3. System of Government
System of Government The ancient political philosophy of our country speci¤ed seven features of a kingdom; namely, Ruler, Minister, Ally, Treasury, Nation, Forts, and Army. Kingdom meant the country under a king's dominion, and the chief feature of the kingdom was the ruler or king. This has led to the general belief that the nation, the treasury or wealth of the country, the subjects, etc., were created solely for the comfort and happiness of the king. In accordance with the barbaric custom described in the proverb "Might is right," which has prevailed since ancient times, the king was God and controlled the destinies of his subjects. The sayings1 that the subjects model themselves on the king and that the king shapes the times clearly show how the king's sovereign rule over his subjects and his freedom to do as he wished had earlier made a strong impression upon the minds of the people. It did not even occur to the people of ancient times that a country could do well without a king, that is, without a strong ruler. This is probably why they identi¤ed "chaos" or "disorder" as "anarchy," that is, a country without a king, or lacking the authority of a king. Such a belief does not at all exist in the republican nation of the United States. Here there is no king and there are no subjects; even so, the system of government in this nation is the best possible, and there is no "chaos" or "disorder." The chief object of this chapter is to explain the reason why this is so.
The excellent principle on whose ¤rm foundation this marvelous republican nation is built is summarized in the following sentence: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal,2 that they are endowed by their
Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." The principle which supports all these things assumes equality among the inhabitants of this nation. All its laws, customs and manners, and ideas are based upon this eternal truth. There is no room whatsoever for arguing that a particular right is available to one person but not to another; therefore the distinction between high and low classes and families does not arise. There is only one American community. In our country there was only one caste in the eon known as Kritayuga,3 which is why all people acted in unison and were happy and equal. Similarly there is only one community in this nation, which is why it enjoys the greatest possible happiness arising from unity.
Anyone who boasts about his particular community or lineage is regarded as having insulted the greater American community. Liberty, the patron goddess
of the Americans, inscribes the name "American citizen"i on the forehead of any person (except the Chinese) who enters the country.4 The fortunate person whose forehead sparkles with this inscription considers himself to be in possession of greater honor and distinction than the thousands of other people who wear gem-studded crowns. It would not be surprising if kings and princes who wear crowns of gems envy such a person.
The basic principle of American citizens is that theirs is a government "of the people, for the people, and by the people." The vote of Presidents such as Washington, Lincoln, and Grant, or of learned men such as Franklin, Jefferson, and Emerson, does not carry any more weight than the vote of a lowly Negro citizen.
Nor is there a single citizen who does not enjoy any of the citizen's rights which were available to those famous people.
The different States within the United States have quite dissimilar systems of administration and different types of laws. When the country came under the rule of the people, the prevalent English laws were retained with a slight change.
But, as the people progressed and changed their views, the old laws also underwent a gradual alteration. The new States which have been incorporated into the nation during the last forty years or so are very American and have simple laws.
Even the old States are gradually following their new siblings.
Local Government The Federal Government is only a larger form of the local and state governments. Local government is like a seed, and it is a self-evident truth that the Federal Government, which grows out of it like a tree, will be of the same type as the seed; its quality and productivity will also depend on the quality of the seed. Therefore, before considering this republican, federal government, let us consider its original form.
Iowa is a State of the new American type, and may be regarded as representative. At one time it was covered with forests and jungles. While in Iowa some time ago, I became acquainted with many people who were among the pioneer settlers there. I give below information regarding the manner in which they founded the settlement and its local government.5
To begin with, an adventurous and enterprising man goes either alone or along with his wife to the new, forested area in order to seek his fortune. The equipment he carries consists of an axe, some implements, plows, a pair of horses, and some seeds. On reaching a spot of his choice, he fells the trees and builds himself a hut. Then he cuts down the surrounding forest, plows the earth and sows the seeds he has brought along to make a small farm, and plants fruit trees. Some time later a few more people follow suit, build huts or houses nearby on their own plots of land at a short distance from each other, and settle down.
System of Government 77
When ten or ¤fteen such families settle down comfortably in one place, they soon begin to think of two urgent matters. The ¤rst is to construct convenient streets and roads from one house or hamlet to others; and the second is to build a school for children. As there is no government to provide these amenities in such a place, the inhabitants of the tiny settlement try to make up for the de- ¤ciencies themselves. They soon form a committee of a few people. The members resolve by mutual agreement to pay a certain amount of tax for a certain purpose. Then the need arises to have people to oversee the different tasks, such as assessing the tax to be levied, collecting it, utilizing it appropriately, and keeping accounts, which leads to the appointment of of¤cials, such as the tax collector, accountant, supervisor, and clerk. Subsequently, a constable and the justice of the peace are appointed.
It is by consulting everybody that these works are created and of¤cials appointed for the convenience of the inhabitants of the village. Someone among the assembled inhabitants proposes that a particular person should be appointed for a speci¤c job, and that a certain amount of money should be spent on a certain work. Everyone is then asked for his opinion. (Such an opinion is called the "vote.") Thereafter, in accordance with the favorable vote of the majority, persons are appointed and tasks undertaken. While ascertaining public opinion in this manner, no attempt is made to discover the superiority or inferiority of anyone's family, class, or status. Whatever a man's social background, it is enough if he is an inhabitant of the village, of respectable (lawful) conduct, not a criminal or of an unsound mind, not below twenty-one years of age, and that he is a man
(women have not yet acquired legal rights, except in Wyoming and Kansas). It does not matter whether he is poor or rich, learned or ignorant, dark-skinned or fair-skinned; his vote counts for not an iota more or less than the vote of the President of the country.
In this national system of government, the administration of the township, that is, the local government system, is very important. The administration of every township embodies almost all of the basic principles of the federal administration. Each township can be said to be an independent nation in itself.
It is very good that the local government of the United States is free from two undesirable elements: too little independence and other shortcomings which weaken the local government system in our own country; and too much independence, which is what led to the loss of freedom in Hellas, that is, Greece. The local government in our country embodies numerous basic principles of selfgovernment. What our people call the panchayat 6 may be regarded as one kind of body of people's representatives. But it does not possess the capability of an elected body in a republic, because the council is selected by a few prominent people in the village. It differs greatly from a committee elected by all the people through a well-considered and public vote. The council lacks the support of gen78 The Peoples of the United States
eral public opinion; it has little chance of acquiring the stature and capability enjoyed by something done in a legal and organized manner. Besides, the selection of the councilors is sometimes in the hands of the two parties in the dispute to be settled; it has no representativeness at all. Anything which is not representative cannot possibly be bene¤cial to all. This is why, although village councils existed in our country, our people were not able to obtain a knowledge of local self-government, its bene¤ts, or the unity resulting from it. (See Appendix A.)7
The Hellenese people rated local independence very highly when Hellas had a republican government. A federal republican government as in the United
States was never established in that country. The Greeks had not created, and established throughout the country, a general system of government based on strong and farsighted thinking, which would lend permanence to their independence. In Greece, a republic meant each city being independent and sovereign.
The proximity of a number of such city-states is bound to lead to con®icts sooner or later, for major or minor reasons. And if one small city goes to war with another, one of them is bound to emerge victorious, which would keep the enmity between them always alive. How would such small city-states, ¤ghting with one another, survive war with a strong nation? Amity and unity were not possible among them because they completely lacked a unanimously accepted, common national ideology which would bind them together. Everyone was independent; everyone did as he wished. The several republics in Hellas collapsed one after another and were demolished by strong foreign attacks because a lack of organization among the independent city-states kept them apart. At one time an attempt was made in the province of Attica in Hellas to forge one nation out of several city-states, but it did not succeed. One reason was that the different city-states failed to voluntarily surrender a suf¤cient number of their principal rights to the nation in order to strengthen it. Secondly, they did not have suf- ¤cient time to think of forging such unity and to work toward its realization.
Before the idea of unity emerged and took root in Attica's soil, it was cut down by Attica's two enemies, Macedonia and Rome. Neither the Hellenese nor the Romans even thought of allowing the inhabitants of each city and village to elect their own representatives, invest them with the power to be their leaders and speak and act on their behalf, send them to a general legislative assembly of the state or nation, and implement in their own cities the laws passed by the majority in the assembly. They probably considered it an affront to their independent city-state to implement the laws passed by another city. The Greeks and the Romans had very similar ideas regarding the independence of a city or a province.
The local government in the United States does not have too little or too much independence, as described above; this will become clear when one grasps the system of government in this country. Under this system, the local, state, and System of Government 79
federal administration enjoy the amount of independence indispensable for their stability and functioning. Also, it does not at all allow the kind of independence which might create dissension among the towns, counties, and states and thereby lead to disunity, which would be detrimental to the nation.
An area of six square miles is called a township. Government surveyors are made to measure land, and the country is divided into states, counties, etc. When a number of new towns are settled, as described above, a county is formed by combining about a dozen townships.8
Counties All the county of¤cials are appointed to their posts by election, as are township of¤cials, and usually hold of¤ce for two years. In several States such of¤cials are elected annually. An of¤cial receives a monthly salary according to the regulations at each place, but it is quite modest. The county capital is designated by a common decision of all its people. Of¤ceholders and of¤cials such as sheriff, magistrate, road supervisors, and superintendent of education are elected and appointed periodically; even the lower-level judges are elected by the local people. It is appropriate that judges should be appointed by consulting popular opinion, because the people are closely connected with public matters, such as justice. It is usually of¤cials like judges who control the fates of the families of poor, laboring classes. Needless to say, if these of¤cials are careless, hard-hearted, arrogant, and oppressive, the lives, money, and honor of the poor, powerless people are in danger. Such examples are very common in monarchies, especially in monarchies where the king entrusts all duties to his favorite of¤cers, who are ignorant, and who then spend their own time in idle luxury. It is very harmful if a person or a class holding an imaginary high title possesses powers which closely affect the happiness and well-being of all the people, and if the people do not possess the power to remove them from of¤ce. It deprives poor people of proper justice. Usually only the rich, powerful of¤ceholders emerge victorious, and the goddess of justice is constantly sacri¤ced at the altar of such injustice.
States As mentioned above, a number of counties together constitute a State.
Just as the county government is a larger replica of the local government, so is the state government an enlarged replica of the county government. Each State has a chief of¤cial, known as the Governor, who is elected by the approval of all the people in the State. He stands in the same relation to the State as does the President of the United States to all the States taken together. The state govern80 The Peoples of the United States
ment consists of one or two additional features not found in the local and county governments, which are very important. Each State has the power to enact its own laws. The chief city, that is, the capital of the State has a state house which houses the state legislative assembly, the Governor's of¤ce, the state high court, and the of¤ce of the chief education inspector. The state legislative assembly has two parts: one is called the House of Representatives and the other the Senate.
The Representatives and Senators are elected by the people of the State. These two bodies together make all the state laws. The state government has the power to enact only such laws as are compatible with the federal government of the United States. The implementation of the state laws is the task of the Governor.
The judges of the state high court are appointed by the President with the approval of the Congress; and they try the cases before them in accordance with the state laws. The state inspector of education supervises all the schools in the State. Each State has its own treasury; and the state government keeps its own accounts. Similarly, each State has its own army; however, the States do not use it for ¤ghting among themselves. Also, no single State in the United States has the power to make war or peace with a foreign country; this power rests with the Federal Government. There is a rule stipulating that the state government is to ¤nance its armed forces, department of education, etc. In sum, the state government possesses the powers and features necessary for an independent kingdom or nation. The state governments have voluntarily vested the Federal Government with important powers, such as entering into treaties with foreign nations, for the convenience of all and for maintaining unity among the States.
In all other matters, each State is an autonomous nation.
Territories The province next in importance to the State is the Territory. The people of a Territory do not have the right to elect their Governor, because a Territory is the common property of the whole nation. A Territory becomes a State when it acquires a suf¤ciently large population. It acquires all the powers of a State after the Congress resolves, in accordance with the United States system of government, to promote it to the category of State. The local and county governments in a Territory are independent, as in a State. A Territory also has a Governor and a high court; its of¤cials possess the same powers as state of¤cials.
These of¤cials are appointed to their posts and sent to the Territories by the President in consultation with the Congress. A Territory does not have the right to send a Representative and a Senator to the Congress; however, each Territory sends a Delegate, that is, a representative, to Washington. Although he cannot join the Congress, he can make important suggestions to the Congressmen in System of Government 81
making resolutions and laws regarding the Territory. As a Territory does not have the right to send its Representative, it cannot participate in the election of the President and Vice President.
Nation The great republican nation of the United States is constituted with thirty-eight States and twelve Territories, as described above. Because no limit has been set for the number of States it can have, any number of new States may be added to it. These States are not merely like small districts; they are independent nations, as explained above. Each State has its own independent features—House of Representatives and Senate, Governor, high court, army, treasury, administration; therefore, all the States are autonomous. If the States secede into separate nations, they would not survive a foreign attack, and the trade and advancement of the country would suffer greatly. Therefore, they unanimously follow certain rules made by mutual agreement. In order to reinforce their unity and strengthen their administration, they have voluntarily surrendered their sovereign rights and created a federal system of government. This Federal Government is controlled by the President; but he is not independent. He has to run it in consultation with the Representatives and Senators of all the citizens of the country.
The seat of the Federal Government is the city of Washington, situated in the District of Columbia. This district is not a separate State, but the common property of all the States in the Union. Departments which are under the common control of all the States, such as the national Treasury, as well as the Supreme
Court, Department of Education, scienti¤c societies, and the like, are located in Washington.
Supreme Court The great and most excellent means of providing stability and strength to the Federal Government is the Supreme Court of the United States.9 The Supreme Court arbitrates in all disputes regarding national matters, such as the division of powers between the federal and state governments, and the extent to which these powers may be used. Both the federal and state governments are required to abide by the decision of the Supreme Court, until such time as the Federal Government enacts a new law in consultation with all the States. But, should the United States Congress attempt to enact and implement a law in contravention of the Constitution which was rati¤ed by all the States as soon as this republic was established, the Supreme Court deliberates upon its validity and declares it null and void. This, however, does not mean that the Supreme Court
82 The Peoples of the United States
possesses unlimited powers. It is true that the President, Congress, and other governmental bodies of the United States obey the orders of the Supreme Court, but it has the power only to settle disputes in accordance with the Constitution, and cannot conduct itself in an arbitrary manner. Nor does it have the power to enact new laws or implement laws already in force. Only when a matter is brought before it according to proper procedure does it give a favorable or unfavorable ruling based on the Constitution. It does not have the right to interfere in the working of the state or local governments, or of the President, unless the matter is placed before it. Also, it is required to make public all its rulings and the reasoning on which the rulings are based. The powers of the Supreme Court have been circumscribed in this manner. Within these limits, when the Supreme
Court rules upon any matter, on the strength of the powers vested in it by the nation and in accordance with the Constitution, no one in the country has the power (at least legally) to do other than abide by it.
The legislatures of the States are free to enact the laws they want, but they take good care not to contravene the Constitution while doing so, knowing that the Supreme Court has the power to nullify any law contrary to the Constitution.
There is no reason whatsoever to contravene the Constitution, because the citizens of the State would themselves refuse to pass laws contrary to the Constitution of the Federal Government, which all the States have appointed as their administrator for their own protection, by voluntarily surrendering some of their rights. But should such an occasion arise and should a State indulge in an extra-constitutional act, there should be some body with the right to declare it irregular; and it is appropriate that this right is vested in the Supreme Court.
Only one such case has come before the Supreme Court since the establishment of the United States. About twenty-¤ve years ago, some Southern States had kept
Negroes in slavery and, in order to protect their own pro¤t, claimed that they would secede from the United States, and that they had the right to do so; they also made the attempt to secede. The Supreme Court ruled at the time that secession from the United States is contrary to the Constitution and that a State does not possess this right. The Southern States disobeyed the Supreme Court and rebelled, but were defeated by the combined Northern States, which desired unity.
The disputes regarding limits to the rights of the States are few and far between, and do not come often before the Supreme Court. But it does not have the chance to remain idle, because any disputes between the citizens of the States which involve large sums of money or very important matters can be brought before the Court for arbitration.
The Court has nine judges. They are not changed after a ¤xed term, like other government of¤cers (such as President, Secretaries, etc.). Once appointed to the Court, a judge continues in his post as long as he is able to perform his duties;
System of Government 83
only if he is found incapable of performing his duties, or if the Congress is able to bring a charge against him and prove it, is he removed by the Federal Government. If one of the judges dies, the vacancy is ¤lled by the President by nominating another suitable person to the post; but before appointing him the President is required to obtain the approval of the Senate. The President does not have the right to appoint new members to the Supreme Court without consulting the Senate or against its wishes. The judges of the Supreme Court receive a salary of $10,000 per annum (each); and the Chief Justice is paid ¤ve hundred dollars more, that is, $10,500. A judge retires on reaching the age of seventy; he then earns an annual pension equivalent to his salary for the rest of his life.
Many other of¤cers and lawyers in the United States earn perhaps ten times this amount of money. The post of a Supreme Court judge is not very desirable from the monetary point of view. A lawyer or even a teacher earns three or four times this salary. But the status of a judge's position does not derive from money; the greatness of the position itself is responsible for its extraordinary status. All citizens of the nation accord him utmost respect. Governors of States, the President of the country, and great bodies like the Congress extend implicit obedience to their rulings. They are representatives of the Goddess of Justice, and occupy a most excellent position as judges of the Supreme Court. How would the Goddess of Justice preserve her honor if they accepted the position—the position which is probably unparalleled in the whole world—because of the lure of money? It is therefore very good that the desire to occupy this position is not created by the strong temptation of wealth. The Justices of the Supreme Court are usually men of good character, learned, in®uential, experienced, and possessed of a great deal of practical wisdom. Their style of life and dress are very simple, which raises their status even further.
The Supreme Court is situated in Washington, where it functions at all times.
But each of the judges takes turns to visit all the parts of the country every year at a stated time, to help the local judges to settle their cases. In order to facilitate justice, the Federal Government has divided the country into nine circuits and further districts, each of which has its own court and judge. As these courts are federal, their judges are nominated by the President with the approval of the Senate. The appointment of these judges is for life (unless they are proven to be incapable, or guilty of irregular conduct).
Congress Let us now consider the legislative body which makes the laws according to which judges resolve public disputes and maintain social, economic, and constitutional order in the country.
The federal legislative body, or the Congress, has two branches: the House of 84 The Peoples of the United States
Representatives and the Senate. Both are situated and carry on their work in Washington. They start their sessions on ¤xed dates in March and December every year. The House of Representatives at present has 325 members. The number of Representatives sent by a State depends upon the number of its inhabitants. The Federal Government takes a population census every ten years, and informs the States about the number of Representatives each State is entitled to send to the Congress on the basis of its population. As the population of the country increases, so does the size of the electorate. In 1870 it was resolved that every 138,000 inhabitants should send one Representative; in 1880 this was changed to every 154,000. This provision gives an equal right to all the States to elect Representatives on the basis of their population, and prevents disputes.
The Representatives serve a term of two years. When the Congress ends its session on the fourth of March, the Representatives' term of of¤ce also comes to an end. But if they are capable and popular, they are re-elected and have the right to serve in the Congress for another two years. Thus the members newly elected to this important post are under the supervision of old and experienced of¤cers.
Each Representative receives a salary of $5,000 per year and traveling expenses.
The salaries of the federal of¤cials are paid from the federal treasury, as per the constitutional provisions.
Senate Each State elects and sends two Senators to this body. The elected legislative body in each State selects its Senators and sends them to work on its behalf. A Senator's term of of¤ce is six years, and he too earns a salary of $5,000 a year and travel expenses. There is a provision that the term of of¤ce of all the Senators should not end simultaneously. One-third of the Senate members resign every two years;10 but, if capable and popular, they are re-elected and hold of¤ce for another six years. The Senate members have to support the political party which is in power in their own State; but their political inclinations do not change suddenly in keeping with popular opinion, as is the case with the Representatives. The Senate has very great and important powers, which makes it a powerful organ of the Congress. The drafts of new laws are ¤rst approved by the House of Representatives and then placed before the Senate. No law can be passed if the Senate does not approve it. Treaties made with foreign countries cannot be rati¤ed except with the approval of two-thirds of the Senate members.
The ambassadors and agents sent by the United States to other countries have to be approved by the Senate. Although the President is able to appoint a number of of¤cers of his own choice to different posts, he is dependent upon the approval of the Senate; otherwise not even ten Presidents together can appoint
System of Government 85
their own nominees. For members to be promoted to the Senate after serving in the House of Representatives is regarded as a sign of great honor in American society. This country is very proud of its Senate, and not without reason. Like the Supreme Court, this body is without an equal in terms of status and powers.
Even the English Parliament has no equal to this body. The English Parliament has two divisions: the House of Commons, or the body of common people; and the House of Lords, or the body of the nobility. Only in the House of Commons does the general public opinion count to an extent; the House of Lords treats public opinion with contempt and is open only to members of the elite, irrespective of whether or not they are popular among the general public. Lord Salisbury, the present Prime Minister to the Queen of England, says that he is envious of the American Supreme Court and that he has a great desire to have a body like the American Senate in his own country because of its marvelous ef¤ciency and strength. It must be remembered that this marvelous strength and ef¤ciency rest on the strong support of public opinion. The chief strength of a nation is the right of the general public to vote in the functioning of the government on the basis of their own future interests. Why would a Senate, rooted in such vigor and nurtured by public opinion, not develop extraordinary strength and ef¤cacy?
No one in this country has the power to enter into a treaty or to declare war with a foreign country without the approval of the Senate; this and many other such facts have contributed to the greatness of this nation. Thanks to the thoughtful conduct of the Senate, this nation has escaped the terrible effects of thoughtless actions. In a kingdom whose fate is controlled by one person or a handful of persons, these of¤ceholders are likely to develop a strong desire to ful¤ll their own ambitions and earn public acclaim by doing deeds which appear momentarily attractive and impressive but which lead to the destruction of the nation; and they are also likely to succeed. Such persons do not consider whether the results of an action would lead to the welfare of the nation, but think primarily of the deeds which would dazzle the people and earn praise for themselves at the present time. A republic is not likely to suffer the severe blow which might befall a monarchy where its fate lies in the hands of ministers or army generals. In a republic a shortsighted action is not likely to increase anyone's personal glory, nor is the absence of such action likely to lead to his being ignored.
When a matter is not related to any personal interest, it does not bring honor or dishonor upon anyone; nor is there reason for anyone to insist upon it. When the entire Senate deliberates upon a matter and gives its favorable or unfavorable opinion, it is accepted by all. Only an action which leads to the national good should be undertaken and only such an action should be accepted by all. No one here approves of an act which ignores the national good and only preserves an individual's ministership or earns him praise. If an occasion to declare war with 86 The Peoples of the United States
a foreign country arises, the Representatives, Senators, and President ¤rst deliberate upon the reasons for going to war, whether these reasons are enough to justify the bloodshed involved in war, and the resultant pro¤t and loss. Only after they have won a majority vote in favor of war does the United States government embark on such a horrible course of action as ¤ghting a war. Such deliberations and decisions take a long time. In the meanwhile all the inhabitants of the nation get an opportunity to express their opinion on the matter, and sometimes the very cause for the dispute disappears with the passage of time, making war unnecessary. If a decision is made to go to war, its responsibility is accepted by all the Representatives and Senators, and the President. It never happens that one sahib11 happens to insult another, who then does what seems right to him and declares war as a form of revenge, and that innocent people suffer the consequences.
A comparison between some of the rules of the British Government and those of this republic would immediately reveal the superiority of the latter. In Britain an undertaking intended for the public good is possible only after the whole Parliament approves it and a law is passed accordingly. But it is possible to ¤ght a war with countries like Egypt, Burma, Afghanistan, etc., and sacri¤ce hundreds of thousands of human lives, and to suffocate a poor country like India under the burden of a tremendous debt, if only a handful of ministers nod their approval. No one consults the Parliament in such cases. Five or six sel¤sh persons can ruin the entire country, or make a rash treaty with a foreign country and submit their own country and its protectorates to the butcher's knife, in the name of the Queen (and it must be remembered that the Queen or King is not a powerful person but a poor puppet in the hands of these of¤ce-holding ministers, dancing to their tune). This is called the advanced political philosophy of an advanced country!
How good it would have been had the British Government followed the example of this republic and been guided by a large number of thoughtful people instead of allowing a handful of persons to interfere in the domestic matters of other countries! The avowed policy of the United States Government is not to interfere in the internal matters of foreign countries and not to allow anyone to interfere in its own domestic matters.
This country has two strong political parties. No matter which of them is in power, they have vowed not to rush into a con®ict with another country, even when there are strong reasons for doing so, but to allow neutral mediators to give due consideration to these reasons and attempt to resolve the matter peacefully.
Recently a treaty has been signed between the governments of the United States and England, providing that if a dispute should arise between the two, they would not go to war but resolve the dispute through third party mediation. This is indeed a great credit to their civility. The United States Government is preSystem of Government 87
pared to make such a pact with other countries also. But if the other party disregards the suggestion of the United States that a dispute should be resolved by mediation, and if it insists on declaring war, then this government would reluctantly be prepared for war.
President Thus far we have considered the governing bodies of this nation. Let us now consider its representative who heads these bodies and implements the laws which they have passed as being good and worth introducing in the country.12
This representative is called the President of the United States. He holds the powers entrusted to him by the nation with the consent of the Congress, and acts on behalf of the nation. His term of of¤ce is four years; after his term is over, the people of the United States duly re-elect him if he is very popular, and appoint him to the of¤ce of President for four more years. George Washington,
Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, Andrew Jackson, and Ulysses Grant each served twice as President of the United States and enjoyed the position for eight years each. No one can be appointed President for more than eight years.13 In view of the future welfare of the country, George Washington refused the Presidency for a third time in spite of the wish of the people, just as he refused to be King, thereby making his fame immortal. He knew that if the same man remained President for three or more terms, it would deal a severe blow to the independence of the United States. His refusal of a third term was an excellent monument to patriotism and a good example to the future Presidents of the United States.
The President of the United States is not a puppet nominally placed on the throne and manipulated by his ministers. Just as he is the President of the entire nation, he is also the highest magistrate and the supreme commander of the army and the navy. His power is unlimited during his term of of¤ce. No change can be introduced and no signi¤cant work carried on in the Departments of Justice, Revenue, Defense, etc., without his orders. Everybody is ever ready to implement his orders immediately. The combined standing army in all the States does not amount to more than about twenty-¤ve or twenty-six thousand; but many more than six or seven million strong men would be ready to go to war in defense of their country, as soon as they receive orders from the President. These soldiers do not need to be paid from the national treasury all their lives; it is the duty of the nation to maintain them only for the duration of their service. They
¤ght not as a favor to their country, but for its defense; they do not ¤ght for the glory of one man, but are ever ready to lay down their lives in the defense of their country. The President can remove any army of¤cer from his post for a valid reason.
88 The Peoples of the United States
Nobody wishes to curtail the unlimited powers of the President just because it is the people who have made him their representative. If the President's actions do not ¤nd favor with the people, they reserve their judgment until the next election. There is no need for the people to resent the President's use of unlimited powers, because it is not beyond the people to remove from of¤ce this highest of¤cer elected by themselves, should he indulge in wrongful activities. During his term of of¤ce the President receives a salary of $50,000 per annum, and he is also given possession of a large mansion near the building of the Congress in Washington, and a retreat a few miles outside the city for occasional rest.
Every week the President meets with the people for a few hours at the appointed time. Every inhabitant of the country, from a millionaire to a penniless laborer, has an equal right to meet the President; anybody who so wishes can see the President during the time appointed for the purpose. The President must treat everyone with due respect. This and many other similar customs regularly remind the President that the power of the nation is vested not in one person, but in all the citizens in equal measure.
When the people's elected representative assumes the of¤ce of President, he appoints his cabinet himself.ii As the President is his own prime minister, his ministers, or cabinet of¤cers, do not have a higher or lower rank, but are equal.
These ministers are called "Secretaries," as for example, Secretary of War, Secretary of the Treasury, etc. These ministers are not permanent. If proven to be unsuitable, they are replaced without any dif¤culty. The ministers do not appear in person before the legislature; they send in writing whatever suggestions they wish to make. Earlier, the President would be present at the beginning of each session of the Congress, and make the inaugural speech. But this practice has been discontinued following the realization that it is better for the executive head not to be present when laws are being made. Now the President sends in writing the suggestions he wishes to make to the Congress. He is also free to communicate to the Congress any matter which he thinks will contribute to the nation's welfare.
It has been mentioned that the President's powers are very great. His veto powers are also great. The veto power means the President's right to withhold approval, after showing due cause, for a draft bill which has been passed by the Representatives and Senators, and sent to him for approval. A draft bill which is vetoed by the President cannot become law. If the reasons advanced by the President are not found to be appropriate, and if both the House and the Senate approve it by a two-thirds majority, the draft bill is considered again and passed.
Thus, although the President's powers are unlimited, it is within the powers of the Congress to limit them.
The American people rarely make a mistake in electing their President. Most of the Presidents so far have been good. Many of them, like Washington, Adams,
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Jefferson, Lincoln, and Gar¤eld, were well suited in every way to be popular Presidents because of their qualities, such as extraordinarily upright conduct and political acumen. Lincoln and Gar¤eld were neither millionaires nor descendants of great sages or kings. They were able to overcome all obstacles, such as their original poverty, dif¤culty in getting an education, and impecuniousness, thanks to their diligence and uprightness; from being the sons of poor farmers they went on to become learned teachers, lawyers, and Presidents of the United
States, and achieved immortality because of their innate civility and other good qualities. This is cause for wonder, indeed. The thought that the common people of the United States can occupy very high positions on merit, without the aid of three powerful factors, namely, social class, family background, and wealth, arouses in our hearts great respect for the country.
Whenever the American people realize that they have made a mistake in electing their President, they possess the means to rectify it. The President's conduct and functioning are under scrutiny by all. It is enough for him to do just one or two things which the people disapprove of, and they are immediately made public in the newspapers throughout the country. They are mentioned in public speeches. Everybody starts to say that the next President to be elected should be more morally upright and more ef¤cient than the present one. This usually restrains a President who is inclined towards immorality. If not, efforts are already under way to replace him when his term is over. If he violates the federal laws of the United States, he can be brought before the Supreme Court like a common man, tried, and removed from of¤ce.14 When his term is over, the President takes up any work of his choice, like an ordinary citizen. Some practice law and some take up farming; some get elected as Representatives from their home States and serve the country in the Congress. A former President does not get a pension.
Even as President he is an American citizen, and when his State elects its Governor, he goes back to his home town and casts his vote in the election like other ordinary citizens. His vote as President does not count a whit more than that of James the farmer, or Samuel the coal seller. His visit is not celebrated, except for a special reason, by the town municipality with a big show, by wasting the money collected from the poor; but all are very eager to show him due respect. It is understood that this respect is shown not to the individual, but to the people's power which is vested in him. A past President is not given undue respect. On the contrary, he is thankful to the American citizens for having accorded him the highest honor by electing him President.
It is the people who together elect the President, but not directly. Each State appoints a certain number of "Electors" according to the size of its population.
These electors ascertain the popular opinion in their State and go to Washington, to report that such and such a person has won so many votes. The person with the largest number of votes is appointed President. The President is elected
90 The Peoples of the United States
once every four years, on November 6. And four months later, that is, on March 4, the old President hands over charge to the new one.15 On that occasion, the new President takes an oath to implement the laws of the United States and to serve his country faithfully. The presidential election costs $600,000, that is, about Rs. 1,800,000 each time; but the entire expenditure is not incurred because of the President alone. Each State also has to elect the Electors at the time of electing Representatives; this expenditure is merged in the larger one.
In the United States, as in England, two of the political parties are strong at a time. Many such parties have been in existence so far. Their main function is to exert themselves to achieve an important goal. About twenty-¤ve or thirty years ago, the Republican Party came into being; its aim was to free the African slaves. The original aim of the Democratic Party, to protect individual freedom, was very good, but on nearing its sixtieth year, it is beginning to turn senile. The Republican Party is also entering middle age. Three new parties have been formed recently, of which the Prohibition Party, which opposes liquor, is very important. Although it was established not so long ago, it has gathered strength from the upright men and women of the United States. Just as the Democratic Party was on the rise earlier and the Republican Party is victorious now, it is the hope of many that the Prohibition Party's efforts will be successful in the future and that it will deliver the United States from its dreadful foe, namely, Liquor.
As everybody values freedom of thought and expression, nobody harbors enmity against people of opposing parties. The followers of each party justify it openly by providing arguments in its favor; and nobody gets angry if hot words are exchanged during such debates. Even when members of the same family, that is to say brothers, or father and son, belong to opposing parties, they do not lose their love and respect for each other. Elected of¤cials at the federal, state or local level, such as the President, are candidates nominated by one of the parties; they are elected to of¤ce by a majority vote, irrespective of the party they belong to.
Revenues of the United States Government According to the system of government prevailing in the United States, the township pays for its own expenses, the county for its own, and the State for its own.16 This country has a very small debt compared to its large size. Many
States are not in debt at all, but have a revenue which is adequate for managing their affairs. All the city municipalities in the United States have a total debt of $575,000,000. And the national debt amounts to $1,500,000,000 for the whole population, that is, $30 per capita. In 1835 this nation had no debt; moreover, the treasury had a surplus which it did not know how to utilize. The terrible American Civil War from 1861 to 1865 led to a very large debt. In 1866 the nation owed
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more than $3,000,000,000, on which an interest of $146,000,000 per annum had to be paid. By 1885 more than half this debt was repaid. It appears that in another ten or twelve years the entire debt will be paid off. During the last two years debt amounting to $270,000,000 has been repaid, as a result of which many taxes have been abolished. Also, the soldiers and widows of soldiers who fought for the Government during the Civil War have been granted a 25 percent increase in their pensions. Seeing that the United States Government repays its debt eight times faster than the British Government does, Mr. Gladstone has said that the qualities of wisdom, self-sacri¤ce, self-control, and farsightedness are found eight times more in the United States Government than in the British Government. It is no mean praise that an eminent politician like the above-mentioned gentleman should express such an opinion about this elected government.
In 1830 the annual revenue of the U.S. Government was $1.25 per capita, and in 1860 it was $1.75, that is, a total of $56,000,000. This revenue accrued mostly from customs on goods imported from foreign countries, and sale of public lands. From 1861 to 1865, a civil war was fought among the Americans over the slave trade; in order to repay the debt of $3,000,000,000 incurred because of the war, several taxes were imposed on the people of the United States for many years. In 1866 the levy of taxes and sale of lands together generated $558,000,000.
From 1861 to 1867 the annual levy of taxes alone collected $400,000,000 to $500,000,000. Prior to this period the per capita taxes amounted to $1.75, which had to be increased to $17 due to this debt. Now, with the decrease in the national debt, many of the taxes are being abolished. In 1833 the revenue of the U.S. Government was $400,000,000, of which $50,000,000 was paid as interest on the national debt; $66,000,000 was paid in pensions to the soldiers who fought for the Government in the American Civil War; $64,000,000 was spent on the army and navy (of this amount, $10,000,000 were spent on repairing harbors and improving waterways); and $6,000,000 was spent on maintenance for the American Indian people. (It should not be thought that the U.S. Government pays
$6,000,000 per year in charity to the Indians. In return for the vast lands snatched from them by force or coercion, they were paid very small sums of money which were deposited in the U.S. national treasury. They yield an interest in excess of $6,000,000. This is the amount distributed among the several tribes for their maintenance; it is not suf¤cient for them.) A sum of $68,000,000 is spent on public works (which will be described below). The salaries of the government of¤cials, that is, the President of the United States, the two sections of the Congress (House and Senate), and the Vice President, amount to $2,054,000. These are the main heads of expenditure. There are several miscellaneous expenses.
This is a brief account of the government of the United States. See the picture of the Star-Spangled Banner of the United States reproduced here.17 George
Washington, the ¤rst President of this country, had a very beautiful shield, deco92 The Peoples of the United States
rated with stars, and red and white stripes. It was very beautiful. The American people felt that their national ®ag should be like the shield and, out of respect for Washington, copied the same design on their ®ag. What a beautiful ®ag it is!
It has white stars on a sky-blue cloth, and red and white stripes next to them.
No other nation has such a beautiful ®ag—and where is another such beautifully organized nation of happy citizens to be found? The joyous stars roam freely all over the clear blue skies and provide us, inhabitants of the earth, a sight to delight the eyes. Just so do these free States of America, located midway between the clear blue waters of the Atlantic and Paci¤c Oceans, delight the hearts of all the people on this earth by their imposing, serene brilliance. The ®ag of the United States at once gives an idea of its political system. Its ¤fty States and Territories are autonomous but guided by the Federal Government in Washington— just as the Earth, Mercury, Jupiter, and the other planets move in their independent orbits but are guided by the Sun.
The combined area of all these States is two and a half times as large as our India, and their wealth very great. This vast country has overcome all kinds of obstacles and calamities in such a short time, and become more advanced and prosperous than all other countries on earth, on the strength of a system of government whose greatness is indescribable! The creator of this system of government, the source of all happiness and the real life force of humankind, is Liberty, whose statue stands in New York Harbor—the Delhi Gate18 of the United States
—and captures the minds of the whole world by her serene, pure brilliance. She stands with a torch in one hand to illuminate the whole world with the light of freedom, and a book in the other in order to provide knowledge and dispel the ignorance of the human race. The throne of the Goddess of Liberty, and the home of knowledge and progress, is the United States. It is no wonder that the sight of this land also ¤lls the heart of a proud but enslaved person with joy, allows him to forget his sorry state for a brief while and be immersed in the heavenly happiness of freedom; and makes him earnestly wish that all the people in all the countries of the world would acquire such a system of government, such liberty, equality, and fraternity.
Notes in the Original Text i. The word jaanapada has been used here to translate the word "citizen."
The word "citizen" ordinarily means a resident of a city. But in the United States of America this word possesses a far deeper and more signi¤cant meaning. A citizen is regarded there as an inhabitant of that nation, one who has a right to participate in its government. There is not a single word in our language which expresses the same meaning. The Sanskrit word jaanapada somewhat resembles the American word "citizen." It means a person who inhabits a country or naSystem of Government 93
tion. If the word is slightly altered to create a compound which means a person who controls his janapada, that is, country, it would be the equivalent of the American word "citizen."19 ii. There are a total of seven ministers, ranked as follows: Secretary of State,
Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney General, Postmaster General, Secretary of the Navy, and Secretary of the Interior.
A Vice President is elected at the same time as the President. His term of of¤ce coincides with that of the President. His salary is $9,000 a year. In the event that the President dies while in of¤ce or is removed from of¤ce, the Vice President is made President for the duration of the term. If the Vice President also dies or is removed from of¤ce, the presidency passes on to one of the ministers in the council, in the order of precedence given above.
94 The Peoples of the United States