Locus 20 — Civil Rulers and the Validity of Governmental Matters

Locus 20 — Civil Rulers and the Validity of Governmental Matters

human nature, along with the terrible raging of the devil, who stirs up depraved desires in many rulers, gover mon good and criminals are kept in check and punished by armed force. nors, judges, and public servants together with private individuals, it is no wonder that confusion and disorder arise. These things affect minds which have not been previously prepared so that they denounce everything, including the very political order itself, and begin to think that governments are only oppressors of the weak which come from the devil or from human pride and greed.

Shortly, I shall point out the testimonies from the prophets and apostles which everywhere teach both that the civil order has been established by God and that the goodness which is left in governmental struc ture is indeed the work of God—not only by His per mission, but that it is truly preserved and aided by God, just as the movements of the heavenly bodies and the fertility of the earth are. But before I refer to this dis tinction between the order and the miseries of the peo ple involved, I will reply to those who ask whence come these great confusions and calamities.

Often the philosophers also have inquired where governments come from. The facts demonstrate that there is no kingdom which has been established for the human race which is without destruction, none which does not have frightful confusions, none which lasts forever. How much of her own blood and that of strang ers did Rome spill before her empire filled the world!

By how many civil wars was the empire distracted— wars of Sulla, Marius, Cinna, Caesar, Pompey, Brutus,

Anthony, and Augustus, which raged through the entire civilized world. What upsets of law and tranquillity were created! Then came the barbarians, the Goths, the Vandals, the Huns, the Arabs, and the Turks, pouring into Italy, Egypt, Africa, and Asia, until they had utterly destroyed the Roman Empire. And finally, the condi tions demonstrated the cry which we hear in Ovid [MeAs I have said, the civil order is a good thing. It is beautiful, beneficial for the human race, and is the special work of God. Men who are joined together under laws can live together in a civil society. Much of man kind is governed by rulers who maintain order, carry out judgments, have a concern that the citizens are taught about God, and prohibit Epicurean ravings, idols, perjuries, debaucheries, and physical injuries. Finally, many rulers are concerned that the state be a very good school in which the knowledge of God may shine forth and the works of virtue be encouraged, along with a common defense and sharing of each other's blessings. tam. 15.420-22], "Thus we see everything turned upside down, and other nations taking over the reins, while these nations fall." Again, "And even to those who have reached the heights it is denied to stand there long." And they tell us that Scipio, as he beheld the capture of Carthage and the fire destroying the city, cried bitter tears and said that we must lament the in constancy of fortune in human affairs. He was not only mourning for Carthage, which had once flourished in power, wealth, and as a great empire, which now he had captured and despoiled and was destroying with fire, but also because he understood the fate of Rome, which on some other day would perish in a similar ca tastrophe, since no empires last forever. Therefore, the philosophers wondered, if governments really are es tablished by God, why does so much wickedness and misery befall them?

You say to me that I am painting a picture of a Platonic ideal. For where was there ever a city in which nothing wicked ever happened? But I am describing this [ideal] city in order that we may distinguish the civil order itself from the faults attached to it. Although there is no city or nation without faults, the governance of one is better and the governance of the other is more disorderly; one retains more of the good according to this ideal, and another less. In the time of David and Solomon, Jerusalem flourished more and its civil order was better than in the time of Herod. Yet whatever good did remain in the time of Herod was the work of God.

By the help of God a home was made there for Zachariah, Simeon, Elizabeth, and other holy people. Amidst all the crime, the wars, the raving of Satan and Herod,

God still protected Mary, Elizabeth, and countless other saints.

But the teaching of the church has made very important judgments on this matter, and shows the dis tinction between the political or civil order and the peo ple and the human miseries involved.

Now I shall say something about the persons in volved. Although the matter itself, that is, the political and civil order, is from God, just as marriage is, often the people are not moved by God and make a terrible uproar against the divine order, rather than observe it or adorn it. These are people such as Caligula, Nero, and the many other plagues who infest the empire— which itself has been divinely instituted. They are like wasps in a garden. Paul honored the laws and the good order of the Roman empire, but he hated Nero and cursed him as an instrument of the devil. For it is nec essary to distinguish the beneficial rulers of a govern ment from the evil ones. David, Solomon, Jehoshaphat,

Hezekiah, Josiah, Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus, Constan tine, Theodosius, and Charlemagne were beneficial

In regard to civil order, the heavenly doctrine uni versally teaches that this order has been instituted by God and is the work of God—whatever good does re main in government. For instance, men are joined to gether under definite laws and live in a civil society.

The people as a whole are governed by rulers, judges, and a system of punishments.The rulers are the ones who maintain discipline and peace and order. The gov erning offices are distinguished from one another and each is safe in his own place. Business affairs are trans acted with lawful contracts for the benefit of the com

princes, divinely raised up and assisted, in order that they might restore the empire and particularly help the church. Others who were divinely raised up and as sisted in order that they might restore their government

(even if they did not know anything about the church) were such men as Themistocles, Aristides, Alexander of Macedon, Fabius, Marcellus, Scipio, Emilios Paulus, and Augustus. For they governed things with happy results for the human race and they established civil regulations which flourished for a time. Therefore, their labor was helpful in enabling their posterity to continue, and from this posterity the church was gathered. ernment of Cyrus was crueler because God willed to punish Ionia by making a terrible example of her be cause of her flagrant vices. But such awful punish ments, even though they seem too severe to us, actually pertain to civil order, because God, the righ teous judge, reveals His wrath by these horrendous punishments, just as when He overturned Sodom and when He destroys whole nations by famine or pestilence.

Many evils in governments should be regarded as capital punishments and dreadful examples of the righteous anger of God against the crimes of men. In deed from the very beginning, governments began to deteriorate and slavery increased because the sins of men increased. The earliest monarchy in the statue in Daniel [chap. 2] was painted gold, the second silver, the third bronze, the fourth iron. And the feet were partly iron and partly clay, that is, in the last era certain gov ernments had become brutalized (as in the case of the Turks), and others became weak, while others were filled with corruption. And the corruption brought more confusion, as the conditions show in many places in Germany.

That good rulers are raised up and helped by God is often testified in the writings of the prophets. Ps.

127[:1], "Unless the Lord guard the city ..." And Ps.

144[:10], "The One who gives salvation to kings." And Solomon says [Prov. 20:12], "The eye that sees and the ear that hears, God has made them both," that is, that the ruler is alert and that he has counsels, and that the people obey him quickly, these are the works of God. That the counsels of Scipio were good and that the army loved their leader and eagerly followed him, these are blessings of God. Others tried to imitate him, but they were not so successful and their armies were not so eager. Thus also the Baptist, although he was speaking of the governance of the church, enunciated a true principle about governing in general [John 3:27]:

"No man can take anything for himself unless it is given him by God," that is, no government will be happy or successful except when God aids it. But the govern ments of Pericles and Demosthenes were too filled with intrigue; they started unnecessary wars which spelled the destruction of Greece.

The kingdom of the Jews in the time of Jehosh aphat was far more attractive than after the return from Babylon. And after that, when it was attacked in many ways by the kings of Syria and Egypt, and finally when

Judea was occupied by the Romans, yet some basic civil government still remained. And the godly recog nized that this was a blessing from God. Meanwhile, they knew the evils which occurred were divinely per mitted as strong punishments, and they bore them with groans and sadness. They endured them with humility and still showed concern in all their work. They did not become stubborn or seditious, but only prayed to God that He would mitigate their bondage.

But when the substance of the matter and the people involved have been aided by God, then gov ernments flourish more, as when David ruled in Israel and when Augustus ruled in Rome. Yet the government of no man is so tranquil or so happy that many calam ities are not mixed in and many evils present. For the devil is also trying to overturn governments in various ways, and the weakness of mankind is very great. Be sides, God wills that through the rulers who have been raised up by Him tyrants shall be punished and empires shall rise and fall, and this does not take place without great troubles. The happiest and most trouble-free king dom was that of Cyrus, and yet the most flourishing part of the world was terribly devastated by his arms, namely, Ionia, for God wished to punish their lustful ness. And, as often as some heroes were raised up, the destructions of great cities and great kingdoms fol lowed, as when Cyrus, Alexander, the Romans, the Goths, and the Turks overturned countless cities and kingdoms.

When they heard that Ptolemy Lathyrus [c. 150

B.C.] had slaughtered 20,000 Jews and forced the cap tives to eat the flesh of their dead parents and brothers, they recognized that the devil was raving more madly among this people than in other nations, and that they should be concerned about repentance and invocation.

Yet they did not understand the divine prophecy that the state would continue until the Messiah should be proclaimed.

I feel that it has been necessary to make these prefatory remarks about the distinction between civil order and the confusions which upset this order (just as if a person upsets the harmony of those who are singing good music correctly by his furious clamor) in order that the reader may be prepared beforehand for other matters and may not despise the divine blessings because of the confusions which come from outside.

Sometimes the civil order is better and sometimes it is worse; sometimes there is more confusion and some times less. But there are always many great troubles in this wretched and troubled life of ours, both because the devil tries to create major confusions and because

For this reason, I have said that we must make a distinction between the civil order and the miseries of mankind. The government of David was less peace ful because it was often attacked by the devil, and there were great weaknesses on the part of men. The gov

Christ permits a ruler to carry out his work regarding buying and selling, maintaining justice, hearing cases human nature in itself is weak. Because of our nature's errors and lusts, [the devil] easily starts evil activities and upsets our harmony. There are also many great troubles because terrible punishments come upon us which cause great disturbances in governments and good order. These causes are all coming together in this last age of the world. in public court or elsewhere, bearing arms, dispelling criminals by force, and waging lawful war. To this ques tion I reply first: both marriage and the civil order are things instituted by God from eternity. They have the express'approval of the Word of God, and whatever good remains in the civil order is there by God's help.

Furthermore, I call civil order, as I mentioned previ ously, the lack of unjust disturbances, laws which them selves agree with reason, which unite people in an orderly society, so that certain men are given charge of the general populations, and such matters as con tracts, courts, lawful penalties, the repression of crim inals, and the right to wage war. x The weakened nature of men is undoubtedly more feeble than it was in the beginning, in keeping with the way in which learned men divide up the periods of time according to the parts of a man. In the beginning, they say that the head (to hegemonikon) ruled, that is, the rule of reason. For the arts were invented by the first patriarchs, and men were governed by wisdom rather than by force. Then came the age of warfare, in which new governments were being established by force of arms, and there were four empires that ruled the world from the time of Abraham to the age of Theo dosius. Then finally followed the period in which they said that the desires dominated. The nature of man became more sluggish and had no interest in wisdom as had once been the case, nor did people take up military arts with any great zeal as had once been the case with brave men such as, David, Achilles, Cyrus,

Alexander, Hannibal, Marcellus, Scipio, and Julius Caesar. Rather, the nature of man was weakened and sought only pleasures and delights. Besides, when sins became even more numerous as time passed, so did the punishments. The devil used such occasions and furiously attacked our weak nature. With hatred toward

God and Christ, the devil thus rages in his final tyranny, knowing that Christ is going to return in the near future to judge the world visibly. Christ will give eternal bless ings to the church and will cast out the devil and the ungodly into eternal torment.

The biblical testimonies concerning marriage are sufficiently well known. Marriage is an unbroken union of husband and wife, instituted by God under certain laws that show which persons are permitted to marry and how this is to be done, as it shows in Gen. 2[:23 ff.], Lev. 18[:6 ff.], Matt. 19[:4 ff.] and 1 Corinthians 7.

In these passages the institution, approval, and ordi nance of marriage are clearly seen. We shall hear more on these points later. At the moment I shall add testi monies concerning the role of rulers or civil government in marriage.

Paludanus' said that civil order has come only from God, because God has placed into man reason and the knowledge of the natural law which judges that this order is necessary among men. Although this is a true statement, he says that it is not a sufficient cause for civil society or for governments. For upright laws and civil society can never be retained only by human counsels and powers. Therefore, we must understand that this order has been established by the Word of God, approved by Him and truly aided by Him. In regard to this Word, the entire law of Moses serves as a clear testimony. Although it was given to one people, it is a witness to the will of God concerning civil life. And there

Let us keep these points in mind when we see the confusions of kingdoms, the tumults, the uproars, the ravenous appetites of the princes, the harassments of the people, and the other miseries of bondage on the increase, and let us learn to endure these troubles with a pious mind. Let us pray that in some way God will supply a refuge for His church and rule over it. is the moral law, which itself is an order for civil society, if correctly understood. And the same laws have been handed down from the beginning of the world and often repeated. In paradise our wandering lusts were forbid den. In Gen. 4[:10 ff.] unjust murder was forbidden and condemned. In Gen. 9[:6] government was expressly established by the promulgation of this law: "Who soever sheds man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed, because man was made in the image of God."

There is no doubt that this is the cornerstone of civil order, and it is foolish to think that this word did not All kingdoms in all ages have endured particular turbulence toward the end of their existence. How many rulers in Syria were contending for the power at the same time: Antiochus, Tryphon, Demetrius, and others!

How many civil wars took place among the Roman rul ers from the time of Severus! They are too numerous to mention. In our own age, we are witnessing the un happy contentions by the two kings of Pannonia. Thus the wisdom of the church is absolutely necessary in order that we may endure these miseries, about which Christ has forewarned us in His sermons—that in the last days there shall be wars, the ruin of great king doms, and the misery of the people. come from God. And since He says specifically that the blood of a murderer shall be shed by man, He has thus established man as a ruler who, under a definite civil order, shall remove the guilty and administer the judgNow I am returning to the chief point under dis cussion here, namely, whence do governments come, whether civil offices are good things, and whether

1 Peter Paludanus (properly De la Palu) of the Domin ican Order was made a doctor of the Faculty of Paris in 1317.

are shepherds, and nobody cares for nobody" [the Greek contains a triple negative for emphasis]. Many savage minds think that this is the way for a person to have a beautiful life—not coerced by laws, order, or by discipline, which is like a prison. They want to wander freely and follows their lusts without restraint. It is dif ficult to persuade such minds that order is a great bless ing, or to explain to them what a great thing this arrangement of Paul really is, and how clearly he tes tifies that civil officers and civil order are good things which are pleasing to God, while sin is not. ment of God. Thus the testimonies to this institution are present.

And when Paul teaches the doctrine of the civil order in Romans 13 he at the same time is testifying that this order has been established by God and is approved and supported by Him. And this main point has been given to the churches with great wisdom by the Holy Spirit, in order to refute the fanatical ravings of those who condemn the civil order or the concept of rulers and government. These are [v. 1] "powers that have been ordained by God," that is, it is His will that each person in his own time and circumstances shall be obedient to the lawful rulers who are in office. There fore he says [v. 1], "the powers that be," as if he were saying, "You should not demand the government of Cyrus or of Alexander. God as the righteous judge has overturned these governments long ago and estab lished others. Therefore, know that those that are—that is, those who rule at a particular time—they have been ordained by God to rule." And then he calls govern ments an ordinance of God. Note the import of this word in that he speaks of governments as ordinances (ordinationem). First, he is clearly distinguishing between governments and sins. For sin has not been ordained or established by God. Rather, it is a perversion and frightful overturning of the divine order, something which God always hates and condemns. Then he goes on to instruct us as to the quality of this civil state or rule. It is an order (ordo), he says, a series of persons and circumstances which come together according to the rule of the divine mind, and which sheds light in us according to the natural law, as we commonly call it.

There was a law among the Spartans which per mitted a man to have relations with another man's wife if the man gave his permission. Therefore if a Spartan were in Judea and should see an adulterous man or woman brought to punishment, he would say that this is a cruelty unworthy of men. But Paul here teaches us that lawful punishments are part of the civil order and that they are in agreement with the norm of the divine mind. But beastly men do not immediately see what

Paul is saying, especially since he speaks so briefly.

Therefore, men who are earnest-minded must bring to this statement of Paul their best thinking and they must take time over this passage and carefully discuss what the word "order" (ordo) means, and they must distinguish the persons from the substance itself in this order—the rulers from the citizens, the laws from the judgments, the legal contracts from the wrongdoers and the punishments. Then they need to understand that the norm of this order is the eternal law in the mind of God, of which he here says, the ruler rewards good deeds with honor and he punishes evil. And it is ab solutely certain that the order is in agreement with the good substance of the divine mind and is pleasing to God. By this, therefore, the testimony of Paul satisfies minds which are alert and well-intentioned. Irenaeus uses the same passage against the fanatics who in the early days of the church were spreading their ravings, which are like those of our Anabaptists. But many of these points are obvious in the writings of the prophets.

Government must be an order among the people.

The ruler must lead, and the people must obey, each in his own place. There must be a definite order be tween husband and wife, between father and children, and there must be an order among judges. The laws establish and give sanctity to the orders among the offices and in business contracts. They show the order of the human race in relationship to God. They prohibit vagrant lusts, which are contrary to the divine order established in human nature. They prescribe fairness in business dealings. How much shall the seller receive, and how much shall he pay? One citizen shall not tor ment another, but all must know that they are bound together in society for mutual defense and the common good, which consists in equal compensation in matters involving wills, offices, and our property. And if a certain person violates this order, he must be punished.

Dan. 2[:21], "He removes kingdoms and raises up kingdoms," that is, He causes them to flourish and endure. This is what He calls "to stand." Ps. 127[:1],

"Unless the Lord guards the city, they who keep watch over it watch in vain." God is the guardian of the civil state, and therefore He gives it His approval. Ps.

144[:10], "He gives salvation to kings." These words testify that rulers are helped by God. Prov. 8[:16], "By Me princes rule." Prov. 16[:11], "Weight and balances are the just judgment of the Lord." 2 Chron. 19[:6], "You do not judge for man but for the Lord." Is. 1 [:17], "Seek justice, reprove the oppressor, defend the widow." God commands the civil order and that each obey it in his own station. Thus, there is no doubt that the civil or political order is approved by Him. And in support of this opinion many statements can be found among the prophets which specifically refer to civil offices.

There is no understanding of this order among beasts, but the knowledge of good order has been in grafted into man. If man's nature had not been cor rupted by sin, also the love of keeping good order toward God and our fellow men would be attached to us as something truly burning in our hearts. But now, as things are, men easily go against this natural order.

Some love order more and some less, as Euripides says in his Cyclops [Cyclops 120, ed. Barnes]: "They

In Luke 3 the Baptist preaches to the publicans

and the soldiers; and he gives them very important counsel about their civic duty. Thus he gives his ap proval to this function when he teaches them about correct administration of their work: [v.13], "Collect no more than is your right." Government cannot pay its expenses without collecting taxes. Thus he wants the taxes to be paid, but he does not want lawful taxes to become unbearable extortions. And [v. 14] "Do not in timidate or falsely accuse anyone." He wants justice to be practiced, but without contentions and lying. And finally he adds [v. 14] "Be content with your wages."

This entire sermon is an approval of the civil status, the court system, and the military. And he makes a dis tinction between this order itself and the wickedness or confusions which human malice has mixed in. was the will of God that through some of these sup portive people nations might be helped, both so that in their invocation their confession might shine brilliantly and the true doctrine be more widely spread, and so that the church might have a resting place. There is no doubt that our earliest fathers were in this group—men such as Adam, Enoch, and Noah, who were also civil rulers as we learn from the law of Noah [Gen. 9:6] regarding the punishment of murder. Then Melchizedek is expressly called a king. Abraham, although he was a guest in other lands, yet joined certain kings to the church, and ruled with political power over his family and waged war. Later on Joseph not only ruled but also established new laws for the nation of Egypt. Nor is there any doubt that the form of the Egyptian govern ment which was established by Josbph, as long as it flourished, excelled the governmental systems of all other countries which later arose on earth, in Chaldaea,

Ionia, Greece, and Rome.

The futile, insignificant, and stupid quibblings of the Anabaptists ought to be categorically rejected. They argue that the Baptist permitted these things out of his own imperfections, but that later on Christ taught dif ferently. The sermons of the Baptist and of Christ are not opposed to one another. Nor should we get the idea that the authority of the Baptist is on a lower level.

For his calling and office was so great that Christ Him self testifies to him, and God confirms his calling and teaching in a glorious testimony at the baptism of Christ.

But the Anabaptists in their raving do not realize what they are saying when they speak contemptuously re garding the ministry of the Baptist.

Those people are in serious error who attribute greater political wisdom to Solon or Augustus than was found among the men who were ruling under the guid ance of divine light and who were actually calling upon God, such as Joseph, Daniel, Ezra, and others like them. Not only did Joseph rightly call upon God while he was among the princes of Egypt, but as governor he drew to the knowledge of the true God the king who ruled in that era and many others who had positions of authority in the nation.' In addition, there is no doubt

Ps. 82[:6], "I said, 'You are gods,' " that is, they uphold the divinely established office as the defenders of justice and peace, which are divinely given blessings.

God has imparted His own name to the rulers, because it is His will that they bestow with Him these blessings upon the people. Therefore He gives His approval to the office when He calls it a divine office. Ps. 102 [:22],

"When the peoples are gathered together and the kings, that they may serve the Lord." Is. 49[:23], "Kings shall be your foster fathers, and queens your nursing mothers." These statements and many more like them bear witness that kings and other rulers are members of the church of God and pleasing to God. Thus God gives His approval to governments and the civil order. that Moses and many other rulers among the people of Israel were also pleasing to God.

But when the raving Anabaptists say that this temple and political system was a concession made to the imperfection of the people of Israel, the answer is too easy. It was a singular blessing of God that He bestowed upon His church a certain temple and de fended it for more than four hundred years. For it was the will of God that there be a special place in which the testimonies of the divine promises might be made, and in which Christ might be born, as has been amply shown above in regard to the Old Testament. Among the people of Israel He approved a legal and political system, and often bore witness that He required these offices so that among the people invocation might be made and shine forth, and confession and love toward the church might be exercised. He was signifying that He also approved a legal and political order among the Gentiles, that they might set examples. For Joseph,

Daniel, and many others had governed political sys tems among Gentiles. Therefore, we must consider the history of these matters in the case of other kingdoms outside the nation of Israel. Daniel ruled a province of Gentiles and under his administration he turned the leaders of the kingdom to the knowledge of the true

God, including the conqueror of Jerusalem—Nebu chadnezzar—and his son Darius the Mede [sic], Cyrus the Persian, and many princes. Therefore God dis persed the people of Israel into other kingdoms here

Confirmed by these testimonies, we must be con stant in our condemnation of the Anabaptists, who con tend that Christians do not have the right to serve as public officers. They disapprove of courts, laws, the military, and the rest of civic order, as if these things are by their very nature sins and in conflict with the Gospel. In my opinion, many contentions have arisen over this dispute, with many people, including Carlstadt,

Pelargus, Struthius and others; and many, after getting to know the fountains from which this dispute flows, have returned to the correct way by rejecting the rav ings of the Anabaptists.

Further, to these points which I have adduced we need to add some examples—which are very numer ous—of people who have truly invoked God, who have governed enormous realms down through the ages. It

and there in order that the true doctrine of God might be spread farther. In the Gospel accounts, mention is made of certain centurions who believed the Gospel.

The Holy Spirit was even poured out with a marvelous miracle upon the whole household of Cornelius, a Ro man soldier, just as He was [poured out] upon the apostles. ernment of the entire civilized world was peaceful dur ing the reign of Augustus because it was the will of God that—for at least a season—peace, justice, laws, and discipline be restored, and to this end He aided Au gustus. Under Valentinian, Augustulus, and people like that new disruptions arose and miseries piled up with out measure.

We have such sure and clear testimonies and examples which show that civil and political order is pleasing to God, even that the offices in this civil order are filled with men who correctly call upon God that they may do their work in a godly way and carry out the prescribed worship of God. Therefore we must learn to respect civil offices, governments, rulers, laws, courts, the distinction of realms of service, and laws governing business affairs as gifts from God. We must confine all the works of civil life to these boundaries in order that we may be obedient to God in these ordi nances and that our invocation and confession may shine like a bright light in this society and that we may practice our love for one another.

Finally, there is testimony to the presence of God in the life of governments also in this experience: it is clear that atrocious crimes are divinely punished by manifest physical punishments. Things such as perjury, robbery, tyranny, incest, and other things all ultimately bring on punishments. There is too long a list of tyrants who have been killed, as it is written:

[Juvenal, Satyr, 10.112 f.], "Few kings descend to the bosom of the earth without murder and bloodshed and the thirsty death of tyrants."

There are examples of murder before us every day. And even when they are sometimes hidden from our eyes, they are finally brought to light in remarkable ways. Although from the very beginning those who have been polluted by committing an unjust killing have escaped the hands of the law, yet finally they are brought to punishment. Punishment follows after those guilty of incest, as in the case of Oedipus, Aegistheus,

Herod, and others. Christ speaks of such punishments [Matt. 26:52], "He who takes the sword"—that is, a sword which has not been lawfully granted to him—

"shall perish by the sword." Is. 33[:1], "Woe to you who commit robbery, for you in turn shall be despoiled." Job

9[:28], "I am afraid for all of my works, knowing that You will not hold me innocent." Eccl. 8[:8], "The un godly cannot escape in war," and with other punish ments God also punishes wicked crimes. Thus God does indeed regard civil righteousness in the world, that He may regularly punish in this life those who violate it, just as it is regularly cold in winter and hot in summer.

Just as in the case of the weather, sometimes God does something outside His rule and in His secret counsel defers punishments and rewards, yet we need to re member this rule and keep our desires within the bounds of the wrath of God.

I have cited examples of rulers who were pleas ing to God such as Joseph, Daniel, Naaman the Syrian, and others. Since it is obvious that they were helped by God, it is manifest that their governance was the work of God. Furthermore, I shall add to this list names of heroes from among the Gentiles who had no true knowledge of God, and yet, lest the human race come to complete destruction, these men were roused by God with sincere motives and were helped in their task of ruling, as was the case with Alexander, Scipio, and Augustus. The remarkable successes in the things such men have done have moved all prudent people to admit that they had better and happier intentions than the rest of mankind in general. Thus Cicero says that there is never a great man without a divine influence.

God has grafted these outstanding ideas into such leaders and builders for the establishing of govern ments and the restoring of civil order and the mainte nance of the arts. This clear testimony demonstrates this divine presence in our civil life, as Plato says [de

Legibus 4, ed. H. Steph. Vol. 2, 713], "Just as cattle are not governed by oxen, or goats by goats, but by a higher nature," namely, by men, "so human nature is too weak to rule over itself. Therefore, God has not placed men over citizens, but higher beings, a superior race of men who are closer to divinity, namely, the heroes, that is to say, people who since they have suc cess for themselves are capable of governing us hap pily and easily. And they take such care of us that they preserve peace, reverence, and freedom." And he con tinues, "The saying is true which says that a place which has no god, but is ruled only by mortal men, has no escape from evils and troubles." These words of Plato are absolutely true and wise. His actual words bring the meaning even more clearly to those who un derstand them [then he cites the Greek], Examples of this thinking can be supplied from every age. The gov

Now there are two reasons that in this life pen alties are regularly assessed against vicious crimes.

The first is that God, the righteous judge, wills that His anger against sin be seen and that He may instruct us regarding His will. The second is so that He may protect civil society, which would be immediately and totally destroyed unless robberies, tyrranies, and other mad nesses are kept away by Him. Thus even if Tiberius did die a peaceful death, yet for the sake of one or two examples of this kind we should not disregard the rule whereby punishments and torments in this life are threatened to tyrants and others who have polluted themselves with heinous crimes. After the time of Ti berius, then Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Domitian, Commodus and countless others met punishment. The curses have not been placed into the law of God in vain

and the history of the world bears witness that these curses are not empty threats. For in public, entire na tions are destroyed by wars and destructions because of the crimes of many people, and in private, many people are tormented daily with great troubles and sor rows. Our consciences must investigate what the causes of these evils are. Isaiah instructs us with a very sad discourse, and in a memorable statement he shows us the cause, as if he were pointing with his finger, in ch. 64[:6], "Our iniquities, like the winds, will blow us away." form this kind of work. First, in order that there may be domestic peace and tranquillity, they must protect us from external enemies as well as they can, and at home they must curb crime and sedition. Nor is it the purpose of peace that the citizens can in their laziness seek only pleasures and indulge in laziness. But the ultimate pur poses of peace are that the doctrine of the true religion can be spread, that schools may be fostered and chil dren in their tender years be educated, that the church be not even more devastated or the seeds of the church obliterated, and finally, that our morals be governed by honorable discipline.

This universal experience touches even the Gen tiles, so that they recognize the providence of God and His judgment. Isocrates, in his oration On Peace, makes a very serious charge against the raving of the Epicureans, who because of a few examples despised this rule and hoped that they might go unpunished for their crimes. Although, he says, those who have been guilty of crimes are not always punished, yet they are very often punished. And since the future is uncertain, for prudent men it is better to understand where this

Thus David in waging war recognized that he was not undertaking and bearing such great burdens for his own sake, so that after it was over he might enjoy his pleasures with an idle and secure m'ind. Rather, if he could defeat his enemies the church of God might be preserved, and at home he could establish a situation in which children might be brought into the world and rightly taught about God and brought up with good mor als, so that the young people could gather in the schools and the people could come to hear sermons in safety.

Finally, it was so that the invocation of the true God and the teaching about Him and the name of the Mes siah would not be destroyed. David considered these purposes every time he led forth his army, as often as he drew up his battle line, and as often as he attacked the army of the enemy. These purposes were unknown to Alexander, to Scipio, or to Julius Caesar. But they did know that the fatherland had to be protected in order that men might be governed in peace under honorable instruction, so that the whole human race would not perish and our behavior would not become like that of wild animals and barbarians. Thus Paul adds [in 1 Tim.

2:2] that we must pray not only that there may be peace, but also that we live in this peace in a godly and hon orable way—that the true doctrine of God be taught and that God be correctly invoked, and that our morals be upright. Thus in a very few words Paul describes the best possible form of civil government. leads. And when you understand that righteousness is more pleasing to God, it would be most foolish to think that righteous people have a worse fortune than the unrighteous. Therefore, since all experience testifies that serious crimes are punished, we must recognize that God is our judge and our vindicator, and we must revere Him and confess that governments are pro tected by Him, retained, and even changed by Him.

Up to this point, I have cited the statements and the arguments which show that the civil order is a good thing and pleasing to God. To establish this point, the follwing argument will help: as often as God commands that prayers be made for our ruler so that his gover nance may remain unhampered and be strengthened, it must be a good thing which is pleasing to God and not something sinful. For we must not ask that sinful things be established.

There are also precepts concerning this kind of prayer. [Jer. 29:7], "Pray for the kingdom of Babylon because in its peace will be your peace." He commands that prayers be made for a government which at that time was friendly toward the church. And because of these prayers not only were the burdens of the exile and the bondage eased, but God even turned the heart of the king to recognize the true doctrine. Abraham prayed for King Abimelech, and Jacob blessed the king of Egypt, who had received from Joseph the doctrine of the true worship of God. In 1 Tim. 2[:1 —2] the precept given is filled with instruction for us: "I exhort first of all that supplications and the giving of thanks be made for all men, for kings and all who are in authority, that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life in all godliness and honesty." When he commands and teaches in regard to our prayer, he shows what government must be like and what the chief purposes of government are. We must pray that God will give peace to our nations and rule them with discipline. And good princes must per

Now that we have adequately shown that civil order is a blessing which is pleasing to God, I shall add certain useful rules for establishing peace and for nur turing reverence in good minds toward our rulers and the universal order of civil society. This reverence is certainly worthy of the consideration of good minds, and when referred to the glory of God, it is a form of worship which is pleasing to Him.

The first rule. Just as the Gospel neither abol ishes nor disapproves of arithmetic, architecture, or the science and art of medicine, so it neither abolishes nor disapproves of the economic or political order. Indeed, it commands us to recognize that these things are gifts of God which this physical life cannot be without. More over, since God does not will that the human race be destroyed, but that His church be gathered in this earthly life, He preserves our physical life by these things: food, drink, marriage, the civil order, and the

arts, such as agriculture, architecture, medicine, and physical life. according to the laws is likewise approved. This is in agreement with the statement [Heb. 10:30], "Venge ance is Mine; I will repay." God as the righteous judge is angry with sin and He punishes either without human help, as when He destroyed Sodom and the Egyptians

Thus, just as food, drink, agriculture, architecture, and medicine do not conflict with the Gospel—which makes proclamation concerning our reconciliation with God and the new and enduring light which has been kindled in our minds—likewise, civil governance is not in conflict with the Gospel. But those who do not know the true doctrine of the Gospel regarding our inner righ teousness—regarding faith and the true worship of God—such people often get foolish notions in the dis pute and imagine for themselves that the Gospel is some new and barbaric political system. Like hypocrites they establish for themselves with great praise a sep aration from society, along with monastic lifestyles, or an Epicurean slothfulness which those people enjoy who do not want to endure labor for the common good—which goes with the work of governing great and various domains. Nor do they want the dangers and the storms with which rulers are often terribly afflicted, as was the case with Moses, Aaron, Samuel, David,

Jeremiah, and the many examples which we see in our daily life. in the Red Sea, or He punishes the guilty according to the regular system of punishments which He has given to rulers, as when robbers feel the full force of the se verity of civil rulers, or when Cyrus punishes the lust fulness of the lonians, or Augustus punishes Anthony, who was corrupted by all kinds of lusts and who started a civil war without just cause. These acts of vengeance, and others like them, relate to the statement, "Venge ance is Mine; I will repay." This can easily be under stood by sane people who demonstrate some intelligence and the ability to make a judgment.

The second kind of vengeance is one which de viates from the divine order, which for the sake of ex planation I call private revenge. This is when, in the heat of anger or hatred in our fury, we take up arms without the directives of the laws and serve our own hurt feelings, refusing to endure in other people what

God has ordained we should, as when Joab killed Ab ner in his own personal hatred of him.

Nor are the prohibitions against revenge (which we see scattered here and there in the Gospel) to be placed in opposition to this first rule. These prohibitions contains very important and beneficial instruction for governments themselves. God has instituted the order that vengeance is to be carried out by the ruler. There fore, just as in certain precepts He wills that we do not disregard the divine order, and He prohibits our wan dering lusts, so He prohibits our indiscriminate anger.

He wills that we be obedient to the divine order and set aside burning hatreds, and pray that the ruler will carry out his duty, defend the innocent, and control and pun ish wrong-doers. If he does this, we should give thanks both to God and to the ruler, and rejoice that discipline is being properly used and that the nations are at peace.

If he does not do this, private citizens should not upset the divine order or start seditions, but restrain their an ger and irritation and content themselves with this com fort: they know that the church for certain reasons is being held subject under the cross and yet is still pleas ing to God, indeed that enduring injustices and unde served persecution is a sacrifice which is pleasing to God.

Although the heat of anger may be very great and there may be a raving desire for revenge, yet few people are so alert that they recognize that this is their weakness. Most people think up some kind of pretext which they cling to as they start unjust wars and con troversies which are dangerous to themselves and to their governments, as in the case of Saul. When he was moved by great jealousy and malice, he com plained against David under the pretext that David was rebelling against him. And then, nursing this anger, he tried to destroy a friend who deserved much better at his hands. In the same way Pompey burned with jeal ousy and tried to destroy Julius.

This is a common disease, one which is found among all races, nations, and families. Therefore godly people must be very concerned and they must see that they do not give way to this kind of anger. There is a well-known and common evil, namely, the love which deviates from the Law of God and is a cause of all kinds of enormous troubles, so that because of this kind of love Troy was overturned by Paris and the Greeks re ceived great difficulties. But anger and the desire for revenge arise from every side. There are many sources, and they produce great wars and wicked up roars both public and private, as the histories of Cain,

Saul, Pompey, Arius, and many others show.

We have said above that vengeance is twofold.

One kind has been ordained, that is, public vengeance, which takes place through the ruler according to a def inite order, under certain laws. Neither the Gospel nor the law of God forbids this kind of vengeance; indeed, it has already been said repeatedly that it has been divinely instituted and approved by God and is sup ported by Him. This vengeance is part of the civil order or a part of the function of the rulers, as Paul so correctly calls the ruler the avenger. Just as there is no doubt that in the Gospel the office of ruler is approved, so also it is clear that this vengeance which he carries out

When they have considered the greatness of this disease, that is, private revenge which goes against the divine order, prudent men will understand how nec essary and beneficial is the precept of Christ in which He repeatedly warns against this impulse. For He Him self truly understood that in the church, and among men in general society, we must avoid these uproars which arise from sources of this kind. Pompey saw that Cae

sar was increasing in power and he envied his glory, and thus he sought occasions and pretexts to attack him. And other people who were similarly afflicted with the same kind of desires joined him. And I myself have seen many people moved by malice and jealousy who have upset the true teachings in the doctrine of the church.

The objection is also made here that often gov ernments are rapacious and that incompetent people are in power, and that there is much wickedness and confusion in governments. On the basis of this kind of argument, fanatic spirits conclude that government is universally an evil thing and has been condemned by God. Finally, all prudent people know that this evil is very widespread. Thus we must impress the statements of Christ and the apostles upon the inmost feelings of our hearts and keep control of our desire for revenge.

Since Christ gives His approval to the orderly arrange ment for taking vengeance which has been committed to the rulers and on the other hand He forbids private terrorism and seditions, these very words fortify the civil order and give arms to the rulers and show that they are supported and approved by the very precepts of Christ Himself. Therefore those people such as Celsus,

Julian and others are advancing false arguments when they criticize the Gospel and write that the Gospel, by forbidding the taking of vengeance, has abolished the concept of public office, discipline, laws, and finally the very foundations of organized society, and has allowed unlimited license for all crimes. Origen and Gregory of Nazianzus responded rather inadequately to this criti cism when they did indeed devise some role for taking vengeance, but said that a more perfect virtue was to refrain from taking vengeance. I have referred to these inept statements previously when I spoke about pre cepts and counsels. And how we must reply to the criticisms of Celcus and Julian can be sufficiently un derstood from our distinction wherein private ven geance is forbidden but, on the contrary, public ven geance by rulers and governments is commanded. This is a true, godly, and salutary position both for the public and the private aspect of the matter.

To this you should reply that it is an untrue and weak argument simply to draw this conclusion [a dicto secundum quid ad dictum]. This is like saying that be cause in procreation there are many sinful desires in volved, therefore procreation is universally condemned by God. I previously warned that the civil order must be distinguished from the confusions which are mixed in with it from all sides, partly from the devil, partly from the wickedness of men, and partly from the common weakness of mankind, lest we conclude that in this life, in all generations of men and in all governments, these confusions have been ordained by God.

No one doubts that ecclesiastical government has been instituted by God. But how much confusion comes from other places! And yet the word of the Gos pel is efficacious and gathers the eternal church to God, both to hear Him and to worship Him. Add to this the example of marriage and procreation. All sane people confess that marriage has been instituted by God and is pleasing to Him and that procreation is aided by Him, as it is written [Acts 17:28], "In Him we live and move and have our being." But how many cruel husbands there are, how many fathers who neglect their chil dren—men who are without natural affection and who are not concerned that children are to be taught the knowledge of God! These sins which arise from differ ent quarters must be distinguished from the order of marriage and from procreation. We must flee the rav ings of the Manichaeans and the Anabaptists, and learn to attribute to God the things which have been truly established and ordered by Him. They are very ben eficial when they are separated from the sinful vices which arise not from God but from the devil and the maliciousness and weakness of men. And in regard to these things, we must cling to the consolations which have been given us by God. Godly people are being oppressed either by the tyranny of the Turks, or by other governments which are departing from lawful care for their people. Those godly people must be instructed as to what the miseries are and how they are to be endured and what commands they must refuse to obey.

Therefore governments are strengthened and adorned by the Word of the Gospel. It is a very won derful order which God has instituted, both in our private lives and in governments in regard to all actions in gen eral. But human minds are often so occupied with ab surd conjectures, hypocrisy, perverse examples, and finally, so misguided by the devil, that they do not know how to follow the divine order. Thus we see many peo ple, such as the Anabaptists, who in this matter defend their ravings with amazing tenacity, even when they are clearly refuted. For there is no lack of clarity in this matter, if only they will apply a teachable mind to it.

However, I have discussed this matter (perhaps at too great a length) in order to instruct the young people to accustom their minds to respecting the civil order and, having been thus admonished, to recognize that in it is found the wisdom, justice, and goodness of God to ward the human race. It is customary for young people to show the "brilliance" of their minds by criticizing the laws and the customs of society. But we need to un derstand that this cynical wisdom and petulance should be avoided and detested.

Particularly our times require that good minds be instructed to recognize that in this last age of the world governments are going to encounter greater confusions than there were at the beginning of the world, as the statues in Daniel [2] show, in which the first government was gold, the second silver, the third bronze, the fourth iron. The feet were partly iron and partly clay. Thus there will be less power for good. And experience moved Plato to say that there is a certain time for each city and each kingdom when their nature does not prog

tions are the worship of God. For they are attacking superstition which believes that only ceremonies are the worship of God and which overlooks negligence in our public duties. Indeed the monks thought that do mestic and civil life were really not pleasing to God. But the prophets gave priority to the public duties over the ceremonies and affirmed that rewards were promised for performing them. Is. 1[:11, 17] "I do not want your burnt offerings ... but seek justice and reprove the oppressor." Is. 58[:17], "Break bread for the hungry."

Micah 6[:7-8], "Will the Lord be pleased with thousands of rams? I will show you, O man, what is good ... to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with your

God." Zech. 7[:6 f.], "When you eat and when you drink, do you not eat for yourselves?" [Verses 9-10], "Thus says the Lord, 'Execute true justice ... do not oppress the widow or the fatherless or the poor.' " ress beyond a certain point. When the perfect number is established, it has reached the goal, so that the cubes do not follow, so that after 6 the number 18 is estab lished, and the cubes do not follow.2

Indeed Plato attributes this statement to the Muses, because he believes that the main cause of the changes in kingdoms is not the crimes of men, but the secret and fatal order of nature which in various ways is mixed in with matter. But the heavenly doctrine cries out over and over again that the ruin of kingdoms is brought about by human ragings, and the punishments are frightful, as it is written in Sirach 10[:8], "A kingdom is transferred from one nation to another because of the injustice and injuries of men." I am responding in this way to the objection which I have referred to briefly, in order that when the godly have been instructed they may distinguish the order instituted by God from the confusions which come from elsewhere, and may learn to bear wisely the bondage which is a punishment like a prison for human desires.

The dignity of these works is better understood when we consider the civil order and the reason for this order itself. God has established the human race for a life in society, and He has willed that the bond which binds this society together is procreation, education, governance, legal relationships, and the arts and sci ences. A man does not beget a child by himself, nor does a woman, nor does a child, when it has been born, manage to stay alive without help from someone else.

Thus the nature of the human race is joined together by eternal bonds. But to what particular end? To this end, that for the procreation and education or upbring

The second rule. It is admitted indeed that Chris tians do perform works in the household and in gov ernment, and it is necessary that they fulfill the duties of civil life in accordance with their calling. And since the godly are put in charge of these duties so that they may be obedient to God, these duties are pleasing to Him and they are the worship of God and involve many virtues. Thus the Christian acts rightly and in a godly manner when in keeping with his calling he serves as a public official, serves as a judge or a soldier, makes accusations in court against those who are doing harm, pleads cases, or executes lawful punishments against those who have been found guilty. It is necessary that rulers and judges who do not despise God understand ing of a child there is need for a society, and there is need for teaching this in a group. God wills to be rec ognized and worshiped, with the result that some must teach others about God and other good things, and therefore He placed man in society, the bonds of which are rulers, laws, and public offices. these things.

First we must pledge our obedience to God in obedience to these rulers.

First the testimonies regarding this necessity are clear, namely, that it is necessary the the citizens and those who truly believe the Gospel to carry out civil duties in keeping with their calling. Rom. 13[:5], "It is necessary to be obedient not only for the sake of wrath but also for the sake of conscience." Luke 3[:14], "Do not intimidate anyone, or falsely accuse [anyone], and be content with your wages." Is. 1 [:17], "Seek justice, reprove the oppressor, defend the widow." The careful reader will note similar passages in other places, for these precepts are often repeated.

Second, our confession must shine forth in so ciety. For in this way we have been particularly placed in society, in order that the knowledge of God and of His Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, might be spread far and wide. Show what you believe about God, and you will bear witness that you are confessing the truth and doing righteous things for the sake of God's judgment.

Third, our domestic and our civil lives are filled with troubles and great perils. For he is an iron man who does not consider the dangers involved with bear ing children and bringing them up, to which we add the great mountains of concerns which are in the courts and in the military camps! Yet in these miseries and dangers, faith and invocation do shine brilliantly. For our poor weak human nature is burdened down with such difficulties, that when we have been instructed regarding faith and prayer, we must spread the knowl edge of God. Therefore, domestic work and civil service are acts of worship toward God, because they serve to the end that obedience be rendered to God, and be cause with these works worship of God must be in And the prophets often instruct us that these ac2 The Latin is difficult. Melanchthon appears to be dis cussing the "perfect number" Plato describes in Republic

546-47. Plato too is discussing the demise of cities and king doms. While scholars disagree on the interpretation of this

"perfect number," one possibility is that it is 216 = 33 + 43 + 53 = 63. Melanchthon is then arguing that this equation does not work for numbers higher than 6. (In fact, a3 + b3 + c3 = d3 does not work for any other consecutive numbers.)

Plato may also be referring to triangles. Melanchthon's point is that this "perfect number" cannot explain the rise and fall of kingdoms.

Now compare David and a hermit. The hermit flees from the battle line and from civil order, and he is not showing the obedience to God which he owes to human society. He flees out into the deserts so that he may avoid the works, the dangers, the uncertain outcomes of daily life, injuries, ingratitude, and finally a mountain of concerns and sorrows. Thus at the same time he flees from the exercises of faith, invocation, and confession; he does not serve his neighbor, he does not teach others, nor does he make any effort to retain the doctrine. What kind of life is this? How are the arts and sciences developed or spread? How does procreation of the race take place? Where is the pro tection of the poor and the children? Do all good men want to be hermits? Therefore we must reject this kind of lifestyle, which neglects the obedience we owe to God in helping and guarding our human life together. eluded. Thus when David was about to wage war, and when Solomon was beginning his rule, they called upon God, and in Ps. 20[:7], said, "Some trust in chariots and some in horses, but we will call upon the name of the Lord our God."

Fourth, in these works we demonstrate love to ward our neighbor and endurance and godliness in keeping possession of the doctrine of God. Thus many virtues are included in our domestic and civil works, on account of which they become sacrifices or worship of God, that is, works by which God judges that He is being given honor.

What did David do while he was waging battle?

First, he recognized that he owed obedience to God in his vocation, that is, in the level in society in which he had been placed. Second, he confessed that he was a citizen of the people of Israel and that he was calling upon the eternal God who had revealed Himself and had given His Word to the Israelites with sure testi monies. Third, in time of danger he exercised his faith and called upon God.

Here compare the godly soldier and the worldly one. When Celsus criticized the Gospel for prohibiting the taking of vengeance and said that the Gospel for bade serving in the military, Origen replied that the pur pose of a Christian army was to pray for the empire.

And although Origen was correct in his reply concern ing a part of our duties, yet he did not say enough. He should have included more. The Christian fights in the battle line in keeping with his calling or vocation, and he strengthens his weapons by calling upon God, just as David, when he wa§ about to go against Goliath, equipped himself with his prayers and his sling. Thus the Christian soldier is better equipped than the un believer. Furthermore, their goals are different. David waged war to defend the heavenly doctrine, while Julius

Caesar waged war to defend his dignity. In the same way, Josiah was better equipped than Cicero. Cicero brought to his governorship only his own counsels, wis dom, and diligence, but Josiah brought his prayers and his wisdom, and often cried [to God], as it is written in Further, he served at his civil duty. Indeed, he contended for those walls within which sat the boys and girls who were learning to read the prophets, that the heavenly doctrine might be preserved and spread.

In the meanwhile, how many other virtues such as jus tice, endurance, fitness to rule, and other characteris tics are necessary for for a governor! Fifth, to these virtues which I have mentioned, add in these labors another very important thing, namely, the testimony of the' presence of God, by which faith and reverence might be strengthened. We see the robbers and tyrants punished. We are aware that God is protecting gov ernments which act as havens of refuge for the church.

Josiah and Hezekiah, when they were ruling, learned that their prayers for the nation were heard. David tes tifies that God was present with the rulers, as he says

[Ps. 18:34], "Blessed be God who has taught my hands to make war." Again [Ps. 144:10], "The One who gives salvation to kings."

2 Chron. 20[:12], "When we do not know what to do, we turn our eyes to You."

I have spoken briefly about the second rule, which godly readers should carefully study, in order that they may learn to understand the dignity of civil life and to consider what the difference is between a godly civil life and an ungodly one.

These causes and these purposes for domestic labors and civil duties are to be considered often by godly people, and they must compare civil life with that of the monks, and godly rulers with ungodly.

The cause which demands obedience in our civil duty is God Himself. Here we should mention the ef ficient cause. The final cause, or the purpose, is that our confession may shine forth in society. A joint con tributing cause is faith which seeks guidance in time of struggle and peril. The more remote purposes are that our neighbor may be served, and that the possession of the heavenly doctrine may be defended. The effect is the testimonies of the presence of God, which in creases our fear and our faith. A knowledge of these causes and effects is a blessing to any age, both as it applies to the civil life and to godly people. It is comfort in this multitude of burdens, and it arouses in our minds the fear of God and faith in Him.

The third rule. The Gospel does not prescribe that our civil life should be governed by the civil laws of Moses, nor does the Gospel establish any kind of new physical political arrangement, but it commands us to be obedient to the present laws and rulers, as long as they are not in conflict with the laws of nature, and it commands that we be zealous in following our rulers and honoring them. For Paul says this very clearly

[Rom. 13:1], "Let every soul be subject to the power which is in charge," that is, let a person be obedient to the power which is presently in charge. I have cited this rule because many people remember Monetarius, Struthius, and others who contended that Christians ought to handle civil court cases on the basis of the Mosaic

law, and that the Roman law which now is in use in our civil courts ought to be abolished. What else would this be except the restoration of the Mosaic civil law which God has utterly destroyed as a terrible example in order that He might show that it need not be perpetual? the judges, that they govern the law courts as with the edicts of the aediles, and that they establish prices for things which are put on sale (as I recall Mustela teach ing in the halls of learning in regard to the methods of education). Now I am not condemning the diligence of wise rulers, but this youthful overzealousness needs to be held in check, especially for those who carry out the office of the ministry of the Gospel. They should pro pose the teaching regarding the correct invocation of God and the definite duties of piety. But it is the province of judges and the court to understand that the art of governing has been put in the hands of various experts, and they should bear in mind the well-known precepts that each man should adorn his own Sparta. Thus, in Aristophanes, Cleon is said to have one foot in the court and the other in the camp, and likewise those noisy people have one foot in the church and the other in the courts.

It is often said that the Gospel speaks of spiritual and eternal righteousness, as Paul says [2 Cor. 3:8],

"The Gospel is the ministration of the Spirit," but it has not established a definite physical form of government, but permits us to use the different forms from the Gen tiles or nations, just as there are different spaces of time—only that the laws not be in conflict with the laws of nature, but give approval to honorable actions and punish wickedness. For the Christian judge must follow this rule which Paul also cites in Rom. 13 [:2 ff.]: "The magistrate gives honor to those who act properly, and he punishes those who do wrong." But the law of nature judges what acts are honorable and what things are evil in our morals.

In the meantime, as a result of this, they are es tablishing a state, just as the monkey did in the fable of Hermogenes. The monkey was captured on one oc casion by some men. He saw the cities, the houses, the meetings of people, the theaters, the games, and the shows. When he returned to the other monkeys and told them about what he had seen, he urged them to build houses in imitation of men by which they might protect themselves against storms, and add walls for protection against lions, wolves, and men. Not only was this useful idea proposed, but he also made special mention of the theaters and the games. The idea of imitating these things seemed to meet with great plea sure. Therefore they held a council. The chief monkeys sent out the younger ones to cut timber and gather stones. But the monkeys disliked this foolishness. They had no axes and they had no way of either cutting the timber or collecting the stones, and, finally, they were totally lacking in the science of architecture. Thus, the situation compelled them to give up what they had so foolishly undertaken.

Furthermore, it is of no interest to the church that the laws of France regarding punishments, divisions of inheritances, or successions are different from the laws of Germany. The Christian in Armenia uses the civil laws of that nation, but in the city of Venice he uses the Venetian laws. Remember, those of you who do not want any thieves to be punished with the death penalty, that the law of Moses punished theft in four different ways. The ancient laws punished a highway robber with death, and for this reason certain people defended themselves very wisely by the use of the law, because in those barbarous countries many of the thieves were wandering about armed with spears and with the intention of doing harm as thieves.

Yet the Christian judge should also consider this, that it is sufficient if the law is in agreement with the rule that the judge is to punish evil actions. He is to consider that for those who make the laws there are to be degrees of permissibility whereby thieves would be more severely punished in those nations where disci pline was laxer than in other areas where there were many more bonds of discipline. Nor does God disap prove of severity, because there is no doubt that our sins merit death under the judgment of God. The law of Moses wills that a gluttonous and disobedient son be brought before the judges and condemned to death.

That law is most honorable, sad to say, which shows that severity of discipline is pleasing to God. I am omit ting here a longer discussion of this matter, for I have covered only the points on which the unlearned need to be instructed lest they be upset by the clamors of those who again are contending that the laws of Moses ought to be reintroduced in the courts and the Roman law abolished.

We see many such architects in our society to day, like Struthius, Mustela, and others. Therefore wiser people should remember the precept in this third rule which has been given to us, and we should not rashly contend for political structures which contain manifest foolishness.

The fourth rule. The doctrine of the Gospel gives such serious command regarding obedience that it af firms it is a mortal sin to disobey the commands of lawful rulers, so long as they do not order us to act contrary to the commands of God.

This rule is expressly taught in Rom. 13[:5]: "We must obey not only because of wrath but also for the sake of conscience." First, it teaches that it is a nec essary work, and then it explains what the necessity is. "Not only because of wrath," it says, that is, because of the fear of physical punishment with which the ruler afflicts the contumacious, "but also for the sake of con science" it is necessary to obey. Therefore, it testifies

Regarding the well-known overzealousness which is part of the natural disposition of young people, they [the young people] contend that the ancient in struction was mediocre, while the new laws permit a better order of acquiring education to be prescribed for

person whom he prayed God to remove, as also did happen. Paul was killed by him first, with the unspeak able counsel of God permitting it so that by such a loathsome, shameful, and execrable portent, the apos tle, who was so dear to God and adorned by Him with such glorious gifts and through whom the great part of the church was gathered, was put to death. Yet in the same year Nero met death at His hands. that God is offended by stubbornness and that the con science is rendered guilty because God insistently de mands obedience.

Here consider how great an evil it is that our con science be declared guilty before God, that a man be deserted and no longer guided or defended by Him, but subject to the punishment of eternal wrath after this life unless he repents. For God keeps this rule: He punishes the wicked refusal to repent even in this life with frightful examples of His wrath, as the stories of Absalom, Shimei, Joab, and countless others show.

Here the prudent reader should compare the political views of the philosophers with this statement of Paul.

What writings of the philosophers support the civil order and peace as does the text from Paul? This is a very strong wall of support for public officials. For the minds of all good men and even ordinary men should judge that they are compelled to give honor and obedience not by fear or by the power of the rulers but by this heavenly doctrine, so that they respect governments and reverently obey the voice of the law and the rulers.

But this is an outstanding honor—to be able to call upon God on behalf of our government and our rulers, that they will do their work with enthusiasm and recognize that the civil order is a work and gift of God and that good rulers are raised up by God and aided by Him, as is indeed the case. For no governments or civilizations will endure unless God raises up people who will maintain them, as when Josiah restored the kingdom after the collapse of things after Manasseh.

They must consider these benefits as coming from God and must aid their government by their fervent and sin cere prayers, as Paul commands us in 1 Tim. 2[:2]: "I exhort that prayers be made for kings and all who are in authority." And the purpose of these prayers is added, "that we may live a peaceable life," so that we do not wallow in idle pleasures, but control our morals; and that the Gospel can be taught and spread, the churches increase, and the name of God and of our

Lord Jesus Christ be honored. Jeremiah also com manded in ch. 29[:7] that prayer be offered for the king dom of Babylon: "Seek the peace of the city in which you will be in exile, and pray to the Lord for it, for in its peace you will have peace."

And the laws of governments demand only out ward obedience in war and peace, physical labors, the payment of taxes, and just outward fulfillment of our duties in the total civil environment. But the heavenly doctrine demands much more. It commands us to honor the ruler. This is the highest degree of obedi ence—not only that we do our outward civil duties, but that we have honorable thoughts and good will in our minds. For these two concepts are meant by the word honor. A respectful attitude involves the idea that the entire civil order—governments and rulers—are things which have been instituted by God and approved by Him and defended by divine power, and that God wills that the human race be governed and restrained by this form of civil life. And in the very act of governing, we can see many examples of His judgment regarding the wickedness of men, as the punishments of murderers, incestuous persons, tyrants, and perjurers clearly tes tify to God's wrath against sins. Therefore it is an at titude of honor to regard the civil order, governments, public offices, laws and the legal system, and punish ments as works of God in which the wisdom of God, righteousness, and goodness toward the human race are to be seen. The other part of this honoring is that these things are divinely established, and our will should be completely subject with genuine eagerness to our governments for the sake of God, and should love these things and our rulers themselves as guard ians of civil order. This is the meaning of this precept in which he commands us to show honor to our rulers.

I am adding also this rule, which has been given to us by the voice of the apostles [Acts 5:29]: "We must obey God rather than men." Thus when men, whether kings or priests, command that we do something which is contrary to the commands of God, we must not obey, but give priority to the command of God, as the story in Daniel 3 teaches us.

I have set forth the main points which we need to know in the church regarding the causes and wor thiness of the civil order and rulers. Now many things should also be said regarding the duties of rulers, but it is not our purpose to cover the whole subject of the civil order. There are books by philosophers and law yers which contain the duties of rulers. However, we shall only briefly summarize the matter. Aristotle has given us a learned definition of the office of ruler in a very brief statement, which still contains the kernel of the entire teaching: "The ruler is the guardian of the law." When you ask, "What are the duties of the ruler?"

Keep in mind this definition and picture to yourself the ruler from whose neck hang the two tables of the Mo saic law. The guardian of these must be a civil ruler, because his office pertains to external discipline. For these tables are the sum and substance of the law, the sources from which all other honest laws are derived

(for it is necessary that there be more laws which gov ern our civil and societal life).

I have stated above that we must distinguish be tween the matter itself and the people involved. Paul recognized and certainly knew that the Roman empire had been established by God with His particular coun sel and help, and he respected and honored this order and the laws, but he despised and execrated Nero as a loathsome disease and an instrument of the devil, a

the kings of other nations, after they have learned the true teaching about God, have prohibited indignities against the true God, as in the case of Nebuchadnezzar and Darius the Mede. Likewise, Constantine and Theo dosius acted correctly when they destroyed idols. For although the ruler does not judge or change secret opin ions in the minds of people, yet external sins he must prohibit for the sake of God's glory, so that more peo

Therefore, since the ruler is the guardian of these laws, he must himself be obedient to them and compel others to obey also and to defend their authority with all his might. It is for this reason that he is armed by God with the sword. And in order that we may under stand the distinction between ecclesiastical and civil governance, and that at the same time their respective duties may be observed, I am giving this definition of a civil ruler: A ruler is a servant of God who keeps watch over the honorable external discipline and peace of the group he governs, who controls and punishes the re fractory by means of lawful physical punishments. ple are not led astray by permissiveness and evil examples.

Therefore, kings, princes, and rulers in our pres ent age must inspect the churches and be concerned that they are being properly taught, so that the minds of men may be turned to the true invocation of God and to the other duties of piety, and that the worship of idols be prohibited and the teaching of false opinions which are in conflict with the Gospel not be encouraged or spread by any kind of people. We must be obedient to the voice of the eternal Father when He commands regarding our Lord Jesus Christ [Luke 9:35], "Hear

Him." Thus, we must hold fast and glorify the Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ by repudiating all heathen,

Jews, Turks, and raving heretics. The princes must re move from the church the heathen doctrine of the pope, the heathen rituals of invoking the dead, and the hor rendous profanations of the Lord's Supper. The eternal and immutable commands of God direct us [Deut. 6:11]:

"You shall not take the name of the Lord Your God in vain." Likewise, "Hear Him." God enjoins the rulers to guard society in His name so that they watch over divine things, that is, the true knowledge and invocation of God, and true righteousness and peace. For how can they be called the vicars of God [Rom. 13:4, 6] if they do not acknowledge the Lord and are not concerned that He be acknowledged by others?

Here we should compare the differences be tween the teacher of the Gospel and the civil ruler. The teacher of the Gospel sets forth the Word of God and administers the sacraments, through which God calls the hearers to eternal life, and in which He ip effica cious. Then he compels and punishes only with the Word of God, that is, with the voice of the Gospel and excommunication, without physical force. But the ruler is the guardian of the peace and of external discipline, and he is armed with the sword to control and punish the contumacious with lawful physical punishments.

Now when I say that the ruler is the person who maintains discipline, you must understand that he is to be the guardian of both tables of the Decalogue that is, he shall serve not only as the protector of the peace—as a shepherd of a flock—not only as the guardian of our physical welfare, but primarily for the glory of God, as it pertains to outward morals. Just as all civil governments sanction punishments against per jury, many also among the heathen sanction punish ments against Epicurean or atheistic people who openly say that there is no God or that there is no divine providence. But we must follow the Law of God which says [Lev. 19:4], "Flee idols." Again Lev. 24[:16], "He who blasphemes the name of the Lord shall surely be put to death." Deut. 12[:3], "Overturn the altars of idols." Deut. 18[:10], "Let there be no sorcerers or spell casters in the land."

In another place in a longer disputation, I have shown that the reforming of the churches pertains to the duties of the rulers, especially with the withdrawal of the bishops or the attacks upon the Gospel. Some say that the secular magistrate is not the judge of con troversies over doctrine. But the correct and explicated answer is that the church is the judge and must follow the norm of the Gospel in making its judgments. When the ruler is a godly member of the church, he himself along with other pious and learned men must judge in keeping with the norm which I have mentioned; for to all the members of the church it is said [Matt. 7:15],

"Beware of false prophets." Again [Gal. 1:9], "If anyone teaches any other Gospel, let him be anathema."

Therefore, just as any other godly men, the rulers must give consideration to the teachings, and if someone sows false or ungodly opinions and defends them, they should judge him and place him under the anathema.

Indeed they would be erring leaders if they concluded that this concern did not pertain to their work.

These are the precepts of the natural law, and they pertain to the Second Commandment [Deut. 6:11],

"You shall not take the name of the Lord in vain. For the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes His name in vain." This statement must be applied to all men, even to all creatures. And each person in his own sta tion must prohibit open indignities against God. There fore, the rulers must both prohibit and punish Epicurean speeches, the honoring of idols, perjury, pacts with dev ils, and the profession of ungodly doctrines. These points are also commanded [Ps. 2:10 ff.], "Now, there fore, be wise, 0 kings; be instructed, you judges of the earth. Serve the Lord with fear." Prov. 25[:5], "Take away the wicked from before the king, and his throne will be established in righteousness." And 1 Sam.

2[:30], "Those who honor Me I will honor, and those who despise Me shall be despised."

In regard to the other offices of rulers, that is, the governance of civil morality, the protection of the peace, legal or military service; concerning slavery, equity, and Therefore, not only godly kings in Judah but also

the laws governing households or borrowing and re paying—such matters must be dealt with by other ex perts, namely, by lawyers. The Gospel shows the reasons for and the worthiness of the civil order, and the will of God we should know that it is just, that is, equitable for equals. Tyrants are not equitable for equals; they take care of some people by private ar rangements and neglect others who are either their equals or better. This inequity is called called "respect of persons" [Rom. 2:11; James 2:1], a characteristic which is not in God. Rather, you must know that God in a general way teaches that rulers should be obedient to the commands of God, because God commands kings, princes, and the people alike. He will judge kings, princes and the people alike, as it is written [Mark

16:15], "Go, preach the Gospel to every creature."

Zech. 10[:3], "My anger is kindled against the shep herds." Micah 3[:9, 12], "Now hear this, you heads of the house of Jacob ... because of you Zion shall be plowed like a field." Ezek. 34[:7, 9], "Therefore, you shepherds, hear the word of the Lord." is equitable to you and to the robber on the cross, to Moses and to Elijah. He has set forth this rule, accord ing to which He maintains fair play; He is angry at this sin in all of us, and -again He receives all who take refuge in Christ, the mediator.

Look at the example of the justice of God and His equity in the appeasing of the wrath of God. Sins are not forgiven unless an equal ransom has been paid for us, namely, the Son of God. And our daily use of I shall add only one admonition. It is not permis sible for kings, princes, and rulers to act contrary to the divine law and contrary to the natural law. And this is a precept of both the divine and the natural law [Ex.

20:15]: "You shall not steal." This word distinguishes between the property and the possessions of each in dividual; it builds a wall around the concept of owner ship of property and land. And people have certain things as private property by both divine and human law. The law "You shall not steal" protects the princes from the people. But the kings and princes should not think that they are permitted to take to themselves what ever they wish from the properties of their subjects and that the citizens have no property of their own. contracts, terms of purchase, sales, trades, leases, and terms of employment all instruct us regarding this eq uity, as do the retributions we get for breaking them.

Finally, this very equity required in contracts in structs us regarding our love toward our neighbor. It is a way of interpreting particular cases, as in the com mand [in Matt. 19:19], "You shall love your neighbor as yourself." This means that there shall be equity be tween you and your neighbor. You shall not increase your goods at his expense; you shall not oppress him so that your reputation is increased, and you shall not fleece him so that you pile up things for yourself. Finally, you shall in no way seek undue advantage, but shall strive for fairness. You shall give to your neighbor those things which you judge ought to be given to you.

God in His law had distinguished the rights of ownership in the lands of the Israelites and sanctioned the right to sell it or retain it. Therefore, He did not permit

Ahab either to force Naboth to sell his vineyard or to drive him from possessing it. By this law, "You shall not steal," Naboth was protected from an outsider. And God as the avenger attacks by name this wrong which Ahab had committed in occupying the vineyard of an other man, and He punishes him by a memorable ex ample in order to warn the princes that they should keep their hands off the property of their citizens, as the Bap tist says [Luke 3:14], "Be content with your wages."

I have already spoken previously about con tracts, and now I am laying down this rule: from the fountains of the teaching of the law we can understand which contracts are to be approved, and in which ones that equity is preserved which a prudent and just lawyer believes should be produced.

Although our exhortations do not have a great deal of authority, I want to add here this one point which pertains especially to the office of the princes—the con cern for education and schools in which the necessary arts, literature, and sciences may be provided for the church. Thus Is. 49[:23] says, "Kings will be your foster fathers and queens your nursing mothers," that is, the kings and the rulers. Again, "the queens," that is, the governments and the cities, will give hospitality and financial support, and will develop teachers and learn ers of the doctrine of God and of those areas of knowl edge which are necessary for the church. A great reward has been offered for the performance of this work. Matt. 10[:42], "He who gives a cup of water to one of these little ones in the name of a disciple," that is, for helping in his education, "Verily, I say to you, he shall not lose his reward."

People should pay lawful tribute, as Paul says in Rom.

13[:6 ff.], which the Baptist calls wages. And when the defense of the nation or some other demonstrable cause demands the gathering of more money, it is just that citizens support the church and the nation.

But the passage in the history of Samuel [1 Sam.

8:11-18] speaks of the legal right of kings regarding tribute. It does not grant limitless license to princes to lay hands on the property of their citizens to any degree they wish, because the citizens have certain legal rights under both divine and human law.

There are also questions regarding contracts, about which godly people know certain things in gen eral, such as that a contract is a part of the civil order and one of the good things ordained by God. Indeed a very clear picture of the judgment and will of God has been impressed upon contracts. In them God teaches us that justice is equitable, so that when we think about In order that rulers may be influenced by these precepts and promises and invited to encourage edu cation, our Lord Jesus Christ will bring it about that from place to place He will preserve schools and the other

hope we encourage the study of letters, and we pray the eternal God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, that He would guide our labors in teaching and in learn ing, and aid and cause us to be saving instruments of His mercy for the church of God and for ourselves. things related to them. Since He has promised that the church will remain (even though in this last old age of the world, there will be more confusion), it is certain that the church will have some place of refuge, some friendly governments and some schools. And in this

Locus 21 Human Ceremonies in the Church priority over these complaints, in order that we may retain thelight of the Gospel and observe the difference between the necessary worship of God and worthless superstitions.

Everything covered thus far in this work has first dealt with dogmas which belong to the church and which deal with God and other eternal things, such as, the Law of God, sin, the Gospel, grace, righteousness, and the sacraments, and last of all we dealt with civil life, or our life in society. Now we shall speak about that level of works which belong in a much lower po sition, beneath the doctrine and works of which we have spoken above. We shall speak of the ceremonies which have been developed by human authority in the church, among which there is a very great difference. For some are useful for good order. In the schools, the hours and the subject matters are divided into sections, and the students are separated into different classes. The fam ily prescribes the order for the students: in the morning they recite prayers, and then when they have eaten breakfast they study reading, and later on they do other domestic duties. Likewise, in the public gatherings of the church, the nature of men requires some kind of order.

Nor should it deter us from explaining this point that many are abusing the doctrine of liberty. But we must contend very strongly on both sides in our teach ing, that the necessary doctrine which God has given us be taught purely and faithfully, and that the abuses— of whatever kind—be severely attacked, and that those people be rejected who, under the pretext of this free dom which is born out of the blood of Christ, indulge in their depraved desires and bring in moral practices which might cause ordinary people to forsake the Gospel.

Therefore, I shall comment on three rules.

Rule one. Just as Eve sinned by obeying the devil when he urged her to act in a manner contrary to the command of God, so all people sin if they obey laws or edicts which command them to act in a manner con trary to the commands of God, whether these are the laws set forth by bishops or by kings or by other rulers or by devils. For the word of the apostles is true [Acts

5:29]: "We must obey God rather than men." Thus when the king of Babylon commanded that the people worship the golden statue, it was necessary not to obey him and to show great constancy of faith—which is the true worship of God—as the three Israelites did, as recorded in Daniel [3], Thus the apostles in opposition to the command of the high priest taught the Gospel in Acts 5 and openly testified that they were putting the command of God ahead of all others.

But in addition to these useful ceremonies or rit uals which have been developed for the sake of good order, men also in all ages have added many others, partly out of superstition, partly out of greed, partly by selfish considerations. And some of these are in open opposition to the commands of God.

Since human weakness thinks that these rituals are so marvelous that it believes that they are the great est works of all and serve particularly well to placate the wrath of God, and because of fascination with such things, the church has lost the light of the Gospel con cerning Christ, the mediator, and faith in Him. Because great darkness and discord have overtaken the church of God, it is necessary for us to discuss and explain the judgment of the Gospel regarding these regulations and works.

At this point godly people should consider the laws of the popes and the kings which order us to act contrary to the commands of God. Ungodly edicts are constantly promulgated against hearing the pure doc trine of the Gospel, against reading it, and against teaching it to the people. Ministers are forced into re peated profanation of the Lord's Supper in the Mass in keeping with the usual custom. The invocation of the dead is tenaciously retained. Marriage is prohibited to priests, although not all are suited to celibacy and de spite the fact that God has commanded marriage for all who cannot live a celibate life without stumbling, as In the first place, I warn the reader that at this point I am not talking about the civil laws of rulers or civil offices which properly pertain to the governance by rulers and which have been instituted for the com mon defense of the peace and tranquillity of nations.

Rather, we are speaking of the authority of those reg ulations which have been established by men in the church and are judged to be either exercises especially for piety or for the worship of God, such as celibacy, certain forms of fasting, repetitious prayers, and the it clearly says in 1 Cor. 7[:2], "Because of sexual im morality, let each man have his own wife," and again

[v. 9], "It is better to marry than to burn." like.

Now understand what a great multitude of men are held in bondage to these unjust laws—men who cannot call upon God because of lapses in conscience, who are drawn away from God and rush into eternal destruction. The popes and the kings commit terrible sins when they establish laws that hinder the true in Furthermore, although men in civil life who do not love the Gospel tragically complain that the authority of the laws is being eroded because some of them are not enforced, and they argue that this sets a dangerous example, yet it is necessary that the glory of Christ and the salvation of the godly who must be educated take

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