Church History
The Architecture of Theology
The great medieval scholar Etienne Gilson (1884–1978) liked to compare the great systems of scholastic theology to “cathedrals of the mind.” It is a powerful and striking image, which suggests permanence, solidity, organization, and structure – qualities that were highly prized by the writers of the period. The image of a great medieval cathedral helps convey the idea that theology is a complex discipline, bringing together a number of related fields in a sometimes uneasy alliance. Our attention in this volume will focus on historical theology, which we shall explore in the following section. However, it will be helpful to introduce some of the other components of the discipline of theology at this stage in the work.
Biblical Studies
The ultimate source of Christian theology is the Bible, which bears witness to the historical grounding of Christianity in both the history of Israel and the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. (Note that the word-pairs “Scripture” and “the Bible,” and “scriptural” and “biblical,” are synonymous for the purposes of theology.) As is often pointed out, Christianity is about belief in a person (Jesus Christ), rather than belief in a text (the Bible). Nevertheless, the two are closely interlocked. Historically, we know virtually nothing about Jesus Christ, except what we learn from the New Testament. In trying to wrestle with the identity and significance of Jesus Christ, Christian theology is thus obliged to wrestle with the text that transmits knowledge of him. This has the result that Christian theology is intimately linked with the science of biblical studies and interpretation – in other words, with the attempt to appreciate the distinctive literary and historical nature of the biblical texts and to explore their significance for the community of faith.
The importance of biblical studies to theology is obvious across the spectrum of history. A good example of its importance can be seen with the rise of humanist biblical scholarship in the early 1500s. Erasmus of Rotterdam pointed out a series of translation errors in existing Latin versions of the Bible. As a result, pressure grew for the revision of some existing Christian doctrines, which were grounded in biblical passages that were once held to support them but that now turned out to say something rather different. The sixteenth-century Reformation may plausibly be argued to represent an attempt to bring theology back into line with Scripture, after a period in which it had departed considerably from it.
The discipline of systematic theology (to which we shall turn in a moment) is thus dependent upon biblical scholarship, although the extent of that dependence is controverted. The reader must therefore expect to find reference to modern scholarly debates over the historical and theological role of the Bible in the present volume. To give an example, it is impossible to understand the development of modern Christologies without coming to terms with at least some of the developments in biblical scholarship over the last two centuries. Rudolf Bultmann’s kerygmatic approach to theology can be argued to bring together contemporary New Testament scholarship, systematic theology, and philosophical theology (specifically, existentialism). This illustrates a vitally important point: systematic theology does not operate in a watertight compartment, isolated from other intellectual developments. It responds to developments in other disciplines (especially New Testament scholarship and philosophy).
Systematic Theology
The term “systematic theology” has come to be understood as “the systematic organization of theology.” But what does “systematic” mean? Two main understandings of the term have emerged. First, the term is understood to mean “organized on the basis of educational or presentational concerns.” In other words, the prime concern is to present a clear and ordered overview of the main themes of the Christian faith, often following the pattern of the Apostles’ Creed. In the second place, it can mean “organized on the basis of presuppositions about method.” In other words, philosophical ideas about how knowledge is acquired and developed determine the way in which the theological material is arranged. This approach is of particular importance in the modern period, when a concern about theological method has become more pronounced.
In the classic period of theology, the subject matter of theology was generally organized along lines suggested by the Apostles’ Creed or Nicene Creed, beginning with the doctrine of God and ending with eschatology. Classic models for the systematization of theology are provided by a number of writings.
The first major theological textbook of western theology is Peter Lombard's Four Books of the Sentences, compiled at the University of Paris during the twelfth century, probably during the years 1155–1158. In essence, the work is a collection of quotations (or “sentences”), drawn from patristic writers in general and Augustine in particular. These quotations were arranged topically. The first of the four books deals with the Trinity, the second with creation and sin, the third with incarnation and Christian life, and the fourth and final book with the sacraments and the last things. Commenting on this collection of sentences became a standard practice for medieval theologians, such as Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventure, and Duns Scotus.
A second approach can be seen in Thomas Aquinas’s Summa Theologiae, dating from the thirteenth century, which surveyed the totality of Christian theology in three parts, using principles similar to those adopted by Peter Lombard, while placing greater emphasis on philosophical questions (particularly those raised by Aristotle) and the need to reconcile the different opinions of patristic writers.
Two different models were provided by the Protestant Reformation during the sixteenth century. On the Lutheran side, Philip Melanchthon produced the Loci Communes (“Commonplaces”) in 1521. This work provided a survey of the main aspects of Christian theology, arranged topically. John Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion is widely regarded as the most influential work of Protestant theology. The first edition of this work appeared in 1536 and its definitive edition in 1559. The final edition of this work is arranged in four books, the first of which deals with the doctrine of God, the second with Christ as mediator between God and humanity, the third with the appropriation of redemption, and the final book with the life of the church. Other more recent major works of Protestant systematic theology to follow similar lines include Karl Barth’s massive Church Dogmatics.
In the modern period, issues of method have become of greater importance, with the result that the issue of “prolegomena” has become significant. An example of a modern work of systematic theology that is heavily influenced by such concerns is F. D. E. Schleiermacher’s Christian Faith, the first edition of which appeared in 1821–1822. The organization of material within this work is governed by the presupposition that theology concerns the analysis of human experience. Thus Schleiermacher famously places the doctrine of the Trinity at the end of his exposition of systematic theology, whereas Aquinas placed it toward the beginning.
Modern Catholic theology has developed in a number of directions. The great Jesuit theologian Karl Rahner surveyed the main themes of Christian theology primarily through a series of essays – now gathered together as the 23 volumes of his Theological Investigations. Hans Urs von Balthasar also developed a thematic approach. His seven-volume The Glory of the Lord engaged the question of “theological aesthetics,” focussing on the contemplation of the true, the good, and the beautiful.
Philosophical Theology
Theology is an intellectual discipline in its own right, concerned with many of the questions that have intrigued humanity from the dawn of history. Is there a god? What is this god like? Why are we here? Questions such as this are asked outside the Christian community, as well as within it. So how do these conversations relate to one another? How do Christian discussions of the nature of God relate to those within the western philosophical tradition? Is there a common ground? Philosophical theology is concerned with what might be called “finding the common ground” between Christian faith and other areas of intellectual activity. Thomas Aquinas’ Five Ways (that is, five reasons for affirming the existence of God) are often cited as an example of philosophical theology, in which non-religious arguments or considerations are seen to lead to religious conclusions.
There is a long tradition within Christian theology of drawing on resources outside the Christian tradition as a means of developing a theological vision. This approach is usually referred to using the Latin phrase ancilla theologiae (“a handmaid of theology”). The basic idea here is that philosophical systems can be a very helpful way of stimulating theological development and enabling a dialogue to be opened up between Christian thinkers and their cultural environment. The two most important historical examples of this approach to theology are the dialogues with Platonism in the period of the early church and Aristotelianism during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.
Nevertheless, it must be noted that there exists a trend within Christian theology that has been severely critical of attempts to use secular philosophies in matters of theology. Tertullian raised the question in the second century: “What has Athens to do with Jerusalem? or the Academy with the church?” Concerns were also raised about the philosophical underpinning of the eucharistic theology of Berengar of Tours during the ninth century, which seemed to some to reduce the question of the “real presence” to some kind of logical puzzle.
More recently, similar concerns have been raised in the writings of Karl Barth, who argued that the use of philosophy in this way ultimately made God’s self-revelation dependent upon a particular philosophy and thus compromised the freedom of God. Others, such as the Thomist writer Jacques Maritain, took a much more positive attitude to the theological role of philosophy. You can therefore expect to encounter, both in the past and in the present, a continuing debate concerning the scope and limits of philosophy within theology, with a variety of positions being taken.
Pastoral Theology
There is a strongly pastoral dimension to Christianity, which is generally inadequately reflected in the academic discussion of theology. Some scholars have argued that Latin American liberation theology represents an overdue correction of the excessively academic bias of western theology, with a healthy correction in the direction of social applicability. Theology is here seen as offering models for transformative action, rather than purely theoretical reflection.
This academic bias within theology is, however, a recent development. Puritanism is an excellent instance of a movement that placed theological integrity alongside pastoral applicability, believing that each was incomplete without the other. The writings of Puritan theologians such as Richard Baxter and Jonathan Edwards are saturated with the belief that theology finds its true expression in pastoral care and the nurture of souls. In more recent years, this concern to ensure that theology finds its expression in pastoral care has led to a resurgence of interest in pastoral theology. Theology is here seen at its best and most authentic when it is applied, for example, in preaching, worship, prayer, and pastoral care.
Church History
An understanding of the development of the history of Christianity, especially its institutional elements, is widely regarded as an integral part of the discipline of theology. Students who intend to minister in a particular Christian tradition, or who are interested in deepening their understanding and appreciation of their own tradition, will find the history of that tradition to be of particular importance. Many church history courses include elements of historical theology. For example, it is very difficult to understand the origins and development of the European Reformation without some understanding of Luther’s doctrine of justification by faith alone, just as a lack of knowledge of the issues surrounding the Donatist controversy will make it hard to make sense of the history of the church in North Africa during the fourth century.
Nevertheless, church history must be considered as a discipline with its own integrity, despite this clear overlap of interest with historical theology. The Toleration Edict of Valerius (311) is of enormous importance in church history, in that it established Christianity as a legitimate religion within the Roman Empire and opened the way to numerical growth and institutional advancement. Yet the Edict has little importance to historical theology, in that it does not contribute directly to the development of theological reflection.
To deal with the history of the church is to study cultural, social, political, and institutional factors that have shaped the development of the church down the ages. It is to study the emergence of institutions (such as the papacy, the episcopacy, and lay fraternities) and movements (such as Methodism, Pentecostalism, and the Cathars). Christianity is set within the flux of history and church history aims to explore the particular place of Christian ideas, individuals, and institutions within that flux. That influence is two-way: Christianity both influences and is influenced by culture. The study of church history allows insights into history in general, as well as into theology in particular.