18 Preface to the Commentary on the Soul (1540) CR III, 907–14
18 Preface to the Commentary on the Soul (1540)
CR III, 907–14
Greetings from Philip Melanchthon to the most honourable and outstanding man, Dominus Hieronymus Baumgartnerus, Senator of Nuremberg1
Some criticise and deride the titles which we have given to the little text-books, although they were sufficiently substantial – on the world, the heavens, the nature of animated beings, on the soul – saying that these textbooks contain wholly trifling and trivial knowledge, and that they barely represent a shadow of these greatest things. For that reason they disdain most arrogantly these wretched writings and discussions. Although it has to be admitted that textbooks do not correspond to the vastness of such great things any more than the painting of the Roman state on the shield of Aeneas corresponded to the greatness of the deeds, virtues and power of the Roman people, nevertheless that knowledge is very necessary for life. Some elements and first principles are handed down in order that they stir up minds to ponder nature in some way. And we advance as far as we can, for God, too, has commanded us to contemplate His work, and He assists our study, for He has repeatedly disclosed many things that are useful for life. At the same time we notice the traces of God pressed upon nature, by which He wants to be known, and we learn the origins of worthy actions, and discover much help for life. It is profitable to know the disposition of bodies, the causes of diseases and some remedies. It is useful to comprehend the size of the Earth in one's mind, and to have a sequence of seasons, so that we grasp the distance of places from each other and the sequence of time, in religious doctrine as well as in all of history.
Socrates used to say that men know either nothing or little. I therefore have to admit that the subject that I relate is extremely uncertain. But let us consider what barbarity in life and what darkness in the Christian religion would follow if that faint and uncertain knowledge were lost and annihilated; thus manifold learning is needed for expounding it. Therefore let us not be deterred by the judgement of those who mock the schools from defending our Sparta to the utmost of our ability and from praying. Yet
1 Hieronymus Baumgartnerus (1498–1565), senator of Nuremberg, who had also studied at the University of Wittenberg and knew Luther and Melanchthon personally. He promoted the Reformation in Nuremberg, helped establish the school of St Aegidius and founded a town library.
why is it that they despise us? Or rather do they hold some more outstanding kind of wisdom, or do they, by their own shrewdness, find ways for accumulating riches or increasing their power? They practise tricks by which they strive for the favour of the mighty, they are intent upon their competitors and, as if in a wrestling-school, they watch where they could overthrow them, or trip them up (hyposkelizein), as they say commonly. They prefer that sophistry to our books and discussions. But I shall lay aside this comparison. Let us draw – from these very books which they mock – that moderation of the mind so that, as we know that God wants it, minds may be improved by these, however slight, elements of the arts, and that we may guard this moderation seriously and constantly.
Therefore the good will of those good men is to be praised who strive to the utmost of their ability to bestow care on this matter of the greatest usefulness for life. The kings and rulers of human affairs ought to rouse, assist and guide the studies of citizens in this course of studies, and also to add men capable of judging who should choose the most useful writings, so that the young be accustomed to the best writings from the start. But we see how lightly this concern touches the minds of the mighty, and the facts show that the preservation of the arts is the favour of God alone, who rouses the minds of citizens to this toil and this matter and service, while those who excel in power search for pleasure and domination.
It is customary in the schools to teach some descriptions of the soul, and to distinguish between their powers and functions. I praise this custom, and I certainly do not fear the jeering of those who, believing that perhaps souls are nothing, laugh at us who appear foolishly to put forth a teaching about a thing unknown to us, and then say only commonplace things, which can be grasped even without writings: namely how many senses there are, which are the organs, which are the objects, and where the seats of the organs are. Let them diminish and degrade these things as much as they like, but nevertheless there is need for this basic knowledge. And if they can grasp a part without writings, they themselves being already improved by habit and by abiding among the learned, nevertheless many other things have been examined by the masters and shown by divine providence, and they cannot be known without writings. How great is the benefit of knowing the distinction between the parts of the body in some way? Since God employed so much skill in constructing the human body, He certainly willed that such a wonderful work be contemplated, in order that we consider that machines made and arranged so skilfully could in no
way have originated by chance, but that there is an eternal constructing mind. Indeed the skill of the workmanship cannot be described without writings nor recognised without knowledge.
Already in the explanation of religion there is the greatest need for having learned the distinctions between the powers of the soul. If the soul had kept that light and harmony which are bestowed upon it in its creation by divine providence there would be less need for other learned men, and it would examine its nature by its own sharpness of vision. However, now that – like some outstanding picture by Apelles2 bespattered with mud – it lies in the body, buried in hideous darkness, there is the greatest need for knowledge that should bring it forth and put it in our view, and show how great a wound the enemy inflicted on it, who overthrew the first ancestor of humankind, and show also the traces of the divine image on it, and the remains of the heavenly gifts. While there is a need for erudition in order to expound all these great things in the Church, there also survive the commentaries on the soul of the ancient theologians, such as Gregory of Nyssa, who was the brother of Basil of Caesarea.3
This knowledge of the soul leads to piety. If we consider that the notions of the distinction between what is proper and what is vile are innate, it is necessary to acknowledge that this nature does not exist by chance. Again, the recognition of our misery curbs unruly minds if we consider that our souls, which God loved so much that He painted His knowledge and His image on them, have been torn away from, and deprived of, the heavenly light by the ruses of the devil, and that they are surrounded by frightful darkness, doubts about God, scorn of God and other horrid banes. Furthermore consider that they are subject to the cruelty and fury of the most haughty tyrant, the devil, who, out of savage hatred against the Son of God, drags with him as many souls as he can towards various disgraceful acts and into eternal destruction.
Whenever I think of this darkness of the soul, this weakness and sad servitude, I am almost4 out of my mind with horror. But with what grief and commotion of the mind need we reckon that the first ancestors thought the same; since they had seen the earlier light and harmony of nature and were endowed with the greatest excellence of intellect, they could reckon
2 Apelies (4th century BC), the most famous and greatest painter of antiquity.
3 Gregory of Nyssa (335–94) was the younger brother of Basil. The De natura hominis of Nemesius of Emesa circulated under the name of Gregory of Nyssa in this period: see note 5, oration 16, p. 136.
4 Reading paene for bene.
more correctly the greatness of their disaster, and judge to what a cruel tyrant they were subject, both on account of their own fights and of the murders of sons and grandsons, and other disgraceful acts. Nor do I believe that any ancestors ever lived in greater and harsher sorrow and sadness than those first ones who, seeing these great ills, would have perished from grief if some sign of divine goodness had not lifted them up again. They had heard the promise of a victor over the most arrogant tyrant, and they realised that they were not rejected by God when they saw the sacrifices burn. By that consolation they sustained themselves in so many tribulations.
This somewhat basic teaching of the soul brings much weight to such great things, in order that we may contemplate them with more attention. One should not reckon that those who spurn this teaching, that is, those who do not want to behold their minds, are either troubled by these great tribulations or seek divine consolations. On the contrary, just as Psyche in the stories, who, having inquisitively touched5 Cupid's arrows and wounded her finger, was aflame with love for him, and, out of her mind, followed him as he fled, so these people are carried away, blind, by their desires, and delight in their own error.
Since therefore the young have to be attracted to the teaching of the soul, I encouraged Doctor Jakob Milich6 to select other parts of natural philosophy as well as this one and, having shared the work, we have prepared a small book, which we are now publishing – by no means as polished as I would wish it to be. For you know that these turbulent times do not grant me the leisure for cherishing these studies. There are many, fairly wellwritten, books on this topic, and therefore perhaps some may criticise our decision to publish this disordered hodge-podge, but I believe that the studies of the young also need to be encouraged by new writings. And as I have made an effort as best I could so that we would collect useful things, so I wish from my heart that others may defeat us and publish better works.
Moreover, it is useful for the young, for the purpose of sharpening and strengthening their judgement, to compare two or three works. For this reason I encourage them to examine a sample of earlier writings. I approve of the acumen of Vives, the diligence of Velcurio and the
5 Reading contrectatis for contractis.
6 Jakob Milich (1501–59) was born in Freiburg i. B. and attended the University of Vienna before arriving in Wittenberg in 1524. He became lecturer in mathematics in 1529, and obtained his doctorate in medicine in 1536 and became professor of anatomy at Wittenberg. For further information on his life, see Eusebius Menius, Oratio de vita Jacobi Milichii (Wittenberg, 1562).
abundance of Eisennach,7 but I believe that this little book will be useful for understanding the others. For I have expounded some passages which were lacking in others, even though this entire discussion strikes against many subjects which are beyond human comprehension, and often suggests to moderate minds that, despite the great darkness of the human mind, they should desire to be ruled by heavenly doctrine and should embrace with all their hearts the saying: ‘Thy word is a lamp unto my feet’ [Psalms 119.105].
I preserve several opinions accepted in the schools, as well as the customary form of teaching, and, since we have to say some things slightly differently in the Church than they are said by Aristotle, I ask to be granted forgiveness if now and then I depart from an Aristotelian phrase. I would like the elegance of the language to be greater, for I do not feel that these things cannot be said elegantly. No part of nature affords a more magnificent discourse than the parts and actions of the soul. I pass over other reprimands, because whatever is in this I have undertaken intentionally for the good of the work, and I request that it be received with the sincerity which becomes the good and the learned. Nor will I bear it ill if someone corrects the faults courteously, mindful of the precept which is in Aristophanes: ‘Question him gently. It is not proper to slander men who are poets as if they were bakers (elenche, elenchou, loidoreisthai d'ou prepei/andras poiētas hōsper artopōlidas).’ [Frogs, 857f.]. If I live to do so, I shall myself alter some things. I earnestly request Joachim Camerarius,8 an excellent man, that when this little book will be in the hands of the students, he may call it back for revision and criticism, in order that it profit the students.
I considered that this commentary should be published under the guidance of your name – for many other reasons, as well as because I wanted a token of my continuous love for you to exist in a written work which I judged would reach the hands of many. For as an individual I love you so much because of your outstanding virtue and erudition that I would not prefer anyone to you, and I also judge that the state owes much to you who protect with great faithfulness the Muses, sad because of the present storm.
7 Juan Luis Vives (1492–1540), De anima et vita (Basle, 1538); Johannes Bernhardi Velcurio (lecturer in natural philosophy at Wittenberg, d. 1534), Epitome physicae libri quatuor (Basle, 1537); Jodocus Trutvetter yon Eisennach (d. 1519), Philosophiae naturalis summam (Erfurt, 1517). For Velcurio, see Kusukawa, The Transformation of Natural Philosophy, pp. 110f.
8 Joachim Camerarius (1500–74), a close friend of Melanchthon, who became the rector of the new Latin School, St Aegidius, at Nuremberg. He then taught at the universities of Tübingen and of Heidelberg. Melanchthon had corresponded frequently with Camerarius over his commentary on the De anima: see Kusukawa, Transfomation of Natural Philosophy pp. 83f.
While I was writing this and considering the disorder (ataxian) of the soul with diligence, I often thought about the disorder (ataxiai) in the realm which takes its origins from nowhere else than from this darkness of the soul and the obstinacy of its parts. And not infrequently I have lamented with tears the miserable condition of good men: in what difficulties and calamities are they when they are holding the reins of the state? Having spurned the authoritative part of the soul (hēgemonikon), the other powers rush where their blind desires drive them, and the poet says: ‘The chariot is carried away by the horses, the team does not obey the reins’ [Virgil, Georgics 1.514]. In just the same way, the tyrants in one place and in another the masses – who, as Herodotus says, are also tyrants – do not often allow their impulses to be curbed by lawful advice or the heavenly voice, which in truth must be the authoritative part (hēgemonikon) in every rule, in private and in public. For so many years the good have been praying that the Churches be lawfully counselled for, and that those who are sitting at the helm may provide, so that scholarship may not perish entirely, and that religious doctrine not be extinguished. And we urge strongly that harmony and discipline be restored. But it clearly happens to us as is said in the Greek verse: ‘Man is like a ship beseeching a rock’ (anēr eoike naus hiketeuein petran) [Suida] or even more as it is said in the Apology of Antisthenes, where the hares who form an assembly with the lions receive a very sad teacher's fee (didaktra); for they are devoured for their service.
Although that is how things are, my Hieronymus, let us nevertheless by all means do what the authoritative part (hēgemonikon) commands; as much as we can, let us attempt to counsel the Church and posterity, each in his place, and let us not desert our posts. Therefore, do not weary of encouraging scholarship, which – if ever it did – truly has need of the protection of excellent men. Erudition is such a great ornament for the Church that, once it is lost, it is impossible for the most impenetrable darkness not to follow. Even though there are other, more outstanding, qualities, such as the true practice of faith, scholarship nevertheless sheds great light on the Gospel, particularly if the Church has sane judges and arbitrators (agōnothetas kai brabeutas) of studies, who should rule the impulses of minds and prevent that they be carried beyond the limits. For many and great disputes are held in the Church, which cannot be expounded without erudition. Who would not deplore human impiety? With what solicitude are riches and pleasures acquired, and with what diligence! An apprenticeship of how many years is needed for learning
despicable tricks? This great matter is neglected, namely that we are born and reborn for the one purpose of transmitting, correctly and clearly, the heavenly teaching to others. While this criminal negligence is to be abominated in everyone, in the rulers it is truly the murder of the Church not to support the studies of scholarship; and God will punish this with great public misfortunes. Now Christ, suffering hunger and thirst, goes from one to another and requests that the studies of His Church be preserved, that men capable of teaching be supported and that worthy minds be encouraged and favoured. But all too few in the state are moved by the complaints and by the voice of Christ. Scholarship is held in hatred by the mighty everywhere, for the reason that it is considered an opponent of tyranny. Uneducated and Epicurean men enjoy the riches of the Churches. In all realms monstrous cruelty is deployed against men who are learned, pious and upright in their sentiments. Everywhere poor scholars are neglected, and this is done intentionally, so that studies be destroyed. Therefore one needs to pray to God that He stir up the minds of some who are in command to the solicitude that they do not abandon studies, and that He strengthen the scholars, lest they be weakened in their minds and desert the warfare for which they are chosen by divine providence.
You, however, my Hieronymus, may you be – as you already are – one who provides encouragement and support for your citizens in striving for a knowledge that is useful for life. In this matter, consider that you are doing a duty that is most pleasing to God, and that you are doing a service not only to your country, but – what is greater – to the Church and for posterity, and that your service will be extolled, in the presence of Christ and in the assembly of the angels, prophets and Apostles, with true and eternal praise, which I do not doubt you will prefer by far to any trophy made by human hands.
But I have gone on for longer with this exhortation than I intended, since there is no need for it with you, who by your sagacity and erudition can see best of all both the diseases of the state and which parts particularly have to be healed and protected by politicians. I believe that I have already said enough of this little book. It is a feeble gift, not perhaps appropriate for your person. For, if the nature of the soul could be disclosed to a sufficient degree, a picture in which the soul, depicted in vivid colours, would be set out before the eyes would be a most magnificent and splendid gift. But in this darkness of the human mind its feeble shadow can barely be seen. Nevertheless these commonplace descriptions are to be handed on to the
young, as I said, and I do not doubt that you approve of this use of this kind of teaching.
But there remain other schools for us, my Hieronymus, in which we can again philosophise about the soul together, when we enjoy the eternal fellowship of Christ and of that venerable assembly of the angels, prophets and Apostles, as well as of the other faithful. There we will not ask Democritus if the soul is made of atoms, or Aristotle if it is a complete reality (entelecheia) [On the Soul 412a27], but the Architect Himself will show us the nature of the soul, at the same time the Archetype and the copy – that is, He will show us His nature, of which He willed the human being to be the image. In these schools we shall achieve complete knowledge of the soul; however, in order to reach these schools, the soul needs to be ruled and refined with some discipline. For that purpose this commonplace teaching is handed on. But then we shall reap the most splendid reward of this our study. We shall rejoice for having refuted the Epicurean ravings. We shall be glad to have defended what is true and pleasing to God. And for this duty we shall be adorned with prizes. The Epicureans, however, who in this mortal life have defied God, and, untroubled, have scorned God's proofs of immortality that were handed on, will receive just punishment for their madness. But although this disorderly lucubration does not in fact satisfy me everywhere, nevertheless we have attempted to pass on what is right and useful. Nor shall I bear it ill that I do not appear sufficiently sharp while I mainly follow the opinions sanctioned by the consensus of the learned. For I believe that religion needs to be applied in teaching, in order that we do not wantonly overthrow what has been taught correctly by others – as some believe that it is the greatest success of [their] intelligence to overturn craftily what others have said correctly, and they do not consider that they have God as observer and judge of their wantonness. Since He has ordered: ‘Thou shalt not bear false witness’ [Matthew 19:18], He will also severely punish sophistry by which the arts are thrown into disorder, a matter from which great calamity for morals follows. These games and the tricks of sophisms give me no pleasure, and I do not wish to be a ‘lover of horses’ as much as a ‘lover of truth’.9 But I leave the judgement to the readers, and I request that they apply frankness in judging as it is worthy of good and learned men. Live well and happily, farewell. At Wittenberg.
9 ‘Lover of horses’ is a play on the name Philip in Greek: Phil-ippos (love-horse).