5. Conclusion
the existence of eternal matter and ideas
reflection of God's thoughts from a formless element which is nothing (μὴ ὄν) in relation to God and his nature.
5. Conclusion Now it is time to shed some light on the essence of Photios' criticism.
As a good historian, he was aware that not only some pagan intellectuals but also Origenists53 still promoted the notion of the eternity of the Ideas or souls. Secondly, as a zealous defender of the faith, he stood firmly by the doctrine of creatio ex nihilo, established by his time as the correct, common belief of Christians by the consensus patrum.54
However Photios' charge hinted at yet another reason why he regarded Clement's notions as 'blasphemous': the fact that the Alexandrian scholar found the concept of eternal Ideas and matter in Holy
Scripture. This erroneous view, in Photios' opinion, was the result of Clement's own irresponsible exegesis. It is thus not only Clement's particular philosophical, Platonic outlook or theological theory that shocked Photios, but also the misuse of exegesis. The examples of Clement's exegetical technique provided above clearly illustrate his dependence on Philo's allegorical method, and his use of this tool in the ideological battle with his adversaries. Philo of Alexandria, along with other Alexandrian theologians, was also criticised by Photios for using allegorical interpretation of the Bible.55 According to Photios,
Clement's 'unorthodox' opinions were an outcome of the dangerous combination of hyper-allegorical exegesis with Platonic metaphysics.
From Photios' theological stance, Clement's case revealed how exe53 The idea of the eternity of souls was condemned at the Council of Alexandria
(400 ce), but was still alive later among the monks of Palestine in the sixth century ce
(see Meyendorff, Imperial Unity and Christian Divisions, 230–35).
54 Officially the doctrine was pronounced at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 (see H. Denzinger, Enchiridion symbolorum: Definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum [Barcelona: Herder, 1967], 428.
55 To exemplify this argument, see Photios' remarks on Philo in Cod. 105: φέρεται δὲ αὐτοῦ πολλὰ καὶ ποικίλα συντάγματα, ἠθικοὺς λόγους περιέχοντα καὶ τῆς παλαιᾶς ὑπομνήματα, τὰ πλεῖστα πρὸς ἀλληγορίαν τοῦ γράμματος ἐκβιαζόμενα· ἐξ οὗ, οἶμαι, καὶ πᾶς ἀλληγορικὸς τῆς γραφῆς ἐν τῇ ἐκκλησίᾳ λόγος ἀρχὴν ἔσχὴν εἰσρυῆναι. "A number of various treatises are attributed to him which discuss ethical subjects, comment on the Old Testament, where his allegorical interpretations deforms the text. It is in him, as I reckon, that all allegorical interpretation of Scripture originated in the Church." Then Photios quotes the view on Philo among the Hellenised Jews: Ἢ Πλάτων φιλωνίζει ἢ Φίλων πλατωνίζει. "Either Plato philonizes, or Philo platonizes."
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gesis of the book of Genesis could go wrong when it blindly followed some presupposed metaphysical axioms. Clement's Christian exegesis produced an erroneous opinion because it was guided by metaphysical theory, which was not compatible with revelation. Clement's philosophical association had a direct impact on his highly speculative hermeneutics, but from Photius' perspective his incorrect exegesis also magnified the error of his uncritically assimilated metaphysics. To Photius, this circle of interdependence appeared particularly in Clement's Hypotyposeis. Looking more closely at the important context of Clement's exegesis and theological struggle, his determination to involve Moses and Plato in his polemic against dualistic theology is clear.56 Although he noted it, this effort was not sufficiently appreciated by Photios.
56 For more on Clement's eulogy of Plato in connection with Moses, see Lilla, Clement of Alexandria, 42.
many worlds before the creation of adam
CHAPTER TWO
THE BELIEF IN MANY WORLDS BEFORE THE CREATION
OF ADAM ἔτι δὲ μετεμψυχώσεις καὶ πολλοὺς πρὸ τοῦ Ἀδὰμ κόσμους τερατεύεται He maintains a fantastic theory of reincarnation and of many worlds before the time of Adam The accusation considered in this chapter is that Clement of Alexandria believed in the existence of a number of worlds before the creation of Adam (πολλοὺς πρὸ τοῦ Ἀδὰμ κόσμους). Careful reading of the phrase suggests that Photios joined together in one sentence two of Clement's erroneous beliefs, one in the theory of reincarnation and the second in existence of numbers of worlds (πολλοὺς κόσμους) before the present one. Although Photios connected the idea of preexistent worlds with the belief in reincarnation, this study treats them separately. The first part of the charge is analysed in this chapter, under metaphysics, while the second part will be examined in the context of anthropology (Chapter 6).
Photos used the Scriptural figure of 'Adam', maybe referring to a particular passage from Clement's Hypotyposeis, as the chronological mark to indicate that Clement of Alexandria wrongly taught that, prior to the creation of the first human being (πρὸ τοῦ Ἀδὰμ), there were already some 'worlds' where people or human souls had existed.
This opinion, also attributed to Origen,1 made Clement2 an exponent 1 For instance, Origen was charged with teaching about an innumerable series of worlds coming after the end of the present one (Jerome, Ep. Av. 124.5 [PG 22; 1071–
72]). Similarly, Theophilus of Alexandria, in his Paschal Epistle charges Origen with the doctrine of cyclic worlds as also recorded by Jerome (Ep. 96). Origen's concept of time is discussed in detail by Tzamalikos, The Concept of Time in Origen, and more recently in his Origen, 130–44.
2 It is interesting that Photios paid attention to Clement's deliberation on the number of universes in the Hypotyposeis listing his opinion as 'blasphemous fantasies'
(αί βλάσφεμοι αὗται τερατολογίαι), but omits to note in his record of Origen's errors (Cod. 8) the very fact that Origen left open the possibility of existence of the another world before the present one (Princ. 2.3.1–5). This omission is even more surprising as Photios noted a belief in the doctrine of reincarnation in both authors.
This selective observation suggests that while Photios intended a critical approach to their doctrines, he lacked coherence in the formulation of the main charges. Overall,
clement of alexandria on trial
of the classical version of the Stoic cosmology of 'cosmic cycles' or 'world-periods',3 which from a later, Byzantine stance was not in any way acceptable. If true, this would place Clement of Alexandria alongside other ancient philosophers,4 such as Empedocles, Heraclitus of Ephesus, Pythagoras, Plato and later representatives of the Old Stoa,
Middle Platonists, Neoplatonists and Hermetists, who shared the idea of the periodic character of the present world as well as its eschatological destruction followed by its restoration. On another level, the accusation tries to attribute to Clement of Alexandria 'a Platonic view' on the multiplicity of worlds (Timaeus 55c–d), although Plato himself after consideration was convinced of the existence of only the one, present world.
As has been noted in the previous chapter, Clement of Alexandria interpreted the Biblical concept of the creation of the world or worlds allegorically, and his general cosmological as well as metaphysical outlook allowed for the existence of two worlds. The original or archetypical one, was the intelligible world (κόσμος νοητός), while the visible and material, present world (κόσμος αἰσθητός) is only its temporary copy. This Platonic paradigm was assimilated by Clement to his philosophy and theology and harmonised with the Scriptural theologoumena from the first chapter of Genesis. But Photios' allegation goes further, even if he was not aware of all the theological ramifications of that development. If Clement of Alexandria truly held the view of "the cyclical nature of the present world", this opinion would lead to a particular concept of salvation as liberation of the soul from its link with the present world. In Photios' opinion, the belief in many this failure brings Photios' position as a witness into question. On the accusation that Origen taught reincarnation, see Chapter 5.
3 I refer to the 'classical' Stoic cosmological view, as it characterised the Old Stoic
School in opposition to the more moral and ethical interests of the Neo-Stoics, such as Seneca, Musonius Rufus and Marcus Aurelius. I shall present the concept of cosmic cycles in detail in explaining its significance to Photios' charge. On the Stoic notion of the world-cycles, see M.J. White, "Stoic Natural Philosophy (Physics and Cosmology)", in The Cambridge Companion to The Stoics, ed B. Inwood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 133–8.
4 As Dillon sums up: "In the Timaeus, after describing the five elements of the universe, Plato raises the question of the number of worlds that one should postulate
(55c–d). Though he himself opts for a single world, he admits the possibility of there being five, in words which seems to have misled certain later Platonists" (Dillon, The Middle Platonists, 224). It should be noted that Aristotle rejected this theory (De caelo,
1.8–9) but in the later period this theory was the subject of controversy between the followers of Plato and Aristotle (see also A. Gregory, Ancient Greek Cosmogony [London: Duckworth Publishers, 2008], 156–8).
many worlds before the creation of adam
consecutive worlds was connected with the assumption of reincarnation,5 although logically that is not necessary.6 Belief in reincarnation, from Photios' perspective, was a clear sign of horrendous error. In order to respond to Photios' allegation, the first task is to establish the philosophical core of the theory of 'cosmic cycles' in the version that might have been known to Clement of Alexandria, then look again at the existing evidence from his oeuvre, trying to identify any passages that resemble this theory or show approval of it.
It is certain, that in Scriptural revelation, both in the Hebrew Scriptures and the documents of the New Testament, there is no hint of the philosophical theory of the 'cosmic cycles'. Yet, the concept of time in the Hebrew Scriptures is very complex.7 The basic Hebrew
5 The crucial theological question would be: "How is it possible to liberate the soul from participating in repetition of the world-periods?" Assuming that each circle gives either opportunity for (a positive interpretation) or creates necessity of (a negative interpretation) the descent of the soul into a new configuration of the world, the late Hellenistic philosophers faced the challenge of finding a solution. It was possible to interpret each cosmic circle and the consequent descent of the soul as a positive experience for the soul or, on the contrary, as a kind of punishment. In the second case, it was important to work out an ethical theory that would bring the hope, if not the certainty, of avoiding participation in future repetitions of the world-periods. As the theory of world cycles was accepted in the Late Hellenistic period by the Stoics,
Middle Platonists, Neoplatonists and in the Hermetica so each school or even each philosopher within a particular school tried to address this problem.
6 It is possible, on the basis of a theory, to accept reincarnation together with only one, continuous visible world to which the soul descends (from the upper realm) and from which later the soul ascends to the higher, intelligible realm. But Photios' synopsis does not allow us to discover any particular theory behind this view found in the Hypotyposeis.
7 Three aspects of the biblical notion of time need to be noted in this context. First, the Hebrew Scriptures do not provide the reader with a specific definition of time, or even anything approaching the Greek, philosophical debate on the nature of time as an abstract notion (as found, for example, in Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics). This phenomenon is exemplified by the linguistic fact that the Hebrew Biblical language has neither a particular word for 'time' nor its correlates such as 'past', 'present' and 'future'. Any reconstruction of the Hebrew view must take into account this original ambiguity. Secondly, in the particular theology governing the Hebrew understanding of events, chronological order is not primary. The linear, purpose-governed line of time is not very clear in Hebrew documents. For example, in the case of Ecclesiastes
(1:9), the idea of eternal repetition of events is mentioned, while in the case of the prophets (Isa. 11:6-8; Hos. 2:16-25) the dream of returning to the harmony of the original paradise is expressed as an eschatological hope. In noting these two characteristics of the Hebrew understanding of 'time', we should not conclude that 'cyclical time' was a hidden axiom of the Hebrew Biblical theology. Indeed, the final point to emphasise regarding the Hebrew concept of time is that it contained a strong understanding of life as a linear sequence of events. The chronology of God's salvific interventions in the Hebrew history, presented a developing, linear feature, leading to the
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theological intuition, which dominated cosmological imagery and was later inherited by the New Testament, was that of a 'linear continuum'.8
Consequently the idea of the repetitious reorganization of the universe, either in the same, similar or even different configurations, is totally foreign to the Bible and Judaeo-Christian philosophy.9
However, the notion of 'cosmic cycles' was common in other ancient religious traditions.10
It is thus the blend of foreign cosmogony and the Scriptural theologoumena which might inspire the view that either before the creation of the first man there were already some previous worlds, or that the second coming of the Lord will not close the history of creation, as some theologians would wish.
In the examination of the possible origin of the charge, I shall make three points. First, I will cite Clement's dependence on Heraclitus of Ephesus, as this Greek sage believed in the theory of cyclic nature with fulfilment of God's ultimate aim. This last feature was amplified by the Christian interpretation of the Hebrew past as well as the present and future moments of Christianity (e.g., Rom. 9–11). For details on the biblical notion of time, see The Interpreter's
Dictionary of the Bible: An Illustrated Encyclopedia, ed. G.A. Buttrick (New York:
Abingdon Press, 1962), 4:643–9. I owe to Dr Alan Jenkins the reference to James Barr,
Biblical Words for Time (London: SCM Press, 2nd edn, 1969), 143–51, where the author warns against a tendency to simplify the contrast between time as cyclical in some Greek thinkers and time as linear in the Hebrew Bible.
8 For more information about the complexity of time in the Hebrew tradition, see
P.A. Verhoef, "Time and Eternity", in New International Dictionary of Old Testament
Theology and Exegesis, ed. W.A. Van Gemeren (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 1997),
4:1252–5; G. Brin, The Concept of Time in the Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 39 (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2001).
9 Tzamalikos offers a very helpful distinction between the 'anacyclological' and 'teleological' views of history in relation to early Christian understanding of time and its philosophical Greek background. He notes: "The former attests to a time without any beginning or end, a time in which occurrences are regularly repeated: events just happen and recur in a purely natural sense; they are not occurrences in a meaningful process towards a goal or end whatsoever" (Tzamalikos, Origen, 141). Meanwhile,
"the 'teleological' view of history betokens a time which is posited to have both a beginning and an end. This end also marks the end (τέλος) of what I have called
'movement' in history. The existence of this time is spanned between two fixing points: the creation and the final consummation of the world. Incidents are not regularly repeated, or even not repeated at all … What is of critical importance is the quality of action" (ibid. 143). The author concludes that in the case of Origen, his view of history was teleological (ibid. 143). As it will be shown later in this chapter, I believe that Clement of Alexandria's comprehension of history was also 'teleological' and nonrepetitive.
10 For basic review, see M. Eliade, A History of Religious Ideas, vol. 1: From the Stone Age to the Eleusinian Mysteries, trans. W.R. Trask (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 42, 228–30.