonplaces, that is, definitions of the virtues? All civic business of which one has to speak has to look to them. If you write a letter in which you thank a friend who has done you a favour, how many embellishments will Cicero supply in the passage that contains the precepts on gratitude! There are many similes there, and many arguments which we can accommodate to our use. If, in a decision, there is conflict between utility and honour, as it often happens, how much can be gained from the third book! What can one say on such a controversy that is more weighty than the story of Cyrsilus, whom the Athenians stoned for giving useful but dishonourable advice, and the Athenian women stoned his wife.3 So strong did the Athenians want the power of honour to be that they thought to censure him who had judged utility to be preferable to honour with a new punishment. When such embellishments are ably transferred into our speech, they not only produce gracefulness, but also authority. I spoke above of words and sentences to be excerpted, but it will be even more useful to know entire passages in sequence, and to keep hold of their figures of speech, which we can either imitate or take over when there is need for them. Since all matters in life are related to these passages, it is necessary
3 Cyrsilus was stoned to death by his fellow Athenians for advising them to receive the army of Xerxes and submit to the power of Persia. Demosthenes, On the Crown, XVIII.203, mentions that his wife was also stoned. Cf. Cicero, On Duties, III.xi.48.
to have them stocked and ready in great number; he who lacks these treasures will not be able to judge any matter correctly or expound it clearly. I have spoken.