Augustine of Hippo (354–430)
Key Theologians
During the course of this work, reference will be made to a significant number of theologians from the patristic period. The following six early Christian writers, however, are of especial importance and deserve to be singled out for special mention.
Justin Martyr (c.100–c.165)
Justin is perhaps the greatest of the Apologists – the Christian writers of the second century who were concerned to defend Christianity in the face of intense criticism from pagan sources. In his “First Apology,” Justin argued that traces of Christian truth were to be found in the great pagan writers. His doctrine of the logos spermatikos (“seed-bearing word”) allowed him to affirm that God had prepared the way for his final revelation in Christ through hints of its truth in classical philosophy. Justin provides us with an important early example of a theologian who attempts to relate the gospel to the outlook of Greek philosophy, a trend especially associated with the eastern church.
Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130–c.200)
Irenaeus is believed to have been born in Smyrna (in modern-day Turkey), although he subsequently settled in Rome. He became Bishop of Lyons around 178, a position that he held until his death two decades later. Irenaeus is noted especially for his vigorous defense of Christian orthodoxy in the face of a challenge from Gnosticism (see p. 30). His most significant work, “Against all Heresies” (Adversus omnes Haereses), represents a major defense of the Christian understanding of salvation, and especially of the role of tradition in remaining faithful to the apostolic witness in the face of non-Christian interpretations.
Origen (c.185–c.254)
One of the most important defenders of Christianity in the third century, Origen provided an important foundation for the development of eastern Christian thought. His major contributions to the development of Christian theology can be seen in two general areas. In the field of biblical interpretation, Origen developed the notion of allegorical interpretation, arguing that the surface meaning of Scripture was to be distinguished from its deeper spiritual meaning. In the field of Christology, Origen established a tradition of distinguishing between the full divinity of the Father and a lesser divinity of the Son. Some scholars see Arianism as a natural consequence of this approach. Origen also adopted with some enthusiasm the idea of apocatastasis or universal restoration, according to which every creature – including both humanity and Satan – will be saved.
Tertullian (c.160–c.225)
Tertullian was originally a pagan from the North African city of Carthage, who converted to Christianity in his thirties. He is often regarded as the father of Latin theology, on account of the major impact that he had upon the western church. He defended the unity of the Old and New Testaments against Marcion, who had argued that they related to different gods. In doing so, he laid the foundations for a doctrine of the Trinity. Tertullian was strongly opposed to making Christian theology or apologetics dependent upon extra-scriptural sources. He is amongst the most forceful early exponents of the principle of the sufficiency of Scripture, denouncing those who appeal to secular philosophies (such as those of the Athenian Academy) for a true knowledge of God.
Athanasius (c.296–c.373)
Athanasius’ significance relates primarily to Christological issues, which became of major importance during the fourth century. Possibly while still in his twenties, Athanasius wrote the treatise De incarnatione (“On the incarnation”), a powerful defense of the idea that God assumed human nature in the person of Jesus Christ. This issue proved to be of central importance in the Arian controversy (see pp. 43–8), to which Athanasius made a major contribution. Athanasius pointed out that if, as Arius argued, Christ was not fully God, a series of devastating implications followed. First, it was impossible for God to redeem humanity, as no creature could redeem another creature. Second, it followed that the Christian church was guilty of idolatry, as Christians regularly worshipped and prayed to Christ. As “idolatry” can be defined as “worship of a human construction or creation,” it followed that this worship was idolatrous. Such arguments eventually carried the day and led to the rejection of Arianism.
Augustine of Hippo (354–430)
Aurelius Augustinus, usually known as “Augustine of Hippo” – or just plain “Augustine” – is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential writers of the Christian church throughout its long history. Augustine is thought to have been a Berber, a native North African, who was attracted to the Christian faith through the preaching of Bishop Ambrose of Milan, and underwent a dramatic conversion experience. Having reached the age of 32 without satisfying his burning wish to know the truth, Augustine was agonizing over the great questions of human nature and destiny in a garden in Milan. He heard some children nearby singing a song based on the Latin words Tolle, lege (“take up and read”). Feeling that this was divine guidance, he found the New Testament document nearest to hand – Paul’s letter to the Romans, as it happened – and read the fateful words “clothe yourselves with the Lord Jesus Christ” (Romans 13:14). This was the final straw for Augustine, whose paganism had become increasingly difficult to maintain. As he later recalled, “a light of certainty entered my heart, and every shadow of doubt vanished.” From that moment onward, Augustine dedicated his enormous intellectual abilities to the defense and consolidation of the Christian faith, writing in a style that was both passionate and intelligent, appealing to both heart and mind.
Possibly suffering from some form of asthma, Augustine left Italy to return to North Africa, and was made bishop of Hippo (in modern Algeria) in 395. The remaining thirty-five years of his life witnessed numerous controversies of major importance to the future of the Christian church in the west, and Augustine’s contribution to the resolution of each of these was decisive. His careful exposition of the New Testament, particularly the letters of Paul, gained him a reputation that continues today, as the “second founder of the Christian faith” (Jerome). When the Dark Ages finally lifted over western Europe, Augustine’s substantial body of theological writings would form the basis of a major program of theological renewal and development, consolidating his influence over the western church.
A major part of Augustine’s contribution lies in the development of theology as an academic discipline. The early church cannot really be said to have developed any “systematic theology.” Its primary concern was to defend Christianity against its critics (as in the apologetic works of Justin Martyr) and to clarify central aspects of its thinking against heresy (as in the anti-Gnostic writings of Irenaeus). Nevertheless, major doctrinal development took place during the first four centuries, especially in relation to the doctrine of the person of Christ and the doctrine of the Trinity.
Augustine’s contribution was to achieve a synthesis of Christian thought, supremely in his major treatise De civitate Dei, “On the City of God.” Like Charles Dickens’s famous novel, Augustine’s “City of God” is a tale of two cities – the city of the world and the city of God. The work is apologetic in tone: Augustine is sensitive to the charge that the fall of Rome was due to its having abandoned classic paganism in favor of Christianity. Yet as he defended Christianity against such charges, he inevitably ended up by giving a systematic presentation and exposition of the main lines of Christian belief.
However, in addition, Augustine may also be argued to have made key contributions to three major areas of Christian theology: the doctrine of the church and sacraments, arising from the Donatist controversy (see pp. 66–71); the doctrine of grace, arising from the Pelagian controversy (see pp. 71–6); and the doctrine of the Trinity (see pp. 56–66). Interestingly, Augustine never really explored the area of Christology (that is, the doctrine of the person of Christ), which would unquestionably have benefited from his considerable wisdom and acumen.