CHAPTER XII
Ni»
a ANNE FREMANTLE
To conclude, I say that there is no such thing as a universal, intrinsically present in the things to which it is common. No universal, except that is such by voluntary agreement, is existent in any way outside of the soul, but everything that can be predicated of many things, is by its nature in the mind either psychologically or logically. }
CHAPTER XII Conclusion
FOR A THOUSAND YEARS, THROUGHOUT THE MIDDLE AGES,
the medieval philosophers had been concerned with certain static problems such as the nature of being, the relationship of essence to existence, the dichotomy of fate and free-will, the pluralist and monist views of ultimate reality and the question of the existence or non-existence of universals. Certain dynamic problems concerned them no less; for example, the distinction between matter and form, knowledge and experience; the relations between the mind and its object; the causal intervention of sense in the production of thought; and the change from non-being to being
—these matters were hotly debated in the schools, the cloisters, the universities, and even the courts of Europe, by men of all nations and several creeds. And each thinker added something to the content of scholastic philosophy, which was born from the union of Greek philosophy and Christian revelation, and grew by gradual accumulation of detail accompanied, as Hawkins says, "by criticism and emendation as the occasion called for them." With the beginnings of experimental science, with Robert Grosseteste, St. Albert the Great and Roger Bacon, the questions changed. Men were no longer as anxious to know
Why? as How? No longer was there passionate enquiry into such problems as why God became man (Cur Deus
=a =|
THE AGE OF BELIEF
a tt Homo), but rather men wanted to know how the rainbow is put together, and how it is colored. Men such as Durandus of St. Pourcain and William of Ockham, and Ockham's many followers, criticized realism and conceptualism in a radical fashion. Dr. Tornay writes:
{ The universal concept, discovered by Socrates as the rock of knowledge, extended by Plato to metaphysical dimensions, and developed by Aristotle as the indwelling principle of all actuality, was accepted by both the Augustinian and Thomistic lines of thought as the surety to guarantee the solidity of science and of life. The stubborn facts of human defeat were bound to open the eyes sooner or _later to the futility of such anthropocentrism. Realism, which had been dominant through the centuries of the Middle Ages, received its first serious blow under the onslaughts of Roscelin and Abelard in the middle of the twelfth century. The historical role however, of undermining its foundations in a fatal manner, was reserved to William of Ockham. } ST. AUGUSTINE HAS SAID "Virtus est ordo amoris,"' VIRTUE is the setting in order of love, and the whole of medieval
— thought appears as a huge, protracted effort to arrange all human knowledge tidily in a great system, whose motor and creator was the Love that, as Dante put it, moves the sun and other stars. Every detail, whether in physics or chemistry, astronomy or psychology as then apprehended, must be arranged and accounted for, fitted into its place in that giant jigsaw puzzle, the created universe. The Gothic cathedrals, with their astonishing universality, are each an explanation of theology, history and revelation; they are
"frozen music" and art besides. Intentionally to the last detail they were concrete expressions of philosophy, for the instruction of the illiterate, recapitulations of a total and inclusive attitude to all things visible and invisible. The effect, in thought as in art, is sometimes crowded as are the catalogues of symbolic figures on the porches of Wells
Cathedral or Chartres, the profusion of ornament in an illuminated manuscript, the relentless symmetry of struc-
ANNE FREMANTLE
ture in the writing of Dante or St. Thomas. But the cumulative effect was an enduring, and, as human philosophies go, a solid structure, that weathered the external attacks of the pagan and of the paynim and the internal threats of Avicenna and Averroés, incorporating and digesting what could be used from all external or alien substances because all good belonged to the giver of all good and must be returned to Him, as all truth must be greedily accepted and assimilated as His gift.
When Ockham declared that all our conceptions are mental signs which signify the external things, and that "a sign is anything, that, as apprehended, presents something else to cognition," he disassociated logic and metaphysics, philosophy and theology. For Ockham "the essence of the self is the power of self-determination" and "God is a supreme and arbitrary will, contingently decreeing." What is a mental sign? A concept of the soul, according to Ockham, "the act of intellect itself," according to Durandus, which Ockham accepts as "the most probable of all opinions." Universals are not real things, "their being is their being understood .
. ." (Tornay, op. cit.) Some of Ockham's contemporaries, for example Nicolas of Autrecourt (flourished 1340), said that "the existence of the external world cannot be demonstrated, and the only substance which a man can know with certitude is that of his own soul." Down with causality, cried the anti-scholastics of the fourteenth century, men must convert their intellect to the observation of phenomena, and forget Aristotle and his commentators. After their critical efforts had been expended, nothing was left but a succession of mental phenomena, and the reality of any human existence became a figment of some Red King's dream, as in Alice Through the Looking-Glass.
Ockham did not go so far. Repeated impressions of exterior reality, he said, produce a similarity of experience, and "such repeated experiences are molded into an exemplar, a logical fictum"
(Tornay, op. cit.). "With his theory of signs, he inserted a medium between the knowing mind and the knowable world in such a way that what had been for ages a means of knowledge became
Ni aN mT A ap ener eC a ea . eS ares
THE AGE OF BELIEF
with him the immediate object of knowledge." Meanwhile the scholastics gradually made themselves absurd by arguing more and more etiolated problems—of which a favorite
(though fictitious) example is how many angels could stand on the point of a needle. The anti-scholastics (as the Ockhamists were called) could also rise to pretty ridiculous heights. To John Buridan (d. shortly after 1358) a leading Paris Ockhamist, is ascribed the dilemma (which is not, however, to be found in his writings) of the donkey dying of hunger between two equidistant bundles of hay, unable to choose between two equal goods. According to Buridan, every good "set before us by the intellect, exercises on the will, which is undetermined of itself, a natural attraction, and we necessarily choose what appears to us to be the better." Buridan, a French physicist, defined motion as a concept, having no reality apart from moving bodies.
"I say therefore that the moving thing in such a motion, after the separation of the moving body from the first projector, is the moved thing itself, not by reason of any power in it, for this moving thing and the moved thing cannot be distinguished."
While many of the best philosophical minds of the fourteenth century thus moved in the direction of experimental science, others were directed toward another experimental field—that of mysticism. Meister Eckhart is one example;
Jan Ruysbroek (1293-71350) and Gerard of Groot are others. Nicolas of Cusa (1401-1464), the busy bishop of Brixen, had studied at Deventer, and been influenced by the spirituality taught there: his De Docta Ignorantia (of the wise ignorance) is a continuation of the AnselmianAquinian tradition of philosophy, yet is based on a theory of knowledge which is expressed according to the principle of contradiction, and above it, on a spiritual vision "which grasps the coincidence of the contraries which reason regards as incompatible .
. A curved line becomes identical with a straight line when its curvature is infinitely diminished, and the hypotenuse of a triangle coincides with the two other sides when the angle becomes infinitely great," wrote Nicolas, who in the practical sphere worked
ANNE FREMANTLE
long and hard to reconcile the Greek church with the Pope.
In 1450 union seemed near, and the humanist Pope, another Nicolas (the Fifth), made Nicolas of Cusa a Cardinal and encouraged his efforts to promote peace and unity in Christendom. These seemed crowned by the Concordat of the Princes, and the successful culmination and close of the Council of Basle.
Nicolas, in his philosophy, returned to a platonist, and almost to a pantheist, position: God, the absolute Maximum, is at the same time identical with the lowest possible or Minimum. To say He is, is the same as to say He is not: to exist and not to exist coincide in Him as do all contraries.
This is as obviously an end of philosophy as terminology is the end of logic: semantics and mysticism, theology and dialectic are all exits from philosophy proper: they are doors opening or closing, dead-ends or runways according to the attitude taken towards them.
Philosophy proper, however, marked time between William of Ockham and René Descartes, while the old structure of scholasticism was being torn down by the Reformation. Yet the full "epistemological approach" of Descartes depended on an analytical geometry which looks back to Nicolas of Cusa and to Roger Bacon.
The Age of Belief ended, to use T. S. Eliot's phrase, "not with a bang but a whimper."
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Recommended Further Reading BOER, Dr. Tzitze de. History of Philosophy in Islam.
Luzac Publishers, 1903. A classic.
BURCH, G. B. Early Medieval Philosophy. Columbia University Press, 1951. A most useful book making free use of original texts.
COPLESTONE,
Frederick. A History of Philosophy.
Burns, Oates & Washbourne, 1953. An up-to-theminute account of western philosophy by a hard-hitting writer.
CROMBIE, Alistair. Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science: 1100-1700. Oxford University
Press, 1953. A very helpful study with a superlative bibliography.
GILSON, Etienne. The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy.
Scribners, 1936. This is perhaps the best book ever written on this subject by its foremost living authority.
This author has written recommended books on St.
Thomas, Duns Scotus, and St. Bonaventura, among many.
HAWKINS, D. J. B. A Sketch of Medieval Philosophy.
Sheed & Ward, 1947. A slight but useful outline.
HODGKIN, Thomas. Italy and Her Invaders. Oxford University Press, 1931. Excellent for background on the Dark Ages.
HUIZINGA, Johan. The Waning of the Middle Ages. E.
Arnold, 1937. Excellent reference though a bit overwritten.
HUSIK, I. History of Jewish Medieval Philosophy. Mac- -oarae 1916. An old book but one of the best in a sparse eld.
MARGOLIOUTH, D. S. The Early Development of Mohammedanism. Williams & Norgate, 1914. A good introduction to the complicated study of Islamic thought.
MARITAIN, Jacques. An Introduction to Philosophy.
Sheed & Ward, 1947. A useful outline of the Thomist viewpoint by a great living Catholic philosopher.
NICHOLSON, Reynold. Mystics of Islam. G. Bell & Sons, 1914. A fascinating account of the early Persian and Arab mystics.
PEGIS, Anton (ed.). Basic Writings of St. Thomas Aquinas. Random House, 1945. An excellent anthology in two volumes, POWER, Eileen. Medieval People. Methuen, 1924. A vividly told day-to-day life story of people in the medieval period.
RAND, E. K. Founders of the Middle Ages. Harvard University Press, 1928. A comprehensive study by one of the great American scholars in this field.
TAYLOR, Henry Osborn. The Medieval Mind: A History of the Development of Thought and Emotion in the Middle Ages. Macmillan, 1927. Two of the best known volumes in this field; they wear well.
THOMAS AQUINAS, Saint. Philosophical Texts. Translated by Thomas Gilby, Oxford University Press, 1951.
A stimulating collection with an excellent introduction.
VERNET, Felix. Medieval Spirituality. Herder, 1930.
Good expression of the Catholic viewpoint.
WADDELL, Helen. The Wandering Scholars. Constable, 1927. An alive account of the "goliardes" who sang their way across Europe in medieval times.
WULF, Maurice de. History of Medieval Philosophy.
Longmans, Green, 1938. An indispensable aid for students in two volumes,
Index of Names Augustine of Hippo, St., 14, Abelard, Peter, 98ff, 144, 150, 19, 23-53, 128, 130, 139, 183, 204, 210 Abu Bakr al-Razi, 116 172ff, 182, 210 Aurioli, Peter, 203, 205-06 Avencebrol. See Ibn-Gabirol.
Averroés (Ibn-Rushd), 109, Al-Ashari, 115 Albert the Great, St., 144ff, 180, 201, 209 127ff, 144ff, 149, 152, 159, 181, 201, 204, 211 Avicenna (Ibn-Sina), 117ff, 129, 138, 158-59, 165ff, 190, 204, 211 Bacon, Sir Francis, 201 Alcuin, 78-79 Alexander of Hales, 108, 139 Al-Farabi, 116-17, 129 Algazel. See Al-Ghazzali.
Al-Ghazzali, 127ff Al-Hallaj, 128 Al-Kindi, 111, 115 Al-Muammar, 114-15 Al-Nazzam, 114 Ambrose, St., 24, 25 Anselm, St., 88-97, 98, 152, Bacon, Roger, 132, 137ff, 148, 181, 209, 213 Becket, St. Thomas a, 104,
Bérenger of Tours, 87 Berard of Clairvaux, St., 18-
Aquinas, St. Thomas, 19, 20, 19, 99ff 80, 88, 97, 109, 117, 127, Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus, 19, 53-71, 98, 131, 139, 145-79, 180ff, 199, 201, 202, 210, 211, 2A 144, 159 Bonaventura, St., 19, 139-44, Arians, 54, 61 147, 180, 201 Bossuet, Jacques, 105 Aristotle, 14, 19, 20, 54, 66, 99, 100, 106, 109, 111, 112, Breakspear, Nicholas, 106 Buridan, John, 212 116, 127, 129, 131, 132, 137, 139, 144, 145, 147, Calvin, John, 23 Capella, Martianus, 78 149ff, 159, 165ff, 182, 202, 203, 210, 211 Augustine of Canterbury, St., Cassiodorus, Flavius Magnus Aurelius, 70-71 Charlemagne, 78, 104
(rae we .
_ THE AGE OF BELIEF
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 16,
Claudianus Mamertus, 19 Constantine the Great, 16 Crombie, A., 137, 179 Damian, St. Peter, 18-19, 87 Dante, Alighieri, 14, 132, B10 211 David of Dinant, 132 Democritus, 115, 150 Denys.
See Dionysius the Areopagite Gottschalk, 79 Gregory IX, Pope, 145 Gregory X, Pope, 147, 180 Gregory of Tours, St., 77 Gregory the Great, St., 77-78 Groote, Gerard of, 212 132ff, Grosseteste, Robert, 179, 202, 209 Gurian, Waldemar, 74 Hegel, George, 88, 97 Héloise, 99-100 Hermes Trismegistus, 111 Hincmar, 79 -_ Hippocrates, 111 Hobbes, Thomas, 201 Hrabonas Maurus, 79 Hume, David, 129 Huss, John, 198, Huxley, Aldous, 85 Ibn-Gabirol, 131, 159 Ibn-Hazm, 127-28 Descartes, René, 23, 88, 97, 129, 130, 207, 213 Dionysius the Areopagite, 54, 71, 79, 159 Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
Dominic, St., 108, 198 Duns Scotus, John, 88, 108, 181-97, 201, 202, 205 Durandus of Pourgain, 199Ibn-Rashid, 111
Ibn-Rushd. See Averroés.
200, 202-03, 205-06, 210,
Eckhart, Meister, 199, 212 Ibn-Sabin, 147 Ibn-Sina. See Avicenna.
Einstein, Albert, 35, 109, 132 Innocent III, Pope, 147 Isidore, St., 71 Epicurus, 107 Erigena, John Scotus, 79-87, Jacob of Edessa, 111 James, William, 149-50 Jerome, St., 18 John, St., 15 John XXII, Pope, 199, 202,
Felix, Marcus Minucius, 17 Francis of Assisi, St., 139, 142, 147 Frederick II, 147
John Damascene, St., 111 John of Salisbury, 106ff Kant, Immanuel, 88, 97, 130, Fulbert de Chartres, 99-100 Gaunilo, 90ff Gilson, Etienne, 72, 155-56, 179, 202
INDEX OF NAMES
Plato, 13-14, 54, 112, 128, Kilwardby, Robert, 149 Leibniz, Gottfried, 88, 159, 150, 155, 182, 210 Plotinus, 19, 34-35 Porphyry, 19ff, 66-67, 71, 99
Lombard, Peter, 181, 202ff Lucretius Carus, Titus, 115 Proclus, 159 Prudentius, Aurelius ClemeLully, Raymond, 200-01 ens, 17-18, 24 Ptolemy (Claudius PtolemaeLuther, Martin, 23, 199
Lutterell, John, 205 Maimonides, Moses, 129, us), 71 Qadarites, 114 Qosta ibn Luga al-Balabakki, 131, 159 Malebranche, Nicolas de, 140 Manichaeanism, 24-25, 85 Mansur.
See John Dama-
Robert de Courcgon, 145 Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 100 scene, St.
Maritain, Jacques, 37 Marsilius of Padua, 206 Martianus Capella, 70 Michael of Cesena, 206-07 Mohammed, 110 Monophysites, 111 Mutazalites, 114, 115 Nestorians, 111 Newton, Sir Isaac, 207 Russell, Bertrand, 26, 204 Ruyshroek, Jan, 212 Saadya of Fayum, 130 Sabaeans, 111 Salvian, 76-77 Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, 16 Sergius of Rasain, 112 Severus, Bishop, 108f Siger of Brabant, 144-5, 146 Symmachus, Quintus AureNicolas of Autrecourt, 201,
Nicolas of Cusa, 201, 212-13 Ockham, William of, 201-09, lius, 17-24 Tempier, Stephen, 181 Tertullian, 18-19, 87 Theodoric, 54 Theodorus, Manlius, 19 210, 211, 212, 213 Pascal, Blaise, 105 Patrick, St., 77 Vesalius, Andreas, 116 Paul, St., 15, 54, 99, 183 Paulus Persa, 112 Peckham, John, 149, 179 Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouet de, 74, 159 William of Champeaux, 98 William of Moerbeke, 159 Peter, St., 183 Peter the Venerable, 99-100 Zoroaster, 111 Zwingli, Ulrich, 23 Philo Judaeus, 113, 131
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THE AGE OF
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The Renaissance Philosophers By Grorcio DE SANTILLANA 'Tue Renaissance was a time when men turmed from abstractions, from thoughts of other-worldly perfection, to explore new seas, new continents, new notions, new images of man. They studied the giants of the past in the belief that they had already discovered man's true nature and then brought forth such bold creations
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THE AGE OF
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The 1sth Century Philosopbers By Sm Isaran BERLin 'Tz prmosorny of the 18th century begins with a systematic effort to apply to the study of man those methods which Newton had so triumphantly applied to nature. The editor of this volume, Sir Isaiah Berlin, traces the development of the influence of scientific thought through the writings of the great philosophers and popularizers whose work remains the foundation of liberal humanism and rationalism in the West.
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