The Development of Public Theological Debate
The Historical Background to Early Christian Theology
The patristic period was of major importance in clarifying a number of issues. A task of initial importance for early Christian theologians was sorting out the relationship between Christianity and Judaism. This is clearly an important issue for Paul, as his letters in the New Testament make clear. A set of doctrinal and practical issues came to the fore in the first century of Christian history. Must Gentile (that is, non-Jewish) Christians be circumcised? Were certain foods or practices to be seen as “unclean”? How was the Old Testament to be correctly interpreted? However, other issues soon came to the fore. One that was of especial importance in the second century is that of apologetics – the reasoned defense and justification of the Christian faith against its critics – such as Greek philosophers.
During the first period of Christian history, the church was sporadically persecuted by the Roman state. Its primary concern was to survive in this hostile cultural environment; there was limited place for theological disputes when the existence of the Christian church seemed to be under threat. This helps us to understand why apologetics came to be of such importance to the early church. Writers such as Justin Martyr (c.100–c.165) tried to explain and defend the beliefs and practices of Christianity to a hostile pagan public, partly to reduce this cultural hostility and partly in the hope of converting them. Although this early period produced some outstanding theologians – such as Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130–c.200) in the west and Origen (c.185–c.254) in the east – theological debate could only begin in earnest once the church had ceased to be persecuted.
The Historical Importance of the City of Rome
Rome was the administrative center of an empire that embraced the whole Mediterranean region. Indeed, the Romans tended to refer to the Mediterranean as “Mare Nostrum” – “our sea.” The region of Judea, in which Christianity had its origins, was part of this vast empire – and a rather insignificant part at that. Although the languages spoken in this region of the empire were Aramaic (a language closely related to Hebrew) and Greek, Latin was used for administrative purposes. John’s gospel makes reference to the charge against Jesus to the effect that he claimed to be “king of the Jews” being written in all three languages (John 19:19–20). In many paintings and representations of the crucifixion of Jesus, this inscription is represented by four letters: INRI – the initial letters of the Latin phrase Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum, meaning “Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews.”
Christianity had its origins in Palestine – more specifically, the region of Judea, especially the city of Jerusalem. Christianity regarded itself as a continuation and development of Judaism, and initially flourished in regions with which Judaism was traditionally associated, supremely Palestine. However, it rapidly spread to neighboring regions in which Judaism had a presence, partially through the efforts of early Christian evangelists such as Paul of Tarsus. By the end of the first century, Christianity appears to have become established throughout the eastern Mediterranean world, and even to have gained a significant presence in the city of Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire.
It is not clear when Christianity first began to gain a presence in Rome, although many scholars believe that this development dates from the 40s. Paul’s letter to the Romans, usually dated to around 57, refers to a number of individuals with Latin names, such as Urbanus, Aquila, Rufus, and Julia. This suggests that a number of Romans may have converted to Christianity by this stage. The bulk of the names mentioned by Paul are Greek, however, reflecting the fact that Christianity seems initially to have been the religion of a Greek-speaking minority. There is evidence that Mark’s gospel may have been written in Rome at some point around 64, on the eve of Nero’s persecution of Christians in the city. For example, Mark 12:42 notes that two Greek copper coins make one quadran, a Roman coin not in circulation in the eastern part of the empire. Similarly, Mark 15:16 explains that a Greek word corresponds to the Latin praetorium. These explanations suggest that Mark is explaining unfamiliar ideas or terms to a Roman audience.
The Problem of Persecution
Since becoming established in Rome in the 40s, Christianity had an ambiguous legal status. On the one hand, it was not legally recognized, and so did not enjoy any special rights; on the other, it was not forbidden. However, its growing numerical strength led to periodic attempts to suppress it by force. Sometimes these persecutions were local, restricted to regions such as North Africa; sometimes, they were sanctioned throughout the Roman Empire as a whole. A particularly significant period of persecution dates from the accession of the Emperor Decius in 249. His first major act of hostility toward Christianity was the execution of Fabian, bishop of Rome, in January 250.
The Edict of Decius, issued in June 250, commanded provincial governors and magistrates to ensure that there was universal observance of the requirement to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods and to the emperor. A certificate (libellus pacis) was issued to those who offered such sacrifices. The Edict seems to have been widely ignored, but was nevertheless enforced in some regions. Thousands of Christians were martyred during this difficult period. Some offered sacrifices to the gods in order to get hold of the required certificates; some were able to obtain the certificates without actually offering sacrifices.
The Decian persecution ended in June 251, when Decius was killed on a military expedition. The persecution led to many Christians lapsing or abandoning their faith in the face of persecution. Division arose immediately within the church over how these individuals should be treated: did such a lapse mark the end of their faith or could they be reconciled to the church by penance? Opinions differed sharply, and serious disagreement and tension resulted. Very different views were promoted by Cyprian of Carthage and Novatian. Both of these writers were martyred during the persecution instigated by the Emperor Valerian in 257–258.
One of the most severe outbursts of persecution came about in February 303, under the Emperor Diocletian. An edict was issued ordering the destruction of all Christian places of worship, the surrender and destruction of all their books, and the cessation of all acts of Christian worship. Christian civil servants were to lose all privileges of rank or status and to be reduced to the status of slaves. Prominent Christians were forced to offer sacrifice according to traditional Roman practices. It is an indication of how influential Christianity had become that Diocletian forced both his wife and daughter, who were known to be Christians, to comply with this order. The persecution continued under successive emperors, including Galerius, who ruled the eastern region of the empire.
In 311, Galerius ordered the cessation of the persecution. It had been a failure and had merely hardened Christians in their resolve to resist the reimposition of classical Roman pagan religion. Galerius issued an edict that permitted Christians to live normally again and “hold their religious assemblies, provided that they do nothing which would disturb public order.” The edict explicitly identified Christianity as a “religion” and offered it the full protection of the law. The legal status of Christianity, which had been ambiguous up to this point, was now resolved. The church no longer existed under a siege mentality.
The Conversion of Constantine
Christianity was now a legal religion; it was, however, merely one among many such religions. The conversion of the Emperor Constantine changed this irreversibly and brought about a complete change in the situation of Christianity throughout the Roman Empire. Constantine was born to pagan parents in 285. (His mother would eventually become a Christian, apparently through her son’s influence.) Although he showed no particular attraction to Christianity in his early period, Constantine certainly seems to have regarded toleration as an essential virtue. Following Maxentius’ seizure of power in Italy and North Africa, Constantine led a body of troops from western Europe in an attempt to gain authority in the region. The decisive battle took place on October 28, 312 at the Milvian Bridge, to the north of Rome. Constantine defeated Maxentius and was proclaimed emperor. Shortly afterwards, he declared himself to be a Christian.
This point is affirmed by both Christian and pagan writers. What is not clear is precisely why or when this conversion took place. Some Christian writers (such as Lactantius and Eusebius) suggest that the conversion may have taken place before the decisive battle, with Constantine seeing a heavenly vision ordering him to place the sign of the cross on his soldiers’ shields. Whatever the reasons for the conversion, and whether it dates from before or after the battle of Milvian Bridge, the reality and consequences of this conversion are not in doubt. Gradually, Rome became Christianized. On his own instructions, the statue of the emperor erected in the Forum depicts Constantine bearing a cross – “the sign of suffering that brought salvation,” according to the inscription provided by Constantine. In 321, Constantine decreed that Sundays should become public holidays. Christian symbols began to appear on Roman coins. Christianity was now more than just legitimate; it was on its way to becoming the established religion of the empire.
The Development of Public Theological Debate
As a result of the growing acceptance of Christianity in Roman imperial culture during the fourth century, constructive theological debate became a public affair. Apart from a brief period of uncertainty during the reign of Julian the Apostate (361–363), the church could now count upon the support of the state. Theology thus emerged from the hidden world of secret church meetings to become a matter of public interest and concern throughout the Roman Empire. Increasingly, doctrinal debates became a matter of both political and theological importance. Constantine wished to have a united church throughout his empire and was thus concerned that doctrinal differences should be debated and settled as a matter of priority. As the church at Rome became increasingly powerful, tensions began to develop between the Christian leadership at Rome and at Constantinople, foreshadowing the later schism between the western and eastern churches arising out of these respective centers of power.
As Christianity became an established presence in the Mediterranean world, the stable conditions needed for serious theological reflection emerged. As a result, the later patristic period (from about 310 to 451) may be regarded as a high-water mark in the history of Christian theology. Theologians now enjoyed the freedom to work without the threat of persecution and were able to address a series of issues of major importance to the consolidation of the emerging theological consensus within the churches. That consensus involved extensive debate and a painful learning process in which the church discovered that it had to come to terms with disagreements and continuing tensions. Nonetheless, a significant degree of consensus, eventually to be enshrined in the ecumenical creeds, can be discerned as emerging within this formative period.