CHAPTER 7

HISTORY OFTHE CHURCH [CONOCLASM, THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE, AND THE GREAT SCHISM | } i CHAPTER 7 PART | | e Iconoclasm, Byzantium The Carolingian Renaissance BYZANTIUM: TE Hove view | ; yzantium was at one time the most important center of political, religious, cultural, and | And The Great Schism Be activity in the world ofthe former Roman Empire. During the periods of its greatest

. eographical breadth, the Byzantine Empire encompassed the entire Mediterranean world: North . tea Palestine, the Anatolian Plateau, Greece, the Balkans, and Italy, Much of the Black Sea was

As I celebrate among you and wish you the Eucharist of our Lord Jesus Christ, controlled by Byzantium. which extended as far east as modern Syria and Iraq. Byzantium was a | | I wish us to find in it peace with our fellow man, Peace: the fruit of justice. mighty maritime power and a key trading center for commerce with East Asia.

| | Peace: the fruit of love. How easily this peace is broken! How often people are divided Constantine the Great founded the Byzantine Empire when he moved his capital to Byzantium,

| | | among themselves, even though they are physically close, even in the same family! renaming it Constantinople and formally dedicating it on May 11, 330. The Empire lasted until

| ) May Christ give us the ability to remain at peace with others. May there be realized in us May 29, 1453. when it fell to the Ottoman Turks. Byzantium lasted for more than eleven hundred

! the words of His Sermon on the Mount: "Blessed are the peacemakers." years—longer than the camerSe a thepeal teetatheee Empire oe | HT | bat ye : together lasted some nine hundred eighty-five years (taking .C. as the beginning of the | | Soe=Seay ae dah cagesMetis cae penn ce Republic and A.D. 476 as the collapse of the Empire). Unlike the Republic and the Empire,

) | s Byzantium enjoyed the blessing of a wholly Christian orientation and development from its | ai | Fen the fourth century into the eleventh century, the Church channeled her energies intothe nception. Even though the capital was dedicated under both pagan and Christian rites, Constantine

| conversion of peoples on the European continent. However, this was only one aspect of the always heavily favored the Church, and, as mentioned previously, Emperor Theodosius I made

| | ) many challenges facing the Church. In the eighth and ninth centuries, a number of political and Christianity the official religion of Byzantium in 379. The intricate theological disputes of the fourth

| | religious factors coalesced that proved to have important ramifications for Christianity. During and fifth centuries demonstrated a deeply Christian culture that marked the Empire even until its

| | these two centuries, the deep-rooted, growing divergence between East and West began to decline and fall.

|| surface clearly as the different languages, cultures, geography, and conceptions of Political and rellThe rise of Islam, however, proved to be a mortal enemy to the Eastern Empire. As Islamic

| | alosen had long divided the East and West became more acute. These two diverse culexpansion constantly loomed on the horizon in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia Minor as a Ht | ie ba om the same sources but now separated by deep cultural heterogeneity, were yet powerful threat to the Empire's territorial integrity. Certain tenets of the Muslim faith prompted the .

| rei. t : es sacramental Christianity. It proved, however, a fragile unity. The rise of the Arabic people to raise a strong military force that had already conquered Byzantine lands by the H y | 3ate ss amis ofpapal supremacy, liturgical and disciplinal differences, the Iconoclastic seventh century, including three of the four great Eastern Christian patriarchates (Jerusalem,

| . ae omier disagreements allpushed East and West towardsa final confrontation.

Antioch, and Alexandria). Islam remained a constant threat to the empire until finally, in the Hy | This chapter will explore the development of Christianity in the Byzantine Empire, with special fifteenth century, Constantinople, and with it the remnants of the decaying Byzantine Empire, fell

| | | | ee on a religious and political questions raised in Byzantium over the issues of papal tothe Muslim Ottoman Turks onMay 29, 1455.

| | emac ic i | > cseefeNine= look at the concurrent development ofthe Church in Constantinople was located on the tip of the Balkan Peninsula just across from Asia Minor along

| | | | mg on the relationship of the Church and the Carolingian kings. the narrow Bosporus Strait, which connects the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. The city was built

| || | Codex Justimanus, basis tor all canon law Heraclius invades Pe B | | b Sid | | Toe reDuMlt by Justinian | Ufo i bay sea icons ba shaped Sate g Ponatay TT by EmpressTheodora; Staofasa Patriarch in | | } j STOwn Oxy; i i ;, j | | - robeeeed= — parte bso FaoSemanie oe' pea icons restored to chwtches sabe imekrated we pope eats iI | Ostrogoths Jerusalem — of Rome Leo III (Emperor) | Bulgar leader Photian Schism begins Monastery of Cluny Destruction of the Church chen bee HY] | 'aleslg Spain Sot of Pope St. Gregory It } uiEmperor Calas founded tad Sepulchre in pegins | | | = | Inople excommunicates Leo Ii!

HN | | | \ | | | p | a | | | , ChapterSeven ———— | | | | | | ~ | .

Chapter Seven 253 | ) | HISTORY OF THE CHUREE \CONOCLASM, THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE, AND THE GREAT SCHISM / e Iconoclasm, Byzantium | | | Rena BYZANTIUM: THE LONG VIEW | | | , yzantium was at one time the most important center of political, religious, cultural, and a | Great Schism Bernt activity in the world ofthe former Roman Empire. During the periods of its greatest eographical breadth, the Byzantine Empire encompassed the entire Mediterranean world: North gh Palestine, the Anatolian Plateau, Greece, the Balkans, and Italy. Much of the Black Sea was

| As I celebrate among you and wish you the Eucharist of our Lord Jesus Chri controlled by Byzantium, which extended as far east as modern Syriaand Iraq, Byzantium was a | | I wish us to find in it peace with our fellow man. Peace: the fruit of justice. mighty maritime power and a key trading center for commerce with East Asia.

. i ve. How easily this peace is broken! How often people are diyj tine the Great founded the Byzantine Empire when he moved his capital to Byzantium, iH] Peace: the fruit of lo y this pe Pp Vided Constan) os : f among themselves, even though they are physically close, even in the same family! renaming it Constantinople and formally dedicating it on May 11, 330. The Empire lasted until

Hi al ist give us the ability to remain at peace with others. May there be realiz May 29, 1453, when it fell to the Ottoman Turks. Byzantium lasted for more than eleven hundred

REED May Christ give u ty Pi ed in us Y ; ican aia Empi hich My a the words of His Sermon on the Mount: "Blessed are the peacemakers." years—longer than the combined duration of the Roman Republic and the Ro aeree ate \\ || . oo « ; together lasted some nine hundred eighty-five years (taking 509 B.C. as the beginning of the it | Seoeen B. ig ss' cing pein chap fo the Roman Bananas

Republic and A.D. 476 as the collapse of the Empire). Unlike the Republic and the Empire, | See esate et ae ree ed Byzantium enjoyed the blessing of a wholly Christian orientation and development from its

| | i) | Fn the fourth century into the eleventh century, the Church channeled her energies into the inception. Even though the capital was dedicated under both pagan and Christian rites, Constantine

Th | | conversion of peoples on the European continent. However, this was only one aspect ofthe always heavily favored theChurch, and, as mentioned previously. Emperor Theodosius I made

| i} | many challenges facing the Church. In the eighth and ninth centuries, a number of political and Christianity the official religion of Byzantium in 379. The intricate theological disputes of the fourth

| lA Hy 1] religious factors coalesced that proved to have important ramifications for Christianity. During and fifth centuries demonstrated a deeply Christian culture that marked the Empire even until its

| i Hh) eat these two centuries, the deep-rooted, growing divergence between East and West began to decline and fall.

| | | | surface clearly as the different languages, cultures, geography, and conceptions of political and reli The rise of Islam, however, proved to be a mortal enemy to the Eastern Empire. As Islamic

8lous power that had long divided the East and West became more acute. These twodiverse culexpansion constantly loomed on the horizon in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia Minor as a | | ; eI tures, born from the same sources but now separated by deep cultural heterogeneity, were yet powerful threat to the Empire's territorial integrity. Certain tenets of the Muslim faith prompted the | . united by the same sacramental Christianity. It proved, however, a fragile unity. The rise of the Arabic people to raise a strong military force that had already conquered Byzantine lands by the ie) apalats and the question of papal supremacy, liturgical and disciplinal differences, the Iconoclastic seventh century, including three of the four great Eastern Christian patriarchates (Jerusalem,

| f | ontroversy, and other disagreements all pushed East and West towards a final confrontation.

Antioch, and Alexandria). Islam remained a constant threat to the empire until finally, in the | This chapter will explore the development of Christianity in the Byzantine Empire, with special fifteenth century, Constantinople, and with it the remnants of the decaying Byzantine Empire, fell

. i | emphasis on the religious and political questions raised in Byzantium over the issues of papal (0 the Muslim Ottoman Turks on May: 29, 1455, | i cet! See chapter will also look at the concurrent development of the Church in Constantinople was located on the tip of the Balkan Peninsula just across from Asia Minor along

Ty r h | | » SP y focusing on the relationship of the Church and the Carolingian kings. the narrow Bosporus Strait, which connects the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. The city was built ml Codex Just bas | an 'usiinianus, basis for all canon law Heraclius invades Parsi ff | St. Sophia rebuilt by Justinian | ha a Rome: Icons Srirees ee ee ai on TAR ORO by Empress Theodora; Conversion of Russia; Patriarch in ; | . row y rlumph of Orthodoxy; St. Viadimir is baptized b C tinople ; Ostrogaths Jerusalem — of Rome Leo II! (Emperor} Bulgar leader Photian Schism begins Monastery of Cluny Destruction of the Church theenepeeae, : fomes Spain scaifae Pope St omeiff | dead Couneil of founded aLidoy Sepulchre In begins ili | >——_1_} | i excommunicate = Constantinople IV Wy | | Justinian| 527.565

Grego: a = #+«» err _____ a i SD | a emery the Great 590-604 754 First Papal States Pope St. Leo Ill 7 " m i E | ae i ) Fi a a es MH = _ aiid} | Pose Leo VI 886-912 bss p. Basil 1 976-1025 | | |

| ; 252 ChapterSeven | | | | | | Chapter Seven 253 / | ' iateetiaieiaetenetein cn ss ue » J SCHISM | } HISTORY OF THE CHURCH ICONOCLASM, THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE, AND THE GREAT

= ——— ——— —— ———————— ee | } = — ; { :

| he Church took root in the absence of any strong political communities to which Christians SE y = riatadh themselves. Hence the Church came to be viewed as something that transcended all

P national boundaries or allegiances. re:

=2-O By the East, however, missionary activity, though equally successful, regularly culminated in the = / an tion of national churches attached to specific political communities. Hence various eastern creauvi

: eee arose in partial concert and conflict with the imperial church of the Byzantine Empire.

The burgeoning nationalism of some of these minor churches was strong enough to cause several | ; ' " td -chisms within the Eastern Church. The Eastern Church soon found itself ministering solely to its

— Greek subjects. rn ; The political environment of the Eastern Empire also gave rise to a manner of rule called A | i> . sesaropapism, in which the sovereign temporal ruler extends his authority to ecclesiastical and | , ee 1} +heological matters. To be sure, strains of ca€saropapism could be detected as early as Constantine

| _ "ae a Great, but the emperors who succeeded him only intensified their desire to have a hand in the .

~ o> SS zovernance of the Church. Such emperors appointed bishops and the Eastern Patriarch, directed | > . . «© | a = te +S. the development of liturgical practices, and even aided in the recruitment of monks. In time, the | wae of e * > Son ncreasing power of Eastern emperors put them into direct conflict with the authority of the 'a ot See ve i '* papacy, paving the way for many contentious disputes and schisms.

The Bosporus is a strait that separates the European part of Turkey from the Asian part and connects the Sea of :

Marmara with the Black Sea. Two bridges cross the Bosporus Strait. Due to the importance of the strait for the defense of Istanbul, the Ottoman sultans constructed a fortification on each side. the Anadoluhisari (1393) and EMPEROR JUSTIN[AN l the Rumelihisari (1451) shown above The eastern Emperor Justinian I (ca. 482-565, emperor 527) may be considered the last, great

| on this triangular rocky promontory, surrounded by the sea on the northern, southern, and eastem ruler in the Roman tradition before the political transformation that shook Byzantium in the eighth

| | borders. Emperor Constantine. Emperor Theodosius II, and later Emperor Anastasius I soon century. Justinian I succeeded in resurrecting the glory of imperial Rome in the Eastern Empire,

| erected a series of formidable walls (Anastasius' walls were some forty miles long) along its and is responsible for many advances in architecture, the fine arts, and civil law. Justinian I's view

. westem edge to complete the boundaries of the triangular city—an impressively secure military of himself as head of both the state and the Church, however, led him into conflict with the papacy site that British warships were not capable of taking during the First World War, even with heavy over the question of the heresy of Monophysitism.

. bombardment re vyzantines were Roman in their laws, Greek in their culture, and oriental in their habits, All hese | of these traditions came together in Constantinople which ros y = :

Which rose as a center of learning, art, and isp > F e | ex THE wchitecture ag or Saint Red Bales ~ asks :

| : bailed) x = RDS aee® architecture. Hagia (or Saint) Sophia (the Church of "Holy Wisdom," dedicated to Christ), the ty 2 6 (iy ve AR sf) or) is es cathedral of the patmarch of Constantinople is still] recarded ac .

Pr 0 oh eee — FZ RO es avy5 Lad) At) geee age > stanunople, is still regarded as a wonder of Byzantine art and | ese a, oe (Re 1G ue > ; | \w bese archite tebe the riches of Byzantium likewise converged in Constantinople. The docks were ryt f | | tos W 'y .

Crowded with exo C goods from all 'Wer eh sideaed ee Ai.

; - | ib c ps Cxotic goods 'rom all over the world—wood, grains, silks from Asia, spices, luxuriant igs i wave * of Wt | otung, and precious jewelry filled the markets int € = |

= * "> — ee (26— A r= BYZANTINE CHRISTIANITY ca a | DME | | The numbers of Chr tians in B f a f | | mens remembered that all of th yeanum far exceeded those in Rome and the West. It must be

¢ j | Ab, Cities of Asia Minor w > Rees t : hich Christianity first took hold, such as Palestine and the 5 Sies ..

PG es Vie to fanguage of the East. was th ire ae un the boundaries of the Byzantine Empire: and Greek, the ; | Alt) a ginal language of almost the entire New Testament.

= | j = | i that it « nce had dur ng the era cee oa St Peter © SUCCESSOTrS, it no longer enjoyed the influence Ma Y $ ; authority th the Chur . Se i oman Empire. The Pope continued to serve as the ultimate

Constantinople would come + ; =) relationship between the €mperor and the patriarchs of = re . pS . a .

™~™ WoOul KUNG [O Oversha Ow + ' th Ority af eh :

' in the East developed alone vers lif on f the ernie, of the papacy. Furthermore, the Church + a SWRA Y Is?) @~@ A S. ae > | | ] ; Z 's mwas VCI y < tere une ele = athe :

> £ » Pa political structures of the 'Rimnins ona ines than the Church in the West. In the West, as the PF, y= ls = . notion of the Chir-t ae hea collapsed and missionary activity surged across Europe, the ha eel in the Church of San Vitale,Ravenna, northeast of Florence, Italy, ca. 540, Emperor Justinian | holds the paten for the bread eet ts Universal began ti take an even str sae oo lan Bs some, ast Bishop Maximian holds a cross. Others hold the Gospel book and incense. The group is walking in a procession as part of the eS SWOnger form. This universal conception ily OF the Little Entrance, when the congregation entered the church following the Gospel book 254 Chapter Sev ————— SS ae = ——— lV"

| Chapter Seven 255 i jt _ = HISTORY OFTHE CHURCH ICONOCLASM, THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE, AND THE GREATSCHISM ] MILITARY CAMPAIGNS at | In 553/4 Justinian I led a campaign against the Vandals in pyarAfrica. The Vandals Were

| disorganized and ill-equipped, but had. during the colapse O° Ene tS Srun: Che: Nottten ) | | shores of Africa. In addition to his desire to restore the empire, ustinian was moved by the \ — | African bishops' pleas for help, as the Vandals were particularly harsh on Christians, Justinian |

| | sailed five hundred ships carrying ten thousand infantry and five thousand cavalry against the - | Vandals and marched on Carthage, the Vandal stronghold. Justinian I took Carthage and captured

\ | the Vandal king Gelimer, bringing him as a prisoner to Constantinople, thus temporarily Tesus- | ; a citating the empire's presence in Africa. n !

Apart from his African campaign, Justinian I retook Italy (562) from the Ostrogoths after a long and . m ; '

— | expensive war, and secured most of Spain (555), capturing this land from the Visigoths. In all. by ' eb = re ) the time of Justinian I's death he had reconquered half of Europe as well as northem Africa. His id \ thy | campaigns toward the west and the south came at a price. The Persians, who had threatened the ime | empire from the beginning of Justinian I's reign, never ceased harassing the eastern frontiers

% | Furthermore, the Bulgars and Slavs threatened the empire in the Balkans and even Constantinople v | | itself.

; | Justinian I's rekindling of the empire, however brilliant and amazing, was also brief. Italy fell intothe i | | | hands of the Lombards just three years after his death in 565, and was never recovered. Northem

| . a == which the super-celestial God dwells and walks about." Germanos, Patriarch of Constantinople (715-730) | ZS Wad oy) he eae | | | TORRE 4) 15 Zen HAGIA SOPHIA (538) | A i) ee As wondrous and long-lasting as Justinian I's advancements in the arena of legal scholarship

F aie in: — proved to be, his innovations in architecture were perhaps even more impressive. From Justinian I's patronage grew a unique style of architectural design, which is now called "Byzantine," and | | éey [ ; —ii' virtually all building in the West and East owes much to his influence. The most famous work built

| | | ma = Mt \ under his reign, the magnificent church of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom) at Constantinople, is | | ) — We widely thought to be one of the most perfect buildings in the world, ) | | | | aa ie MONOPHYSITISM AND JUSTINIAN I i al : é| ft. ' oa) | Kaban Const nana ; Monophysitism, or the belief that Christ possesses only one nature and that his human nature is

| | ¢ ¢ i OA © a triumphant Christian emperor. e Incorporated" into the divine nature, remained a prevalent and troubling heresy in Justinian I's

| | | a=4 | } » <— Although he resembles Constantine time. His own wife, Theodora, had definite Monophysite sympathies, and her influence over | ) | > on= ro SS the gn Unt Gata Justinian I was not always for the best. Theodora had been a popular actress known for both her

| { I fio KF 'A a(t7 Sthat the ivory celebrates Justinian I's beauty and antics, many of which fell well short of propriety. At some time in her adult life.

™4 we PS cS, ) Bee however, she converted to Christianity, and by the time Justinian I married her she was living a | | PAO SS respectable and reformed life in relative seclusion,

| Theodora's conversion was probably aided by many of the East's famous spiritual athletes, monks | ) ail CODEx JUSTIN]ANUS (529) who were known for their asceticism and zeal. Unfortunately, many of these same monks, if they

| As par of his ambitious quest to SE ee | ae Monophysites, were very close to being so. The notion of Christ's two natures present in | ) | *, | systemization of all Roman law ac rherr re cay Pundertook the meapee ce amie: Person was supposedly resolved at the Council of Chalcedon (451). There, it was to | | | wanted to ensure a uniform nule of me heen * om up es predecessors. Se

'Rae shown that the West —in the person of Pope St Leo I—and the East—in the person of | | | ha ultimate reference for ahey eel cara nee us grow ing empire, and sought to Prove e : sa lp —were united in their understanding of Christ S Person. Unfortunately, controversy still

| | | d represents the highest achievement in eee ese The result, the Codex je aay Eastern Christians felt that St. Leo's formulation of Christ's two natures did not ) | i y | important basis for the development ofhit Justinian I's Codex FA:

2 le with St. Cyril S teaching on the same subject matter and represented a kind of | | in all the countries of Eur sine € law of the Church—as well as for civil la

=i Ping I €stonanism. This was the first council not recognized by any of the Churches of the | | | | | "astern Christian tradition (called "Old Oriental Churches").

| || | 256 Chapter Seven a ee SO ————————— —— | | Chapter Seven 257 | | a ——— i ——,, > | ca KI HISTORY OFTHE CHURCH |ICONOCLASM, THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE, ANDTHEGREATSCHISM

] } JUSTINIAN'S EMPIRE ca. 560

| — / ae _Ae ~ iy { "<a a a S | — ses - <~ y) } KINGDOM hs al 'al ae ; OF ae v \/ ie ae | FRANKS figsa :

Lo PBR i Ey.3 é - — ,:

¢ > a - _ Ka | @Arles ee a :

4 C+ Oc tgs t | yoa ISLANDS Pie é : aeA (7 % Lame et arnide Hell | * Cartagena Carales pea'isse AY, 4Yj a leoniur .

——— el p Qo JIS AN Cn fs :

<P>, a= ee ~ aS é Srna . ye . . iS = t OT MgCarthage gi 'alba -gyPerga Seleucia HI | ; 6, vor ON a y ; Myra . ae » .

» CRETE Podes ¥ 2 Salamis Mi w/ Palmyra | he en , Diocaesarea ( .

|__| Monophysite if, a .

| l |} Nestonan 4A, TT Alexandria teat 0 '

' t Petra | Patriarchate é : f 2.

-° P€ninsula showing the Bosporus EEO, bP .

| ieee was developed by Justinian | between 527 and 565 to enclose | boca', my Strait connecting the Black Sea to Se gem! = the Chapel of the Burning Bush built by St. Helen, the mother

) ) aad — ae the north and the Sea of Marmara ee ). brs |\-=| of Constantine I, at the site where Moses is believed to | hm § SN e to the south. The city of Istanbul Sein OAM woke | have seen the burning bush. The bush is considered to still

(Constantinople) with a population Beage en be alive and is the most venerated area on the grounds.

Si seat straddies tania '

D ities, a a es The monastery also comprises the entire Orthodox Church of } | ] Sea of Marmara of the Strait.

Fi pressge=} Mount Sinai, an autonomous (as distinct from autocephalous) | | At .e =, * ] Orthodox Christian church headed by an archbishop. chapter seven r "ache Ve ie | Chapter Seven 259 .

—a a = | HISTORY OFTHE CHURCH ICONOCLASM, THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE, AND THE GREAT SCHISM | | i Justinian I's desire was to reconcile the remaining Monophysites in the East with the Church, This

Jerusalem. He held the city siege for twenty days, and finally oe it with a aeie ay ti | n itself was laudable. Often, however, Justinian I's desire for such reconciliation, combined with hy

Jews who were eager to destroy Christian sovereignty in their city.

Historians estimate that in | ; re nat hi f who privately held Monophysite tendencies — proved disastrous for th | ndering of Jerusalem between sixty and one-hundred thousand Christians lost their lives.

| or his wife— u ; ; | ipa ack Mea oh DORE Serie peices cheps eC murclies Christian shrines, and monasteries were destroyed, and theTrue Cross was carted offas

H Th ' hy of war. Jews, as a reward for their help, were allowed to retain the city.

| SeeaesHie Pate t =fikeeae"Church, be made Boel that 2< point in time, Emperor Heraclius had acceded to rule the Byzantine Empire. When the .

| Vigilius, a Monophysite who ha : instead By this :

| fhesling and Vigilius conspired against Pope St. Silverius and forged documents Proving his Persians invaded Jerusalem, Heraclius had neither the men nor the funds to resist ons we

H betrayal of the empire. Pope St. Silverius was deposed and sent into exile. Justinian [ largely existing forces were occupied elsewhere, warring against the Slavs, and his economic re Sule SS

| | because of his wife's influence, was unable to investigate fully the accusations leveled against not yet generated enough revenue to equip another army. After much negotiation,

Silverius. Hence the emperor's deference to his wife in this instance led to St. Silveriys' conworked out an agreement with the Patriarch of Constantinople in order to fund his campaign

. fined exile and eventual death against the Persians. He would be allotted all the wealth of the churches so long as he would repay

| poke ; sed tuatiaratnee temo 83 loans after defeating the Persians and liberating Jerusalem. His funding secure, Heraclius i] | | Justinian I's activity in ecclesiastical activities ed to other abuses in the same vein, and Constitutes bull up his army for two more years and in 622 began a counter-offensive against the Persians.

| the main flaw of his otherwise admirable reign.

' ee An : f Persi | » Heraclius' campaign, sometimes called the Byzantine Crusade, culminated in his invasion of Persia | in 627. King Chosroes fled, and in 629 Heraclius, victorious, entered Jerusalem to venerate the relic

| a of the True Cross, which had been restored to the holy city, .

™~ Iam the LorpD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of . bondage. You shall have no other gods before me. You shall not make for yourself a | .

| ~~ \\ 0 graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is on the earth } i] ; Pay J | { 7) \ I beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve

| | | | | | » d | , them; for I the Lorp your God ama jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon iil | AL the Battle of Nineveh in § — the children to the third and fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing

| the e nev 7, Byzantine forces| Vv Flay .

~ forces of kingCares rite dan bi ia ae hiner Heraclius Augustus, Byzantine emperor from 610 to 641, defeated the Persian steadfast love to thousands of those who love me and keep my commandments.

| | Risteliatinertrc ines —_ Hk k i imse It e title of Basileus, the Greek word for emperor," and that title was used by the eastern

E ; ; > . tsell Re Ougho StOF tS history,it was in reality a Hellenic ref f F i i i | | many 4 Hellenic empire from Heraclius onward

A bes lirst section of this chapter set the stage for the Iconoclastic Controversy. The Iconoclastic | | EMPEROR HER Controversy and its attendant heresy, iconoclasm, served as the breaking point between the ) ACLIUS: A PILGRIM IN JERUSALEM Fastem emperors and the popes. Though religious communion was maintained between the | | .

Aer Justinian I's death in 565, the empire fell into disarray. The lands he had reclaimed were soon path Western wei ak =sVein Saghinanahcsnse ue pa eee anid! papes-essumed

| lost again, and none of his immediate successors approached his level of charisma or focus FeeaL DaSIaOns regarding the status and tse of icons. ThisRe ee eee Further, Justinian I's many Civic projects had drained the empire's treasury, and there was litle

'e papacy to seek the prorection of the Western Franks to protect against the sometimes | wealth comir int Onst: le because of Oppressive m f i | oaaieson :ee because of the raids abroad. The overextension of the empire,

Casures of dissenting emperors. ie ly s7 ar leader, and even diminishing revenues crippled a once-magnificent empire The Iconoclastic Controversy may be broken down into several periods:

| a € same time, "sians we a : ine .

; Sie So Uay i te were abbas strength. The Persians had first warred against the * First Iconoclasm under the reigns of Emperors Leo III and Constantine V, ca. 725-775:

| | ) j had continually raided the PICS : ad even taken this €mperor prisoner. Ever since then, they * Iconophile recovery under the Empress-regent Irene, the mother of Constantine VI.

| | Substantive incursions for a ve eae aaes of Byzantium, but were unable to make any and the Seventh Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787), 775-815;

| , Chosroes prepared to realize the Persians' longee I's death, however, the Persian King * Second Iconoclasm under the reigns of Emperors Leo V, Michael II, and | | a Tle - ] € 10pes, Theo hil y .

| In 611, King Chosroes. aft é Dhilus, 815-842:

Wer Os.alter a series of lesser ¢ é ae ; :

. largest invading force yet mustered Beene ngagements, marched against Byzantium with the Thumph of Iconophiles, celebrated on the first Sunday of Lent as the | | | mt ~ ~istan times. In 614 his son-in-law Shaharbarz took

Feast of Orthodoxy," 843.

| | | \ —— | 260 Chapter Seven —— —— ——— a OS ee ) .

: j | ICONS i | An icon is a flat, two-dimensional picture of Christ, the Virgin Mary, or one of the Saints. Icons THEOPHANES THE GREEKA WRITER OF ICONS became numerous in the East beginning in the fifth century, and were used as aids for Christian

| | acts of piety. Highly ritualized prayer before icons involving bowing and the lighting of incense : became the norm among the Christian faithful. These practices, to a greater or lesser extent ey eM | | remain in both the Western and Eastern Rites of the Church today. The general artistic Style of *.vy yo] | icons reflects a certain mystical beauty of Christ the Savior and the saints. When rightly

; is , | | understood, the icon, by virtue ofwhat is represented, is seen as an invitation to Prayer and not as [ WEA | Z | | an object to be worshiped. i | ) , ; "ae : t \

There are various explanations as to the rise of iconoclasm. The word iconoclast" is the | . oF AVN) | Ay iit ' f | | translation of the Greek word eikonoklastés, which, as the compound of eikén (image) and klan (to WN| | break), literally means "image breaker." Some scholars point to the influence of Judaism and Islam,

| which both proscribed the use of images in worship, to explain the rise of iconoclasm. Others ¥ phat a | argue that from the beginning of the Church, a latent strain of iconoclasm lay hidden below the :

| Surface, clouded over for a time by other, more pressing theological disputes.

| In any case, many scholars agree that by the beginning of the eighth century, abuses of icons had ) | sprung up among the faithful. Many people came to believe that icons held Spécial powers. This

| | devolved quickly into a kind of superstition, and worshipers often fixed their attention on the icon | itself, rather than at the spiritual mysteries the icon was intended to represent. A kind of idolatry, an .

: forbidden by the First Commandment. emerged from this incorrect use of the icons. As a guard va | against such idolatry, the iconoclasts sought to destroy the icons, and, in their view, purify the | :

| practice of the Christian religion.

|| |) . a B Our Lady of Viadimir (also known as Eleousa, i} ) | . a j , * oer * Greek meaning "Mother of tenderness") is one

| | | va hae pom. d ' ¥ of the most venerated Orthodox icons. Regarded .

Hy : as the holyprotectress of Russia, the icon is | | | | ) | is ye. at AY , ty oth f; displayed in the Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow - , !

Patriarch Luke Chrysoberges of Constantinople | | | | aH ; 9 oy' Sas eh celle Nate eaten3Sar The Transfiguration by Theophanes the Greek, early 15th century, from the | || ) a , tal y VOIgoruky OF Kiev ca é beautifu Cathedral of Transfiguration of the Savior in Pereslavi. Now it hangs in the | ) Py 3 oF e-| '

=) 'Mage was loved by Yury's son, Andrei the Pious, Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow | | \ ses y \ ™ Ee > who brought it to his favorite city Vladimir in 1155

| .ae — vy tji 9% sepals hatine aad tee a . x iconographer (literally "icon-writer") of the Annunciation, inviting Andrei | .

. oe ee ) df Viadl a :

= ° A | | pat. 1 mh "ct i ¥ was interpreted as a sign that the Blessed Virgin isa writer — called a "writer" because Rublev to help him on this project. In | ) | he i ey , oh Oi wanted to stay in Vladimir. To house the icon, the he paints a story—in icons. Theophanes doing so, he helped develop the artistic

|| | . Sp ae Nee cay ' " great Assumption Cathedral was built there, the Greek is considered one of the talents of Rublev, who went on to / | | Wg Re Ww ile Peeks by shi churches dedicated to the Virgin greatest iconographers of all time. He become one of the greatest Russian Ly J "7 oe Mroughout no '

| Pe A "a . it ' ugnout northwestern Russia was born in Crete around 1330 and moved iconographers of all time.

| |] ' a | = => i ne of the most exquisite icons ever written, to Novgorod, Russia, in 1378. T ha | :

4h-~ Ao Our Lady of Viadimir is imbued with universal ee a pea tar heophanes In all, Theophanes the Greek wrote ; y a 1' q. feelings of motherly love and anxiety for her ral : et with a deep knowledge icons for over forty churches in Russia Hy il | eR.

We=s > | 3 dis | child known as the Eleousa type. By the 16th 4 religious literature and art. While in and Constantinople. Unlike most iconoae { '

One legend is tha S across thecity. ici '4 y= 'Mage was painted by St. Luke on the table of the f models when making his aPons. He was

Last Supper Theophanes moved to Moscow in 1395, also instrumental in developing the | | os | s '

' se ae | | | Pi The venerated image was considered to be here he worked on the Book ofGospels iconostasis (the screen of icons dividing

| ' miraculous and used in coronations of czars. of Boyar Koshka. In 1405 he wrote icons the sanctuary from the nave) as it is still

| | elections of patriarchs, and other important for the Deesis tier in Moscow's Cathedral used today in an Eastern Church.

| | ceremonies of state | || | ~ | | 262 Chapter Seven ree ee oo = | | | Chapter Seven 263 | | | | } | EE ~ We TT HISTORY OF THE CHURCH coNOCLASM, THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE, AND THE GREAT SCHISM

We dH I} | nil | ionly 'il FIRST ICONOCLASM ST. JOHN OF DAMASCUS Wan A great defender of icons and their veneration was St. John

WR, ie | EMPEROR LEO III, THE ISAURIAN (717-741) a of Damascus (ca. 655-ca. 750), also known as St. John Leo III's distrust of icons must be viewed in the context of the preceding centuries, Two orthree adlagglagy.

Damascene. At a young age, St. John renounced his family enh | centuries earlier, the Monophysite heresy had minimized or denied the humanity of Chrisp Bs

. wealth and became a monk near Jerusalem. During the | A | Manicheanism denied that Christ possessed corporeality. Although both heresies had alregdy been iC years 726 to 730, St. John wrote the iconophile works in . | | . condemned by the Church, remnants of heterodox belief had survived here and there These

: defense of Pope St. Gregory Il against Leo Ill. (Iconophile— | {y 4) . specific heresies were aided by Islamic and Jewish influences upon Christian thought. In these

Greek for "lover of icons"—refers to support of the proper :RR other monotheistic religions, representations ofGod are definitively forbidden. The icons, which ] f use of icons in Christian worship.) Aside from criticizing

. | | | mh were representations of Christ in his full corporeality, thus came under fire from both Sides, The f =. iconoclasm itself, St. John also decried imperial interference yu | Monophysites objected to the icons' portrayals of Christ as human; and those Christians allied with q } in ecclesiastical matters. yl | | | Muslims and Jews objected to the representation of any Person of the Godhead.

~~ , } St. John's crowning work is the Fount of Wisdom, espe- | Aside from these theological pressures, political ones played a role as g cially the section titled "De Fide Orthodoxa." In it, St. John

| | meme = well. Leo Ill, like his Roman predecessors, desired a unified state y ¢xplicates the teaching of the Greek Fathers on all the | "© WR oS and one way of obtaining such unification was to secure a unity

™ 'important doctrines of Christianity. Here St. John defends Hy t ee MA of religious belief. Hence it was in Leo's interest to persuade a» ' the use of icons by reference to the mystery of the | | =oe SM Muslims and Jews to convert to Christianity. He soon bechins

} oy. Os, Incarnation. In coming to the world as the God-man, Jesus | | .

See Be ( DRA convinced, however, that the chief impediment to their con:

LLC 'Yr Christ, God gave implicit permission for the depiction of inten) rh:

} version was the Christian use of icons in liturgical practice ee Christ's human form in art. It would therefore follow that | | SOL HE) Lon By discouraging the use of icons, Leo III thought to appease os ae ae dignified and respectful representations of God would be pan — + wy certain influential factions of Christians (those tending toward Greek icon of St. John of Damascus, praiseworthy.

| i ; SS Net, pabadeese erat and at the same time win over countless SayaAMENY Considered the last of the Eastern Church Fathers, St. John

Hy | 'a Hw I~, Y ee and Muslims, thus consolidating his state. ofDamascus was made a Doctor of the Church by Pope Leo XIII in 1890. He enjoys the same feast

) WA patsy Leo II's desire to placate the Muslims was somewhat under. day in both the East and West, celebrated on December 4.

HT | . standable, ene at the beginning of the eighth century was | ) teetering on collapse. Between 634 and 644 the Muslims had ca

E ptured S the entire Holy Land, and had continued their march into the Anatolian Plateau. The Muslims laid CONSTANTINE V (741 71S) | siege to Constantinoplefor five years from 673 to 678, and again in 717. Were it not for the city's

When Constantine V succeeded Leo III as emperor he moved to strengthen the theological basis | NES defenses, Byzantium would have fallen in the eighth century instead of the fifteenth. Upon 'gainst the icons by gaining the support of the Greek church. To this end he convened the Council

,Eee Emperor Leo III managed to end the siege of 717, but he remained all too aware of of Hiereia (754), a non-ecumenical council which was a carefully orchestrated to deliver the . is angers his empire still faced. results Constantine V sought. Not only did Constantine V exclude Rome and the rest of the West

| us, in 726 Leo issued an edict declaring that all icons w : from the council, he did not even invite the ancient patriarchies of Jerusalem, Antioch, and | e ~

| | their destruction. Pope St. Gregory Il, Patria hS re occasions foridolatry and ordered Alexandria. The bishops of all these patriarchies, obviously, were iconophiles. ie aid pearlvall rates regory rch St. GermanusI of Constantinople, most bishops.

Wey ud | eee aie: th ee condemned Leo's edict. Leo wasted no time in combating his Constantine V encountered an unexpected and powerful adversary: the monks. These same

. coreeabarals pads = hs Patriarch St. Germanus I. Meanwhile. Pope St. Gregory Il, after monks had opposed Leo III, and their continued opposition to Constantine V's policy earned

HT | ) pad syian aines "a I regarding the icons, suddenly died in 731. Consequently, Leo's them several hardships: exile, imprisonment, and death. One of these monks who died under ie | thetr icons to the' «ie aeoe in force, and when the Eastern monks refused to surrender

Constantine V's persecutions was St. Stephen the Younger (d. 765). A street mob, incited by / ) | | Byzantine icons wenepeak tye pha Ae persecution upon them. Many of the oldest conoclasts, stoned him to death. Three hundred additional monks were put to death for the Faith.

' undreds of monks and | ir lives i icons' defense. Finally.

P nuns lost their lives in the icons . y.

Fope St. Gregory III, who succeeded P, fn Rome in 731 hat condemned Leosans eerste oe G80 I.convered two coun ICONOPHILE RECOVERY: THE SEVENTH ECUMENICAL COUNCIL:

| Ae piabe irae obstinate. At his death in 741, iconoclasm as still in force in the THE SECOND COUNCIL OF NICAEA (787) | } St .

| ¢m Church was no longer in communion with Rome regarding this matter.

Constantine V was succeeded in 775 by his son, Leo IV. Leo IV eased the persecutions of the ) .

Sea and did not enforce. though he did not repeal, his predecessors' iconoclast measures. Leo ) a} | Ses only for a short while, and died in 780. Upon Leo IV's death, his wife. the Empress Irene,

| | fet was mother to the child heir, Constantine VI, took control of the empire. The Empress Irene | | = Catholic sympathies, and was secretly an iconophile. In a move to restore the icons, she

. iN Senki kd Suaded Pope Adrian I to convene the Seventh Ecumenical Council, the second council at :

| those in attendance would be reminded of the First Ecumenical Council at Nicaea called .

Constantine the Great, and would restore orthodoxy in the East. y MICROCOSM OF CREATION Pope Adrian I was represented by two legates who arrived with written condemnations of th

Council of Hiereia, which, because it was convened in opposition to the papacy, could not be ak cons are stylistic paintings on wood that Writing an icon The important patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem were not permitted to attend the ps both symbolic of the spiritual world council by their Muslim ruler, the caliph. Instead, each sent two monks. In all. more than thee and "written" in accordance with sacred HH | hundred bishops attended the Seventh Ecumenical Council, Nicaea II. The Eastern Chur hes rules. One such rule requires that an icon ii i celebrate the feast of the Fathers of the Seventh Ecumenical C C es uses elements from all of creation:

Ouncl vegetable, animal, mineral, and human. aay j :

— | Ra JaLAng. ' The Council, just one month after convening, declared jts Vegetable. An icon is written on wood, .

| KY —~ (DY, acceptance of the veneration of icons in line with the papal often birch or linden. (Usually a recessed ha |OR - \, position regarding their legitimacy. It then went on to area is carved from the face of the wood to | & a4 | is gE f) distinguish between two types of adoration. An jCon tay represent the separation ofthe earthly and | ly . 4 rae hy } : off " be venerated through acts of respect and honor (Gr : spiritual worlds.) Linseed oil protects the ' A dulia), since bowing, lighting lamps, or burning ees surface ofthe icon after painting; it also

# — | | VecoNS iwi ay before the picture of a saint is honor paid for the per se brightens the color, making the icon appear

> ll | | } ONS \\ i) if represents, and not for the image itself. God dues nieseee | | | | . RONG,ieON y worthy of absolute adoration (Greek, Jatria). The Schalie

Animal. Egg yolk is mixed with vinegar and | | | SeAW [UN tradition in the West later solidified this distinction whe water: UESee coe | | Aex 4<iWY used the terms dulia to indicate the reverence due to cre : 3 iiake09DSS na eee er era :

| | | — such as saints, and the term Jatria to indicate the absolute ad ane pismmeemet RENE Shae he x | due to God alone.

€ adoration applied to the raw wood to seal it. Rabbit > > | ] | .

| skin or fish glue binds powdered stone to form gesso. Brushes of animal fur apply the | | | SECOND ICONOCLASM (815-843) egg tempera, = | Although the Ecumenical siete ne Ss Mineral. Gold leaf is used for halos and thin

> ) | | Restored SGhERRRR of Nicaea officially denounced iconoclasm as a heresy and rays on clothing. Marble or chalk is crushed

| | iS asec oes : s een ast and West, a political crisis inaugurated by events in the Balkans to powder, mixed with glue (gesso), and 1} ) | ) | ie 3 . penod of iconoclasm beginning in 815, heated; this forms a base for the painting.

LN aw | ) | € Bulgar Slavs had proved resistant to Chris ; Colors are added to the e i 1} | ; i s ristianit :

=A . gg solution to | for some time. Finally. in 811 the Bidens lester aciteee pe anges pressed upon Byzantium create egg tempera. Clay is used as a base

| | | | emperor Nicephorus. Not since the Roman aR iy oeseat Byzantine for gold leaf. oe7 = | | ) "rma "be Pips Sie es faS Slain in 378 at ri ; :

Krum aa one had such a thing happened. In a gesture of contempt for weakeni ae ef Human. The iconographer writes an icon | | | m drank wine from Nicephorus' skull ning Dyzantum.

(see Theophanes the Greek on page 263).

| | Two years later. the Byz:

He prepares the other elements f | | | S later, yzantine military sta Sat ats : pe ments trom | leadership under Michael |. The neweer : tara coup against the defunct Byzantine creation in an ordered way to produce an | | | Byzantium as a way of strengthening the influ £0 V (775-820) sought to rehabilitate iconoclasm in Icon. He utilizes his status as created in the | | recent Second Council of Nicaea had officially en ofit Seah military. For even though the <a ep0d to re-form creation into new a | | view, the heresy retained many adherents in a Se 'conoclasm's status as a viable theological eau Be ae oF Goel Se nes » | | | Leo V. in propagating iconoclasm, hoped toee and upper echelons of Byzantine society. eae ) | successors Michael II (emperor 820-820) Bi this base. As a result. both he and his two

| | iconoclast policy, nd itheophilus (emperor 829-842) continued the || | | Leo V deposed the P, vs ) nT || > 1€ Fatriarch of Cons .

| threats, and in his stead sonia Hee who clung to orthodoxy despite the emperors / | i ae ¢:counel with the aim of retuming ees een friendly to him. This patriarch soon

| | | aki ai of the council Leo V encountered a suy sdrwnges Hilereia's (753) conclusions. When in the | | €vived the persecutions, which continued mee singly strong resistance from the episcopacy, he

) ) | are Nabated until Theophilus' death in 842.

EMpress trene on a gold cc | N Press Irene on a gold coin from the Constantinople mint,797-802 | ; ————— eee / ) 266 Chapter Seven —— ———< ———— a | i eee :

TNT _— Chapter Seven 267 | | HISTORY OF THE CHURCH ICONOCLASM, THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE, AND THE GREAT SCHISM || Wh | | =» Tht | = SS => } | ys ; " f the Carol d tT : a.4

The Rise of the Carolingians an | | eRe — an Independent Papacy | | ' 4 Md uring the iconoclast controversies, the popes had regularly tumed to the Western Franks for | iy ih protection against the Byzantine emperors. The Franks' conversion and rise to power came to | Wd ve, provide the West with a semblance of political unity anda relatively stable support for the Church.

This alliance between the papacy and the Franks would culminate in the crowning of Charlemagne SE} as Emperor in 800. To understand the alliance and its importance it is necessary to look back some

| | x g sixty years earlier, to the transfer of power from the Merovingian line of Frankish inheritance to the | a0UE of | a THE ORIGIN OF THE CAROLINGIAN LINE Mill | | Dating back to Clovis, the Merovingian Dynasty (named for Meroveus, an ancestor ofClovis) ruled

| | | | : the Franks. Due to the corruption and incompetence of the Merovingian kings and nobles, they had | : 5 iotiottbe only nominal control over their kingdom. Since the end of the seventh century, the real power over | ' x) Constantinople eg ie eae the Franks had been in the hands of the Carolingians (named for Charles Martel, who established

| | > cH This icon depicts those who lis the dynasty), whose official title was "Mayors of the Palace."

) | ' + nee during the periodo Pepin the Short (741-767) was a Carolingian and the son of the famed Charles Martel, who had

Lit | | . wey in the top rowER defeated the Muslims at Tours in 732. Pepin appeared to be a brute in his physical characteristics:

| | | as tg and her son Michael Il standor short, broad-shouldered, and strong. However, he also had a keen intelligence and understanding

| uh lat ie and Patriarch Methodius of others. He combined these qualities with an extraordinary ambition for power.

| i / 'h on the right. In the cent enin enlidiff ic ~i tj j ingi BI je the Hodigitria icon, aebie Pepin solidified his pe as the only heir to the Carolingian dynasty when his other brother

| , Luke. (Hoogtrinea fete a eae ee 'a ote to Pope xs Zachary requesting that he and his progeny be given | tf | rio tea oroele e ' ove : e ee < a it was they who retained actual power among the Franks.

) ) e eal " rist are held by +. bonitace, wno was the papal legate in the Germanic territories, successfull ired Pi LE SC conophil h Oe ae . ae oe sc 5m ae eebity s permussion to recognize the new Carolingian dynasty as the rightful rulers in central ee ee Europe, officially transferring power from the Merovingian Dynasty.

| | | St. Boniface anointed Pepin ki i inni ) .

| pin king in 751, marking the beginning of a long and complicated allegiance ) THE FEAST OF THE between the Carolingians and the papacy in the West.

I] | | TRIUMPH OF ORTHODOXY (843 } It required another empress and regent, Em Th salbaae el 4 ine ple STATES | } | iconoclasm and restore orthodoxy in the Foe eeOdora: tO reverse the new wave of Pope §

| Theophilus of Constantinople ee in the East. Theodora deposed the iconoclast Patriarch oats eee mee succeeded St. Zachary, expected protection from Pepin the Short

||| | and imprisoned by Theophilus cae in his Place Bl. Methodius, who had been tortured erhectations Po ee rites Papal support of the Carolingians. To reiterate the Papacy's

| ) | replaced by orthodox iconophiles and ' Methodius, iconoclast bishops were deposed and Lombards ieee ee ca pophisia across the Alps into France to meet with Pepin. The Triumph of Orthodoxy in order to celet S 1 first Sunday of Lent Was named the Feast of the Pope Ster he ; wile pokes 3 Rome, and the Byzantines did not intend to protect Italy.

| ) | celebrate this feast today. rate the triumph of the icons. The Eastern Churches still recruit Pep) Cane: Phat the Byzantines would not hesitate to abandon the sae fe cin

| | | Hetice in ree hee are pins aid in the defense of Rome. On July 28, 754, the pope publicly anointed Pepin and | | SP ei nane after more than one hundred years of contr

0 SOns—repeating with more pomp the consecration already performed by St. B ai | 7) | , ones were again decorated with k ~"

> OF controversy and schism —the barren walls and threatened to condem isobe WOES ES I St | | icons was finally sete 1 beautiful icons, and We adhd oracle ofae dow thas the Gia, a anyone who disobeyed them. This consecration was designed to | | = ? wigs Could bestow secular authority to kings. Pepin i i | .

Pepin in turn agreed to interv L nal of the pope before the Lombard ruler.

) lapter Seven ——— ———— ——_ ———— | | .

| | yi] * | Chapter Seven 269 | .

| — = | ee = em | iy i NE TTe |] HISTORY OF THE CHURCH ICONOCLASM, THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE, AND THE GREAT SCHISM | - ————ee | ; ama aaa ji | # | Later that same year, Pepin and his army marched into northern Italy and asked the Lombarq awfully binding for his subjects. Moreover, officials of P } f leader Aistulf to refrain from taking Rome. As a show of force, Pepin laid siege to an Outlying

'he Church also served in Charlemagne's civil posts, :

| | | Lombard stronghold just over the Alps. Aistulf initially accepted Pepin's conditions, but whe ee often acted as his diplomats. Charlemagne himAG

| Pepin withdrew back across the Alps, Aistulf reneged on the agreement and marched on Rane self in an effort to model his rule on the Person of J Consequently, Pepin again moved his troops over the Alps and launched an attack on the ist built himselfa throne without precious stones

| | | Lombards, soundly defeating them. This time, Pepin left behind a contingent of his army to stick wo signify the simplicity of Christ's Incarnation.

| oy We a | ) MEIUale HOTS that Aistulf followed through on the terms of peace.

4 eS Charlemagne acted in the best interNNN mitt ] | In the end, Pepin won Rome for the papacy, as well as securing Ravenna and Perugia. These lands

. of the Church. He tried to reform the clergy, would become known as the Papal States. For the first time in the history of the Church, the -<tablished new dioceses, and raised the necessary

) ope, who had always been a spiritual leader, became a sovereign one as w fern - de tq support worship and the priests. In order to pop y p & ell. This direct funds to suppO p :

| administration of temporal lands by the papacy would last until 1870, when Italy would unify itself maintain control over his empire, Charlemagne ap- | as a nation-state.

<inted missi dominici, civil servants who were :

— kes Their responsibility was to enter all the .

| The direct involvement of the papacy in the administration of a state was both advantageous investigators. heir respon.

: and troublesome for the Church. On the one hand, it ensured that the Papacy would enjoy different parts of the empire and provide reports on .

| independence from Byzantine emperors who wished to exert influence over the Chinen the dvil and religious life of particular areas. sels | ecclesiastical affairs. Hence, it made the ongoing missionary work and ecclesiastical organization

4 devout Catholic, Charlemagne rigorously observed i | | | more manageable for the Church hierarchy. Furthermore, the defined ternitory of the Papal States his times for prayer and fasting, and attended many

; | | | | | would also serve as a means of protection against the Lombards and other bellicose peoples. On iturgical ceremonies. In addition, he sang inthe choir f | | eresa ta ' oe of temptations that always beset those in political power became and read the Bible daily.

; Pi | suddenly relevant for those in authority. Because of this SES < > ier > - | | | Sieiles HEReHae ¥ SE this, some abuses arose in the Church which Despite Charlemagne's sincere religiosity, it would be

| wise mignt have been avoided. It is pointless to deny that there were such abuses —the eali i i | | well documented—bi erie Rae hae ¥ are wrong to idealize him excessively. He was all too

) cumente ut it is also wrongheaded to place an undue importance upon them, Th iasti z | | | munisters of the Church, who are human, are as capable of sin and error as ar te le os . viling to interfere in ecclesiastical governance —for . is evidenced in St. Peter's early denial of Jesus. But the Church herself 1neoeh io ee es een ein?Nae ee —_ =i | | | | | spiritual Bride of Christ, continued (and conunués) to teach the truth and sanc if he es oe auelly the people of Saxony. NOpSIECSS Hs NEY

Ht | despite human failings. It bears repeating that it is the Holy Spirit wh h sree BS S ae real faults were often the result of a misapplied or ill- — Hl | Buides the Catholic Church.

: ae Y 9pirit who holds in existence and informed zeal, rather than manifestations of any truly — This portrait of Emperor Charlemagne by Albrecht Durer

| evil intent, and he died in the arms of the Church, Pall him with a divine, iconic countenance. Heisshown hich he loved so much and defended so often

DOM MCIONSae SERA , HfTED = .

) CHARLEMAGNE'S RELATI in e ® ' aoe ee son of Pepin, became after the death of his brother ONSHIP TO THE PAPACY | P te\ aroiman I rit f fa arc bi 4) e A are :

| ae fee ait eee of his father's kingdom. Charles ruled for a The Lombards, who had been defeated under Pepin, again threatened Rome in July of 773. Pope as tal ' any years o } = y, r :

} Scandic aete w hich were devoted to securing and AdnanI (772-795) sought Charlemagne's aid, and in response Charlemagne and his troops routed

| | aihaepa t tough economically draining, his frantic ihe invading Lombards. As Charlemagne marched into Rome on Easter the following year, he

H I | | — ii Sik: By oesx aie fifty military campaigns —was not recelved a hero's welcome. Three doors of St. Peter's were opened wide to receive Charlemagne,

| | ~ vou. y Ue EL OF nis j arlec rij cr of and ino ar _ :

| ; = Westen aea : pa a 814, Charles had unified most of "x upon entering, he prostrated himself before the pope. Adrian granted the title "Patrician of .

~ one Christian ruler.

Some to Charlemagne and renewed the papacy's alliance with the Franks. Charlemagne | my cs, Known as "the Great" (in English, the French title "Charlesbsequently made himself king of the Lombards, and thus became the first ruler to unite all the | | | sp is used; in Latin, Carolus Magnus), was the most powerful velmanic kingdoms.

) ; = and charismatic ruler to "g : st since Chart Uharlemagne's simple throne in tha lan - : emerge i ie nce } 1¢ Narieme iF j = i :

Chapelnthe Aachen Caonean ee ace reat Caesars. He Was a ie gis ised erie fe ee rh 'ites marched into Rome again in 800, this time to investigate charges of corruption that | oe Cnap as +H ] | Leary grandfather: but unlike his arinaer te e358 ay:a a a aioe brought against Pope St. Leo III, Adrian's successor. The Roman nobility, who for at least

} | ene with extraordinary political ability. No common warlord Cha i als °- i ie pela years had been a source of pain for the Church, had accused St. Leo III of conspiracy

| Spee and had committed large parts of St Augustine's Gey 2ae na eas oe e* Corruption and locked him in a monastery to await trial. Pope St. Leo III escaped his imprisie

| acai ae c and ci vil reforms did much for the growth ofEven pine eee cehis a ze begged Charlemagne to restore him to power. Charlemagne wept over the injustices

| | | a -Uropean leaders and kings Sought to emulate his reign ulture. Centuries ' utted against the successor to St. Peter and made plans to rectify the situation.

| | | P ariémagne's public policy wac a.

: ier under oath = Ca aes ae Sn : Public policy was explicitly Christian. He drei : from tl te ah ;._ oath and before Charlemagne, Pope St. Leo III swore that he was innocent of the crimes

) aw) for his own civic legislation, and he co d €w Irom the laws of the Church (Canon "arged him, Fortunately, with the help of Charlemagne, St. Leo III was able to escape the R :

) wousiered the decrees of synods and councils to be machinations, Bas ee | | .

———— ty ll 270 Chapter Seven Se ___._.__——_"|} —— ||| | ————— ee .| ; | | Chapter Seven 271 ) | | ee a SE -) |_| | jjde — — Ne HISTORY OF THE CHURCH ICONOCLASM, THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE, AND THE GREAT SCHISM fl | See a | CHARLEMAGNE CROWNED EMPEROR (800) | | | gem Only a couple days after the completion of his trig}. Pope s a ee '

/ y rm Leo II] crowned Charlemagne emperor during the Christmas | Ss day Mass at St. Peter's Basilica in 800. This Crowning, which ; '

MIMS (PM cources say took Charlemagne by surprise, was not just 5 » | ae | P ar reaffirmation of Charlemagne's title as "King of the Franks ang ek. a (Ex Wife) Lombards" which he had held for some years, it now made , AG of ee ee } him a Roman Emperor. The new imperial title given by the , di .

| Pay ¥ € A pope placed Charlemagne's Carolingian empire in a direct line , | .

\" a of descent from the old Roman Empire. Charlemagne's ; | ow crowning by the pope meant that the Germans were finally

Y, incorporated into Roman civilization.

| is i The actions of Pope St. Leo III and Charlemagne infuriated = i « ~ Bae il } A ; 1) the Byzantine emperors. Since the Byzantine emperors sij

) | Vg —~,€, £8 considered themselves the rightful imperial rulers of Westem i . wn Cay f, "—Sf Europe. they viewed the papacy's actions with contempt. In » Pek re, 4 og | | | | place of Byzantine rule, which they traced to Constantine the Great, the West was now ruled by a a = '

| person whom they considered a barbarian. At first Byzantium refused to recognize the legitimacy i wy ' f]i; of this newly formed empire, but because of Charlemagne's power and influence, they eventually

Yj a | | recognized him, referring to him as the Basileus (king) of the West.

> \y _- | | sas, ¥ ri | | | CHARLEMAGNE AND THE SAXONS a 7ah Ha The Saxons were a band of pagan tribes that lived along the northeastern frontiers of Germany x —_>- ( | .

| Charlemagne engaged in war against them over the course of a number of years, 772 to 803. The AS Lh | | | Saxons were well known for their resistance to the Christian Faith. They would initially convert and =a. %, ) | | be subdued, only to rebel and kill Christians. Therefore, Charlemagne believed that he had no P ) .

. other choice than to force their conversion by the sword. To this end, he treated them with Charlemagne receives the scholar Alcuin at his palace in Aachen, Germany,

Hi | excessive harshness, at one point ordering the beheading of four thousand of them.

| | | | | The Saxons perhaps best exemplify Charlemagne's weaknesses as a ruler, but the wrath that led to a i P E :

| ) : their ill-treatment found other €xpressions as well. Charlemagne sometimes forced the conversion Because of Charlemagne's insistence, He clergy of the Church sige ds! neues gah ese

| | of peoples through terror. He also made liberal use of capital punishment. Under Charlemagne''s and biblicala than they had been i several hundred eats This anprewed literacy led ae

| law, any of the following merited the supreme penalty: killing a priest, belonging to a heathen group as eotuisiasm mks Saisie ane and the ich profound literature connected with it, thus

| | | | | that resisted Christianity, stealing, eating meat on Friday, refusing to fast, refusing Baptism, or paving the way foranew wave of missionary activity.

) | cremating a body. Charlemagne considered infractions against Christ's teachings as crimes, without .

| | Sbisiny that his disproportionate punishments cgregiously contradicted the true message of ALCUIN, CAROLINGIAN SCHOLAR :

Alcuin (ca. 740-804) was the best and most influential scholar of the Carolingian Renaissance. Born | THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE an Englishman in Northumberland and educated at York. Alcuin had spent some time in Italy

*clore being asked tojoin Charlemagne's court at Aachen in 782 and to participate in the new spirit | ) | Fs) The years before Charlemagne's rule had decidedly been years of decline in the West. Political aes along with other scholars of the Carolingian Renaissance. He retired in France as the aa pahangachPca led quickly to an intellectual collapse, and when Charlemagne assumed z fess ¥ St. Martin's monastery in Tours.

| . i ereto "ameeeLARP MASemen in the East—was absent in large part in Wie ae Scholarly Output included a wide variety of texts covering the Bible and the theological

) | stoner face Giakceee ResaSi htle ses) it was rendered almost unintelligible eS 3oe as well as a Latin grammar and several mathematical tracts. During his time in France, he

| Cultural decay by emphasizing the ' hshes: aeSoea pai ra usoe production 3ah edition of the Tours Bible (four Were DEEDSee 23 him). Alcuin

! vision: He Gomnmnercice Se Ae tS ten of ¢ducation and artistic excellence in his politi oe = a keen interest in the liturgy of the Church; he revised the Roman Lectionary and the ) ee E amOnlastery and parish had to have a school

"egorian Sacramentary.

| || | —_ i> ———— -_ a :

272 Chapter Seven — —— ————nny Te —————— | Chapter Seven 273 | nnn, ——_eS —— b=| P<e Uh i | it HISTORY OFTHE CHURCH ICONOCLASM, THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE, ANDTHE GREAT SCHISM

WW THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE, 768-814 tHE GREAT SCHISM, A MHP » — }) t shhr, , aa | | ; fi y &2 o¢ er ; : f * aN ae h I | SEA Sa)~ >| BR - | ATLANTIC f A (me ANS | W .

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200 «= B00mies | Above right; The Imperial Crown of the Hol Roman E "nt hinged plates form the oct y moman Empire, the "Crown of Charlemagne: is cratt , h to the breast-plate of the Jewish high priest and are engraved withthe names Reeneee of the Apostles. The twelve stones on the neck plate rete

Chapter Seven | | ) | , Chapter Seven 275 | | . a | ee | i lll '

HISTORY OF THE CHURCH ICONOCLASM, THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE, AND THE GREATSCHISM nai | | a — | i PART IV = | The Great Schism LITURGICAL PRACTICES OF THE EASTERN CHURCHES here are two basic kinds of Eastern Music in the Eastern Churches is divided m | | he final shattering of communion between East and West in 1054 is one of the Saddesy

T ae Orthodox and Catholic. into two main traditions: Byzantine and Mice: in the history of the Church. Though the seed of division had already been planteg

Whereas the Eastern Orthodox Churches Russian. Byzantine music— generally with the founding of Constantinople in the fourth century, alienation intensified during the ninth are not in communion with Rome, a sung a cappella—is based on modes | century because of both the Iconoclast controversy and Charlemagne''s rise in power. By the number ofOrthodox Churches have developed by theee before opee | eleventh century, the East and West were held together by only the most tenuous of relationships reunited with Rome at various times Amlsae eel aements of Je ss Ht and the slightest event was likely to separate them. during the last millennium. These are chant and psalmody, this music sounds | called Eastern Uniate (from union) foreign and unfamiliar to westerners.

| Churches or Eastern Catholic Churches.

Russian music is based on Byzantine but .

THE EMERGENCE OF DIFFERENCES Though some theological differences developed in the seventeenth century ; ' divide them, the Orthodox and Uniate under Polish influence. Most Russian .

| Aside from the subtleties of theological disputes and the many misunderstandings that arose, the Churches share the same liturgical and liturgical music employs western scales, growing distance between East and West also owed much to their different conceptions of Church devotional practices. making it incorporable with German, | ) | government and hierarchy. It may be helpful to present a brief account of this difference.

French and Italian musical traditions.

The Bishop of Rome, the pope, had a dual Lr be a t c . iy One of the basic differences between .

| | ; — jurisdiction in the Church: the Latin West, , cot a, ah 6 = | | West and East is the sign ofthe cross.

| a ea ry = centered in Rome, as well as the universal * ffe 5 e t y esCF * | In the Eastern Churches, the tradition is | | || | ™eq ath Church. As Constantinople grew in power nd retained of bringing together the thumb, | | ie es a, es over successive centuries, it tightened itsgrip

% vi i i forefinger, and middle fingerwoe | | _ '

: f j} around the other ancient eastern centers of wa a t Birt has oe ok te Mee | i | | | ia, 4s vi j Christianity at Antioch, Alexandria, and '

\ Sol Gall is-a'symbollc pominden Cf ate ) a:

Jerusalem. After the doctrinal statements at \ Y eet | aero s al Shi + Saaes ott | | the Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon in 45], oT ~ ve LeRe se mel. een | | these were recognized along with Rome as His Holiness Patriarch Al i {M eeapd hapaa, | | ; ; Is Holiness Fatriarch Alexy11 of Moscow traced from right to left. For blessing, a | especially ancient and important centers of and Russia celebrating the Divine Liturgy, 2003. bishop or priest joins his thumb, ring,

The liturgy practiced in both the and little fingers while forming a cross .

| For both political and theological reasons, however, the Christians of the East tended to minimize Eastern and Western (Roman) Churches with the other two. ie the pope's status as chief shepherd of the Church, Eastern Christians seldom referred to him

's ultimately based on the liturgical ie | | except in extreme cases, often during a difficult dispute in the Church. at which point he was often practices of the Apostles and Fathers d | | | sought Out to settle the dispute. From very early on—for varying reasons covered in this of the Church. Because Greek was the | — ?

| | chapter— Eastern believers allied themselves more closely with their own national patriarchs than pro languageSage of the ™ !

| | with the successor of St. Peter.

Roman Empire in the first century, it was ' j | | | | PRAAG Dee no surprise that liturgical practices in a ——_parte iaigevs peressen in the symbiotic relationship between the patriarch of the Sty Church ne Seeneany Greek.

| Rae ieee iaae ass)Sas was also a cause of tension. The patriarch crowned the The liturgy of the Eastern Churches has a Ne 4 , | | | .

| This: the vagaries eae maeoe oath to protect the Church and preserve the Faith. always been conducted in the vernacular;

; | | | mies St, € empe very ; : high-ranking member of the Church's body, MPSEOR, MEU ORS eee aaa who translated the Bible and liturgical Fe : PRL Cone :

| | It will be noted th ce ne texts int i i ion. es | hebsareaceae relationship the popes later sought with the Carolingians.

(see iter eiiit nosaier cher i. Se | | Past ahiaras :

< bosons €n,t le €astem emperors were often at the heart of heresy in the liturgy of the West inco orated mor.

'e » In the Eastern Church's .

Cn was not the case with Charlemagne, and they played < le in each ofthe five Lati ee ae & Eiesing th fingers form the | schisms that occurred between 325 and 825, a OE Se ae pag SStomis, whereas icine Ye shape of the Greek letters ) | Finally, the relationshipRee ; | as east of the Mediterranean Sea, the Se ; El oot tee in | 1] | | West. In the West the menses igious to the laity in the East was very different from that in the gy remained Greek.

| | | | | uesterles and convents worked together with the surrounding pop- | Bictiat é } .

Above: An artist's Concept of Justinian I's Church of Holy Wisdom in ca. 538

Chapter Seven —————— ——<—<—$—$——— a | ———ee —(C'/F / | Chapter Seven 277 | | ) | a pl = —e—" i { ———————————————————— OCLASM, THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE, AND THE GREAT SCHISM

| Wh | HISTORY OF THE CHURCH ICON tee ; —— —— Tt SSS ——.

—_ a | ; } ; i i i i i use, | | | f an life along with the fundamentals of Christian zed the papacy with tampering with the Nicene Creed through its use of the Filioque cla

| DISeros b Seel] Wiesen SUCCES it ae a; 1, and had little enna aa d to stir a popular uprising against Rome.

| oe te at em > secluded, if not more learned, 4 contact wj ad tried to sti :

| the East the monks were Lois peat + ae ith the an 867 marked a turning point in the dispute. Pope St. Nicholas I died, and Michael III and | | | outside world whatsoever, thus limiting the The Neeere assassinated during a revolution in Constantinople. The new emperor Basil I desired

| FILIOQUECONTROVERSY Bardas alba with the new pope, Adrian II, and at the Eighth Ecumenical Council, Constantinople | | reconciliation saty9 ae THE Nv (969-870), Photius was removed. Ignatius was reinstated = ee a pena e eae | | | | a local council, the Third Council of Toledo in 589, the words "and the Son" (Latin

"4 the Filioque kept hard feelings of the schism alive. When ou ee ee : i '|i EeRagh ae 'add 4 to th N ne-Constantinopolitan Creed. By 800 this formulation of the 7h archate in Bulgaria, King Boris of Bulgaria chose Constantinople as the spiritual center for | | fet nee Eat sabe the Frankish empire ofCharlemagne. feae In 870 Ignatius began consecrating bishops for Bulgaria in disobedience to the pope,

| creed was standard througno NO Se = his peOple.

RT : arian stilities between Rome and the East.

| This addition was meant to clarify a theological point.

The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed could and this renewed hos —- ; | | be read to attribute the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father but only through the Son tenatius died in 877, and Photius, who had spent the intervening years building a strong ie i] though this was not what that creed intended. The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed Was support, once again became patriarch. The Holy See could not but recognize his sate ris or iin:

| | developed in opposition to those who denied that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father. The eyen though he was an unqualified candidate for the patriarchy, the Eee was, ¢ ae

|| Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, then, did not deny that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Son sitimately open. Once reinstated, Photius renewed his campaignagainst csipep ee i | | as well as the Father; it just failed to mention it explicitly. So the new Toledo creed merely clarified the entire Latin Church for their liturgical irregularities and their alteration of the cree ve

; | what was already an ancient belief in both East and West, namely, that the Holy Spirit proceeded Ajthough many Eastern bishops realized the error of Photius' ways, he eae cee so3 ate

Althoug : a . j ist him.

Photius from the Father and the Son. among the people, whom he had turned Bena Rome, that it Hh impossib e =se:an enone SET a sec si on n the ascension o The Patriarch of Constantinople steadfastly refused the addition to the creed, even though his. finally was forced into atee final,oe: ae for the next tx HOLiiieed Seeapstnet

| | torical evidence suggests that most of the Greek Fathers believed in the Holy Spirit's double Leo VI in 886. The East pail ms Paints cos Lie Greek people and would resurface lara

| procession from the Father and the Son. Eastern scholars argue that the Catholic Church violated Photius dissension had struck deep roots among the peop '

| | the Council of Chalcedon's (449) injunction not to change the creed, but it is accepted all around during the Great Schism. that the addition of Filiogue amounts to a clarification rather than an alteration intended to improve

| or change belief. Nonetheless, the Greeks did not accept Filiogue even when it was imposed upon .r a % oe ae Wi them during two councils aimed at healing the Great Schism (Councils of Lyons [1274] and of J Buh \| Florence [1439]), and have not accepted it to this day.

THE PHOTIAN SCHISM (857-867 ae é : q a > TAH ¢ pF ' fi | | In 857, Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople refused a high government official, by the name of a if ah.

|a | Bardas, Holy Communion on the Feast of the Epiphany because of rumors regarding an adulterous Pm y- || affair. Bardas' reaction, and Ignatius' determination interpreted as insolence, convinced emperor

| Michael III to depose Ignatius in 858.

PE y, \ In Ignatius' place, Emperor Michael III elevated Photius (ca. 810-895) to Patriarch of Constan- (a » @k , \ oy he c ) 4 law "

Pd ms, J ' tinople. Photius, though a 'ayman, was a brilliant and ambitious scholar. He was quickly ordained .. i, '/ \ and ushered into the patriarchate.

'ss Wf) "a ij mt \) ) | When Ignatius refused to step aside, Michael III and Photius wrote obsequious letters to the popé, an Sy |lig Fy a "rya6 \ requesting that he send legates to Constantinople to handle the situation. Pope St. Nicholas

\\ \ (858-867) sent two legates who were Promptly bought off by Michael and Photius. The legates of. ti} \ \ | | settled the dispute in favor of Photius and returned to Rome with the intention of convincing the | } a \\ | . aa IO -O 1e *C1ISIO I) rr - > lic —y :

| | priate decision When the pope discovered their treachery, he excommunicated them. He, \ \\ | | ia) | ik in wrote letters to both the emperor and Photius claiming that his legates had exceeded i GY #1) '* a a \ i || Sai sineee and that Ignatius Was to be reinvested as Patriarch. In 863 another council in Rome

/pe . aN) . i| '|| p | } > Settiemenr ij ane et > = = : od An A » | ote Soa ee in Constantinople. Photius and all his appointments in the Church were ih orha ae . a & | \ Le'

| denied recognition Ly Re. e ,eqet '

This infuriated the emperor He ITC 2. nn - > } ry ef pope ager oe epee He wrote the Pope demanding that the matter be reexamined. The [' x pie | | j e t \ \ ' N omiae ok ' ~. i O sae CaS€ again. During this time Photius remained silent, but carried ete OTE a:

Soba arama free ficent l o c a t i o n Cardinal Humbert. on Jui es laid at m™ SUUES OF MS Office. In & - however, Pho ius reiecre . cence of ; jecj ies in _ seen © 0!

Magia Sophia, Istanbul ( ormerly Constantinople).

In this Magnificent location Cardir U On July 34, Bulgaria, which he considered the mission is = eee the presence of Latin missionaries

; be eso MS altar a bull of excommunication from Pope Leo IX, which would have a negative impact on the Christian world that has lasted

"~~ Mssionary territory of Constantinople. In addition, Photius * centuries \ 278 Chapter Sever ——— —— —— es —— | Chapter Seven 279 | I"

INGIAN RENAI ; CHISM | HISTORY OF THE CHURCH ICONOCLASM, THE CAROL SSANCE, AND THE GREAT S | | ——eeeSSSCC—S a ee .

| } | | THE GREAT SCHISM (1054) | | .

| The final split between the eastern and western Churches a ip the year 1054. In the Great CONTEMPORARY EFFORTS TO HEAL THE SCHISM Schism all of the tension that had developed over the previous centuries came to a head. The doctrinal dispute over the Filioque, the crowning of Charlemagne as emperor of the West in 800 hile schisms are easily made, they in recent times, we must be all the more

| the issues of authority raised in the Photian schism, and the reforming tendencies under the Wen be very difficult to heal. open and attentive to what the Spirit is

| leadership of the papacy in the West all came into focus. In addition, Byzantium had Increased jts Unfortunately, misunderstandings and now saying to the Churches (cf. Rv 2: 11) | | . military strength, and wanted to achieve a greater degree of independence from the West. These disputes have caused seemingly (John Paul Il, "Holy Father Asks Pardon for a circumstances combined to shatter the thousand-year communion between East and West, permanent damage and weakened the Past Sins," L'Osservatore Romano, Weekly

| Church to this very day. Pope John Paul ll ition in English, no.19, May 9, 2001 p. 5). i] a e | ICHAEL CERULARIUS Kempton vmame sste | ia PATRIARCH M reach out to the Eastern Orthodox Church

F chael Cerularius (1043 ) he by opening dialogue that may, some — Before being appointed patriarch, Michael Cerularius (1043-1058) had lived in seclusion in 3

Hately heal this ancient schism. In an S.

| | monastery in the East. Many. though not all, Eastern monasteries had been decidedly influenced unprecedented visit to Greece in May .

, . by Photius' dissent. When Cerularius became patriarch, his anti-Latin sentiments Came out into the 2001, the pope addressed the Orthodox , é open, and the target of his attack was the papacy, which he regarded with disgust.

Archbishop and Holy Synod in Athens.

+ Patriarch Michael Cerularius objected to many Western practices that differed from the East. In An excerpt ofthe pope's address sheds : ad hy | | particular he objected to a celibate priesthood, the Saturday fast, the use of unleavened bread in light on his mission and goal to heal | the Mass, beardless priests, eating meat with blood, and omitting the alleluia during Lent. the Schism:

A | | " itude, | wish to express '

The patriarch was so disenchanted with the West that he closed Latin parishes in Constantin Finally, Your BEA Grue a . vt p ae ople. the hope that we may walk together in :

When consecrated hosts from Latin churches were trampled upon, Cardinal Humbert in the West f the kingdom of God. In 1965 , ranslated this as a Greek attack on the Latin Church and Pope Leo IX (1040. the ways of the king¢ Pope John Paul Il in Athensin 2001 HH | translated this as a Greek attack on the Latin Church an ope Leo (1049-1054). Cardinal the Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras | .

TT Was er he with th lre ? atoayould rr eo ~ POLIS | Humbert was entrusted with the papal reply that would prove disastrous. and Pope Paul VI by a mutual act removed

; | Ht | | Cardinal Humbert made it plain to the patriarch that it is and cancelled from the Church's memory !

| impossible to excommunicate the pope, and that the pope and life the sentence of excommunication | | holds primacy in the Church, even over patriarchs. Patriarch between Rome and Constantinople. This € 7 oe "ae | Cerularius is said to have replied: "If you venerate my name historic gesture stands as a summons . in a single church in Rome, I will venerate your name in all

. for us to work ever more fervently for , . the churches in the East." The papal response came in the Me ns ain 3 cunees will. Division

| | form of an ultimatum: "Either be in communion with Peter ¥ between Christians isa sin before aed a ) | or become a synagogue of Satan." Henceforth the patriarch ss a pieced eet Te Se :

) Halsted Ee Ronmticae ots eee :

-Z£ a hindrance to the spread of the Gospel, deleted the pope's name from all liturgies.

= a because it makes our proclamation less "a1 ' ioe | Two papal 'egates, Cardinal Humbert and Frederick of ra credible. The Catholic Church is convinced

Pope John Paul II a riain 2001, | | | Lorraine, the latter of whom would later become pope, i that she must do all in her power to , y | | | were sent toConstantinople. Neither possessed much

Prepare the way of the Lord' and to if ) | ! diplomatic skill, and because of their arrogance, Patriarch Pope Stephen X (IX) was pope for make straight his paths' (Mt 3:3); and '

| Cerularius was able to turn the population of Constantonly eight months, 1057-1058. His she understands that this must be done rs | ; | . inople against them. original name was Frederick of in Company with other Christians—in '

| . ee i i bade "a fraternal dialogue, in cooperation, and in am ; tas ; '

; sent to Constantinople by Pope Leo rayer. lfc j j +), ¥ a'< > = = \ to confront Patriarch Cerularius ay | cdl We node bere oie Pat a LF ae :

2 a \ bs The results from that journey in 1054 past no onger correspond to the impulse ; ss Ai | FN —) * precipitated the final split between towards unity which the Holy Spirit , iy

| m BET the eastern and western churches has awakened in Christians everywhere > | lt /e .

He continued his position as abbot of Fa wll Merl!

Monte Cassino during his short reign \ =| oe i ra '

' as pope. An ardent reformer, he was | | | advised by Peter (St.) Damian, Cardinal Patriarch of Constantinople Athenagoras meets with | Humbert and Hildebrand who would Pope Paul VI in 1964 f become Pope St. Gregory Vil | | | .

| 280 Chapter Seven - — = — — ——™mpV— ee —_— ao Va | | | Chapter Seven 281 | | | j t : qi HW Bilt HISTORY OF THE CHURCH ICONOCLASM, THE CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE, ANDTHE GREATSCHISM

| f i | | i YUN E y THE ACTUAL SCHISM SUPPLEMENTARY READING | lh eau e Divine Liturgy at Hagia Sophia in Con- | i"

| On July 16, metearn pee eahiaing abet authority. Upon thehie Codex Justinianus, II, 1-2, 9, 11 sentence passed by the Patriarch and Synod

| ; | Ser tat Sophia Cardinal Humbert laid a document 4 check ie eee Natural, Common, and Civil Law. The law ofConstantinople....

Cerularius. Humbert and Frederick then left the cathedral and shook the dust from their of nature is that law which nature teaches to -.- Pope Paul VI and Patriarch eeeie. I,

|} i} \ | shoes outside.

, ql animals. For this law does not belong in this synod, confident ofexpressing e a i | ically, however, the two legates did not have the authority to excommunicate in the exclusively to the human race, but belongs to common desire forjustice and the unanimous

Wh 1 he dal Teetniically, Pope Leo 1X had just died.

| animals, whether of the earth, the air, or the feeling of love among their faithful, and '} {| all Sg ges! ially si h : ver:H ice comes the union of the male and recalling the precept of the Lord, "When you

TT HT | The Eastern Emperor Constantine LX wanted to heal the rift. especially since he needed water. Hen Heneathe resent your offeriiies abthe altar." Mes:

| || ili he West against the Normans. In response to his call for reconciliation female, which we term matrimony; p Y ning, is ; | | military help from the West ag fare ivil war,backed d tion and bringing up of children. We 23-24, declare with one accord that they:

|] the patriarch incited riots; the emperor, not wanting to face a Civil war, backe | down from procrea all the'ather animalesectiae en Wy his position. The documents of excommunication were burned by the patriarch, and a see, indeed, that allthe oth« ; ae a) Regret the offensive words, the unfounded

| |] . council in Constantinople declared on July 24, 1054 that the Latins had perverted the men are considered as having knowledge o accusations and the despicable act which,

| Faith. Patriarch Michael Cerularius had returned excommunication for excommunication. this law. form one side or the other, marked or yy | Since that time, the Patriarch of Constantinople has been known as the "Ecumenical

1, Civil law is thus distinguished from the law accompanied the sad events of this period: fy | Patriarch" of the East, and in Eastern tradition is regarded as the "first among equals" of nations. Every community governed by laws b) Equally regret and blot out from \| among the eastern patriarchs. On December 7, 1965, before the closing Mass of the and customs uses partly its own law, partly memory and form the realm of the church .

| | Second Vatican Council, Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras of Constantinople laws common to all mankind. The law which a the sentences of excommunication which | : participated in a show of reconciliation. In a joint declaration they expressed regret over people makes for its own government belongs ensued, the memory of which, even on i . the mutual excommunication of Patriarch Cerularius and the papal legate Cardinal exclusively to that state and is called the civil our day acts as an obstacle to reconciliation

| | Humbert in 1054. law, as being the law of the particular state. in love, and consign them to oblivion:

| CONCLUSION 2. Civil law takes its name from the state which Cc) Finally, deplore the disturbing precedents jj | | itgovemns, as, for instance, from Athens.... But and the subsequent events which, under the .

During this period two distinct forms of Christianity came into being. While the East whenever we speak of civil law, without adding influence of various factors, including a failure turned violently onto itself in the Iconoclastic Controversy, the West developed its first the name of any state, we mean our own law. to understand and a mutual distrust, finally led

Hh) unity under the leadership of the Franks and the popes. However, the communion 9. The unwritten law is that which usage to the effective schism in communion. between East and West was shattered in the Great Schism that has separated, to this day, has established; for ancient customs, being

| the two traditions with the same sacraments. From the perspective of the Catholic Church, sanctioned by the consent of those who John Paul II, Ut Unum Sint, 54.2, 55.1 i nn | the major difference between Eastern and Western Christianity primarily involves the adopt them, are like laws.

The Church must breathe with her two | | | rags authority and jurisdiction of the papacy established by Christ through his Apostle

11. The laws of nature, which all nations lungs! Inthe first millennium of the history of .

Ae toe observe alike, being established by a divine Christianity, this expression refers primarily | providence, remain ever fixed and immutable. of the relationship between Byzantium and | Rome. From the time of the Baptism of Rus'

| Joint Declaration made by Pope Paul VI it comes to have an even wider application: and the Patriarch Athenagoras, evangelization spread to a much vaster area,

& December 7, 1965 so that it now includes the entire Church....

| ba on Mosaic in the apse of Hagia Among the obstacles in the way of the In its historical survey the Council decree | ar) tS ese epeeCorea development of these brotherly relationships Unitatis redintegratio has in mind the unity

| <r 'aie, 867 as the eh nar tobeara ol trust and esteem (between the Roman which, in spite of everything, was experienced

| uf mA\ . period a iconoclasm, Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church) is in the first millennium and in a certain sense

=f » Vieone of th LeyeG the memory of painful decisions, acts and now serves as a kind of model....The Church's Byzantine art history incidents which in 1054 came to a climax with journey began in Jerusalem on the day of | | aw "For though the time is short since the sentence of excommunication pronounced

Pentecost and its original expansion in the | tore 8 \\ = iBe xbpdaetenra el setae the Patriafch Michael Cerularius and oikoumene of that time was centered around

| mS ~ true religion has spreaditslights to "ts ost figures by the legates of the Holy Peter and the Eleven. The structures of the | | » <)) the ends of th world, ...this too is xe, ed by cardinal Humbert, legates who Church in the East and in the West evolved in ) | Am A, oeee were themselves then the object of a similar reference to that apostolic heritage.

Le tinople. relationship between the papacy and for Constantinop | System in which the temporal ruler extends A flat, two-dimensional picture of Christ, the a wt the Frankish king?

| T his own powers to ecclesiastical and theoVirgin Mary, or one of the saints which is used 2. What was Emperor Justinian I's great logical matters. Such emperors appointed as an aid for Christian acts of piety. The general

_ | ambition? nae oN an ri Papal States cote Gua | bishops and the Eastern Patriarch, directed artistic style of icons reflects a certain mystical

3, How did monophysitism cause problems wes the development of liturgical practices, beauty of Christ the Savior and the saints.

12. Who was Charlemagne, and how | and even aided the recruitment of monks.

When nightly understood, the icon, by virtue | | a did he help the Church? of what is represented, is seen as an invitation

4. How is an icon not a violation of the first | CODEX JUSTINIANUS to prayer. commandment?

13. When was Charlemagne crowned zee'ea eeae ie eee ICONOCLASM 5. What were the results of Emperor Leo III's embererby Repo eal codex was the covlection a ys | .

| of all Roman law as it had developed from Thoughts or deeds of an iconoclast. Refers forbiddance of icons:

14. Define the Carolingian Renaissance.

| his predecessors put together for the purpose to periods in history when a large number of 6. Why did the Council of Hiereia not meet

15. How does Alcuin symbolize the .

. of legal uniformity throughout the empire. iconoclasts were present. e conditions for an ecumenical council? unity of western Europe in general ; i : d of Charl | It is the basis for canon law as well as the civi

; : and o arlemagne's empire in ICONOCLAST 7. What was St. John of Damascus' basic ) law throughout Europe. articular?

P From the Greek word eikonoklastés argument in support of icons?

| | | COUNCIL OF HIEREIA meaning "image breaker" iconoclasts saw 4: What happened to Emperor Nicephente 16. What was the Photian Schism?

A local (non-ecumenical) council convened by icons as occasions of idolatry and sought to and how did this help to inaugurate the 17. What were some practices that | Constantine V to condemn the use of icons. aeeetd the ges ofa Second Iconoclasm?

Cerularius disliked in the Latin Church?

They were condemned at | DULIA AND LATRIA the second council of Nicaea in 787 9. What role did the papacy and St. Boniface

18. What did the Eastern emperor think Two types of adoration whose distinction was play in raising the Carolingian line to about the schism?

| drawn at the seventh Council of Nicaea. An ICONOPHILE that of king of the Franks and deposing | | icon may be venerated through acts of respect

Greek for "lover of icons," this term refers to | the Merovingians?

| | an honor, called dulia, but God alone is worth those who defend and promote the proper use | | of absolute adoration, known in Greek as /atria of icons in Christian worship.

PRACTICAL EXERCISES | added at the Third Council of Toledo (589) to | I Sn, = ' ina iaisae ee» clarify eesse thinee 1. Bible churches and even some of the 3. Describe the situation between the pint p €d from both the sy Claiming that t ere is only one Reformation era churches claim that by the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Father and the Son. Later. the Patriarch of nature in Christ and that His human nature

Constannnenl emcee =F z] re presence of statues and icons, the Catholic Orthodox Churches. Why is unity desirable? onstantinople and the bishops of the East is _incorporated" into the Divine Nature.

Church vi is uni i | refused the addition, thus commun ae Church violates the First Commandment.

How is unity among the bishops of the | | Great Schism. ng PAPAL STATES What arguments would you give, for example, Church invaluable? Why should bishops | | ME Lands around Rome, Italy, won by Pepin on oscoo of a statue of Mary is not be men of great conviction, humility, and | he er behalf and given to the Papacy, making the | ia understanding?

| | a inaoeeee the eastern and POpé a sovereign as well as spiritual leader.

2. What would yOu say to someone who said | stern Churches in the year 1054.

The Papal States were ruled by the pope that creeds and arguments over creeds are | | HAGIA SOPHIA from 754 to 1870. urelevant because all that one needs is faith

| | Most famous example of Beane in Jesus? "Creeds are not in the Bible, so they architecture, it was built under Justinian |

=fee someone might Saye TeIRIe and is considered one of the most perfect epee sTPPRenE buildings in the world | aa Y \ .

Chapter Seven a ————————— ee Chapte a GTS oe "3

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