Natural Law Makes Sin Inexcusable

Now, let us direct our focus towards the third facet—the knowledge of righteous conduct, of true virtue. The human intellect appears to exhibit greater acumen in this realm than in the aforementioned matters. The apostle affirms that even those without the law possess within themselves an innate moral law, inscribed on their hearts. Their consciences serve as witnesses to their actions, either accusing or defending them before the tribunal of God's judgment (Romans 2:14–15). Thus, even the Gentiles, whose souls bear the imprint of God's righteousness, are not entirely bereft of the means to discern proper conduct. Conventional wisdom asserts that natural law, as described by the apostle, equips individuals with sufficient guidance for virtuous living. Yet, a thorough contemplation of the purpose behind this law of nature elucidates its limitations in leading us to the pinnacle of reason and truth. A careful reading of St. Paul's words will shed light on this aspect. He declares earlier that "as many as have sinned in the law will be judged by the law, and as many as have sinned without law will also perish without law" (Romans 2:12). To address the seeming disparity of ignorant individuals meeting instant perdition, he adds that "their conscience also bearing witness, and between themselves their thoughts accusing or else excusing them" (Romans 2:15). The ultimate objective of the natural law is to render individuals inexcusable. Hence, we may aptly define it as a moral conscience that differentiates between right and wrong, sufficiently preventing ignorance from serving as a pretext. Conscience convicts individuals through its internal testimony, stripping them of excuses. Human inclination often skews towards self-flattery, fostering an eagerness to avert the acknowledgment of one's transgressions. Plato contended that ignorance alone incites sin—an assertion that would hold merit if human hypocrisy could prevent divine judgment from pursuing a guilty conscience.

However, since the sinner, in falling from the capacity to distinguish between good and evil embedded within, cannot avert moments of clarity, he is repeatedly compelled to confront the truth. It is therefore misguided to claim that sin arises solely from ignorance. This notion aligns with Themistius, another philosopher, who posits that human intellect rarely deceives itself in general reflections, reserving deception for specific considerations pertaining to the self. Instances abound: when queried about the morality of murder in the abstract, none would deny its wickedness. However, an individual contemplating the demise of their foe may perceive it as virtuous. Similarly, an adulterer may censure promiscuity generally while rationalizing their own actions. This ignorance arises when, after formulating a sound universal judgment, the individual becomes entangled in the matter at hand, forgetting the precedent established when it was considered independently. St. Augustine expounds upon this matter adeptly in his commentary on Psalm 57:1. Nevertheless, Themistius' perspective is not universally applicable. There are instances when the gravity of the crime closely impinges on the sinner's conscience, driving them not by self-deception under the illusion of goodness, but with full awareness and volition toward evil. Such sentiments yield statements found in pagan writings, such as "I know what is better and commendable, yet I persist in pursuing what is worse." To dispel any ambiguity on this topic, Aristotle presents a clear distinction between "incontinence" and "intemperance." He elucidates, "Incontinence robs an individual of specific discernment between good and evil due to disordered desires, leading them to justify their own sin despite condemning it universally. When clarity eventually emerges, penitence compels them to acknowledge their wrongdoing. Intemperance, a more perilous ailment, arises when an individual knowingly commits wrong, persistently pursuing their wicked inclinations."

Upon recognizing the universal capacity of individuals to discern between good and evil, we must not hastily assume its complete health and wholeness. While their understanding is endowed with the capability to distinguish good from evil—sufficient to preclude the plea of ignorance—it need not encompass every detail. Rather, it is necessary that they possess enough knowledge to resist equivocation, for their conscience shall convict them. However, exploring the understanding of righteousness as defined by God's perfect law exposes its inherent blindness. It fails to comprehend the primary tenets of the commandments within the first table—such as placing trust in God, extolling His might and righteousness, invoking His name, and observing His Sabbath. Has any human intellect ever —not to mention comprehended—conceived that the genuine worship and service of God encompass these elements? Even when the wicked strive to honor God, they perpetually revert to their misguided notions, persistently rejecting the spiritual worship that alone pleases Him. Should we laud an understanding incapable of receiving righteous admonitions? Our understanding, in this respect, mirrors such deficiency; its insensitivity is undeniable.

Turning to the directives of the second table—the realm of human and civic life—we find a marginally heightened understanding, given their proximity to daily existence. Nevertheless, human comprehension occasionally falters, even in these areas. Even among loftier minds, embracing excellence deemed too demanding remains a challenge, tempting them to contrive rationalizations against its pursuit. The human intellect can only assess this challenge as a heart weighed down by bearing such exacting virtue—refuting it seems virtuous and valiant. Contrarily, God commands His followers to uphold the patience condemned by the world. Alas, our understanding is marred in this regard, incapable of identifying its own wicked inclinations. The carnal individual remains oblivious to their inner malaise, and their innate light flickers out before the path of escape is discerned. The philosophers often consider only the outward manifestations of heart's desires as unrestrained, dismissing the more covert, insidious cravings.

Thus, just as we reproached Plato for attributing all sin to ignorance, we must similarly reject the notion that deliberate wickedness underlies all transgressions. Our experiences reveal that we often sin with honorable intentions. The web of ignorance, error, impediments, and perplexity that ensnares our reasoning and understanding renders them ill-equipped for providing certainty in life. St. Paul aptly exposes the limitations of these faculties, stating that "of ourselves, we are not sufficient to think of anything as being from ourselves" (2 Corinthians 3:5). This encompasses not only volition and emotion but extends to the very realm of thought, determining what is morally commendable.

One might question, "Is our activity, wisdom, knowledge, and earnest endeavors so profoundly corrupted that we cannot even contemplate or reflect on what is good in the eyes of God?" Though this proposition seems daunting, it aligns with the Holy Spirit's perspective, for He perceives human thoughts as mere vanity. He asserts that "every intent of the thoughts of [man's] heart is only evil continually" (Genesis 6:5; 8:21). If all human musings, aspirations, deliberations, and contrivances inherently bear wickedness, how can we fathom devising actions pleasing to God, who esteems nothing but righteousness and holiness? Thus, irrespective of its direction, human reasoning is ensnared in futility. David, recognizing this deficiency within himself, implores God to grant him understanding to rightly grasp His precepts (Psalm 119:34). His plea implies that his own understanding falls short. St. Augustine's discernment into the shortcomings of human reasoning regarding divine matters leads him to confess that the illumination of the Holy Spirit is as indispensable to understanding as the sun's radiance is to sight. He further emphasizes that the eyes of our understanding remain shut until our Lord opens them.