A Glossary of Theological Terms
A Glossary of Theological Terms
What follows is a brief discussion of a series of terms that the reader is likely to encounter in the course of reading works dealing with historical theology, such as the present volume.
Adiaphora
Literally, “matters of indifference.” Beliefs or practices that the sixteenth-century Reformers regarded as being tolerable, in that they were neither explicitly rejected nor stipulated by Scripture.
Alexandrian school
A patristic school of thought, especially associated with the city of Alexandria in Egypt, noted for its Christology (which placed emphasis upon the divinity of Christ) and its method of biblical interpretation (which employed allegorical methods of exegesis). A rival approach in both areas was associated with Antioch.
Anabaptism
A term derived from the Greek word for “re-baptizer” and used to refer to the radical wing of the sixteenth-century Reformation, based on thinkers such as Menno Simons or Balthasar Hubmaier.
(analogia entis)
The theory, especially associated with Thomas Aquinas, that there exists a correspondence or analogy between the created order and God, as a result of the divine creatorship. The idea gives theoretical justification to the practice of drawing conclusions from the known objects and relationships of the natural order concerning God.
(analogia fidei)
The theory, especially associated with Karl Barth, that holds that any correspondence between the created order and God is only established on the basis of the self-revelation of God.
A doctrine with its roots in the patristic period, but especially associated with later Protestant writers, which denies the independent existence of the humanity of Jesus Christ. According to this view, the humanity of Jesus Christ results from the decision of the second person of the Trinity to adopt and be united with human nature. It is to be contrasted with the doctrine of enhypostasis, which affirms the independent existence of the humanity of Christ.
Anthropomorphism
The tendency to ascribe human features (such as hands or arms) or other human characteristics to God.
Antinomianism
The school of thought that denies any continuing role for the Old Testament Law (Greek: nomos) in the Christian life. Views of this nature have been found throughout Christian history, although they were of particular importance at the time of the Reformation.
Antiochene school
A patristic school of thought, especially associated with the city of Antioch (in modern Turkey), noted for its Christology (which placed emphasis upon the humanity of Christ) and its method of biblical interpretation (which employed literal methods of exegesis). A rival approach in both areas was associated with Alexandria.
Anti-Pelagian writings
The writings of Augustine relating to the Pelagian controversy, in which he defended his views on grace and justification. See Pelagianism.
Apocalyptic
A type of writing or religious outlook in general that focuses on the last things and the end of the world, often taking the form of visions with complex symbolism. The book of Daniel (Old Testament) and Revelation (New Testament) are examples of this type of writing.
Apologetics
The area of Christian theology that focuses on the defense of the Christian faith, particularly through the rational justification of Christian belief and doctrines.
Apophatic
A term used to refer to a particular style of theology, which stressed that God cannot be known in terms of human categories. Apophatic (Greek: apophasis, “negation” or “denial”) approaches to theology are especially associated with the monastic tradition of the Eastern Orthodox church.
Apostolic era
The period of the Christian church, regarded as definitive by many, bounded by the resurrection of Jesus Christ (c. AD 35) and the death of the last apostle (c. AD 90?). The ideas and practices of this period were widely regarded as normative, at least in some sense or to some degree, in many church circles.
Appropriation
A term relating to the doctrine of the Trinity, which affirms that while all three persons of the Trinity are active in all the outward actions of the Trinity, it is appropriate to think of those actions as being the particular work of one of the persons. Thus it is appropriate to think of creation as the work of the Father or redemption as the work of the Son, despite the fact that all three persons are present and active in both these works.
Arianism
A major early Christological heresy, which treated Jesus Christ as supreme amongst God’s creatures but denied his divine status. The Arian controversy was of major importance in the development of Christology during the fourth century.
Atonement
An English term originally coined by William Tyndale to translate the Latin term reconciliatio, which has since come to have the developed meaning of “the work of Christ” or “the benefits of Christ gained for believers by his death and resurrection.” The phrase “theories of the atonement” thus means “way of understanding the saving work of Christ.”
Barthian
An adjective used to describe the theological outlook of the Swiss theologian Karl Barth (1886–1968) and noted chiefly for its emphasis upon the priority of revelation and its focus upon Jesus Christ. The terms “neo-orthodoxy” and “dialectical theology” are also used in this connection.
Beatific Vision
A term used, especially in Roman Catholic theology, to refer to the full vision of God, which is allowed only to the elect after death. However, some writers, including Thomas Aquinas, taught that certain favored individuals – such as Moses and Paul – were allowed this vision in the present life.
Calvinism
An ambiguous term, used with two quite distinct meanings. First, it refers to the religious ideas of religious bodies (such as the Reformed church) and individuals (such as Theodore Beza) who were profoundly influenced by John Calvin, or by documents written by him. Second, it refers to the religious ideas of John Calvin himself. Although the first sense is by far the more common, there is a growing recognition that the term is misleading.
Cappadocian Fathers
A term used to refer collectively to three major Greek-speaking writers of the patristic period: Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzen, and Gregory of Nyssa, all of whom date from the late fourth century. “Cappadocia” designates an area in Asia Minor (modern Turkey), in which these writers were based.
Cartesianism
The philosophical outlook especially associated with René Descartes (1596–1650), particularly in relation to its emphasis on the separation of the knower from the known, and its insistence that the existence of the individual thinking self is the proper starting point for philosophical reflection.
Catechism
A popular manual of Christian doctrine, usually in the form of question and answer, intended for religious instruction.
Catholic
An adjective that is used to refer both to the universality of the church in space and time and also to a particular church body (sometimes also known as the Roman Catholic Church) that lays emphasis upon this point.
The formal declaration at the Council of Chalcedon that Jesus Christ was to be regarded as having two natures, one human and one divine.
Charisma; charismatic
A set of terms especially associated with the gifts of the Holy Spirit. In medieval theology, the term “charisma” is used to designate a spiritual gift, conferred upon individuals by the grace of God. Since the early twentieth century, the term “charismatic” has come to refer to styles of theology and worship that place particular emphasis upon the immediate presence and experience of the Holy Spirit.
Christology
The section of Christian theology dealing with the identity of Jesus Christ, particularly the question of the relation of his human and divine natures.
Circumincession
Perichoresis
Conciliarism
An understanding of ecclesiastical or theological authority that places an emphasis on the role of ecumenical councils.
Confession
Although the term refers primarily to the admission of sin, it acquired a rather different technical sense in the sixteenth century – that of a document that embodies the principles of faith of a Protestant church, such as the Lutheran Augsburg Confession (1530), which embodies the ideas of early Lutheranism, and the Reformed First Helvetic Confession (1536).
Consubstantial
A Latin term, deriving from the Greek term homoousios, literally meaning “of the same substance.” The term is used to affirm the full divinity of Jesus Christ, particularly in opposition to Arianism.
Consubstantiation
A term used to refer to the theory of the real presence, especially associated with Martin Luther, which holds that the substance of the eucharistic bread and wine are given together with the substance of the body and blood of Christ.
Correlation, method of
An approach to theology especially associated with Paul Tillich (1886–1965), which attempts to relate the questions of modern western culture to the answers of the Christian tradition.
Creed
A formal definition or summary of the Christian faith, held in common by all Christians. The most important are those generally known as the “Apostles Creed” and the “Nicene Creed.”
Deism
A term used to refer to the views of a group of English writers, especially during the seventeenth century, the rationalism of which anticipated many of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The term is often used to refer to a view of God that recognizes the divine creatorship, yet that rejects the notion of a continuing divine involvement with the world.
Demythologization
An approach to theology especially associated with the German theologian Ruldolf Bultmann (1884–1976) and his followers, which rests upon the belief that the New Testament worldview is “mythological.” In order for it to be understood within, or applied to, the modern situation, it is necessary that the mythological elements should be eliminated.
Dialectical theology
A term used to refer to the early views of the Swiss theologian Karl Barth (1886–1968), which emphasized the “dialectic between God and humanity.”
Docetism
An early Christological heresy, which treated Jesus Christ as a purely divine being who only had the “appearance of being human.”
Donatism
A movement, centering upon Roman North Africa in the fourth century, which developed a rigorist view of the church and sacraments.
Doxology
A form of praise, especially associated with formal Christian worship. A “doxological” approach to theology stresses the importance of praise and worship in theological reflection.
Ebionitism
An early Christological heresy, which treated Jesus Christ as a purely human figure, although recognizing that he was endowed with particular charismatic gifts which distinguished him from other humans.
Ecclesiology
The section of Christian theology dealing with the theory of the church (Greek: ekklesia).
Enhypostasis,
Anhypostasis
Enlightenment, the
A term used since the nineteenth century to refer to the emphasis upon human reason and autonomy, characteristic of much of western European and North American thought during the eighteenth century.
Eschatology
The section of Christian theology dealing with the “end things,” especially the ideas of resurrection, hell, and eternal life.
Eucharist
The term used in the present volume to refer to the sacrament variously known as “the Mass,” “the Lord’s Supper” and “Holy Communion.”
Evangelical
A term initially used to refer to the nascent reforming movements, especially in Germany and Switzerland, in the 1510s and 1520s, but now used of the movement, especially in English-language theology, which places especial emphasis upon the supreme authority of Scripture and the atoning death of Christ.
Ex opere operantis
ex opere operato
Two different ways of understanding the way in which sacraments are effective. The differences between them can be summarized as follows. To affirm that the sacraments are efficacious ex opere operantis – literally, “on account of the work of the one who works” – is to say that sacraments work on account of the personal moral qualities of the minister. The view that sacraments are efficacious ex opere operato – literally, “on account of the work which is worked” – sees the efficacy of the sacraments depending upon the grace of Christ, which the sacraments represent and convey, so that the personal qualities of the person ministering the sacrament are not of decisive importance. This distinction became of major importance during the Donatist controversy.
Exclusivism
A term once used to refer to the Christian approach to other religions which stressed the uniqueness of the Christian revelation. The term “particularism” is now more widely used.
Exegesis
The science of textual interpretation, usually referring specifically to the Bible. The term “biblical exegesis” basically means “the process of interpreting the Bible.” The specific techniques employed in the exegesis of Scripture are usually referred to as “hermeneutics.”
Exemplarism
A particular approach to the meaning of the death of Christ, which stresses the moral or religious example set to believers by Jesus Christ.
Existentialism
A movement which places emphasis on the subjectivity of individual existence, and the way in which this is affected by one’s environment. The theological development of this approach is especially associated with Rudolf Bultmann and Paul Tillich.
Fathers
An alternative term for “patristic writers.”
Feminism
A major movement in western theology since the 1960s, which lays particular emphasis upon the importance of women’s experience, and has directed criticism against the patriarchalism of Christianity.
Fideism
An understanding of Christian theology that refuses to accept the need for (or sometimes the possibility of) criticism or evaluation from sources outside the Christian faith itself.
Fides qua creditur
fides quae creditur
Christian theology has always recognized a distinction between the act and content of Christian faith. Two Latin terms are used to express this distinction, as follows. The term fides qua creditur (literally, “the faith by which it is believed”) refers to the act of trust and assent which lies at the heart of Christian belief. Yet Christian faith has a content, in that it knows what it believes, and believes what it knows. The term fides quae creditur (“the faith which is believed”) refers to the specific content of Christian faith, expressed in various creeds, confessions, doctrines, and other statements of faith.
A standard term for the five arguments for the existence of God associated with Thomas Aquinas.
Fourth Gospel
A term used to refer to the Gospel according to John. The term highlights the distinctive literary and theological character of this gospel, which sets it apart from the common structures of the first three gospels, usually known as the “Synoptic Gospels.”
Fundamentalism
A form of American Protestant Christianity, which lays especial emphasis upon the authority of an inerrant Bible, and is noted for its tendency to reject critical biblical scholarship and to withdraw from society as a whole.
Hermeneutics
The principles underlying the interpretation, or exegesis, of a text, particularly of Scripture, particularly in relation to its present-day application.
Hesychasm
A tradition, especially associated with the eastern church, which places considerable emphasis upon the idea of “inner quietness” (Greek: hesychia) as a means of achieving a vision of God. It is particularly associated with writers such as Simeon the New Theologian and Gregory Palamas.
Historical Jesus
A term used, especially during the nineteenth century, to refer to the real historical person of Jesus of Nazareth, as opposed to the Christian interpretation of that person, as presented in the New Testament and the creeds.
Historico-critical Method
An approach to historical texts, including the Bible, which argues that proper meaning must be determined only on the basis of the specific historical conditions under which it was written.
History of Religions School
The approach to religious history, and Christian origins in particular, which treats Old and New Testament developments as responses to encounters with other religions, such as Gnosticism.
Homoousion
A Greek term, literally meaning “of the same substance,” which came to be used extensively during the fourth century to designate the main-stream Christological belief that Jesus Christ was “of the same substance as God.” The term was polemical, being directed against the Arian view that Christ was “of similar substance” (homoiousios) to God. See also Consubstantial.
Humanism
In the strict sense of the word, an intellectual movement linked with the European Renaissance. At the heart of the movement lay, not (as the modern sense of the word might suggest) a set of secular or secularizing ideas, but a new interest in the cultural achievements of antiquity. These were seen as a major resource for the renewal of European culture and Christianity during the period of the Renaissance.
The doctrine of the union of divine and human natures in Jesus Christ, without confusion of their respective substances.
Ideology
A group of beliefs and values, usually secular, which govern the actions and outlooks of a society or group of people.
Incarnation
A term used to refer to the assumption of human nature by God, in the person of Jesus Christ. The term “incarnationalism” is often used to refer to theological approaches that lay particular emphasis upon God’s becoming human.
Inclusivism
The way of understanding the relation between Christianity and other faiths that affirms that the Christian truth or salvation are, at least to some extent, accessible through other faiths.
Justification by faith, doctrine of
The section of Christian theology dealing with how the individual sinner is able to enter into fellowship with God. The doctrine was to prove to be of major significance at the time of the Reformation.
Kenoticism
A form of Christology that lays emphasis upon Christ’s “laying aside” of certain divine attributes in the incarnation or his “emptying himself” of at least some divine attributes, especially omniscience or omnipotence.
Kerygma
A term used, especially by Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976) and his followers, to refer to the essential message or proclamation of the New Testament concerning the significance of Jesus Christ.
Liberal Protestantism
A movement, notably associated with nineteenth-century Germany, which stressed the continuity between religion and culture, flourishing between the time of F. D. E. Schleiermacher and Paul Tillich.
Liberation theology
Although this term designates any theological movement laying emphasis upon the liberating impact of the gospel, the term has come to refer to a movement that developed in Latin America in the late 1960s, which stressed the role of political action and oriented itself toward the goal of political liberation from poverty and oppression.
Liturgy
The written text of public services, especially of the eucharist.
Logos
A Greek term meaning “word,” which played a crucial role in the development of patristic Christology. Jesus Christ was recognized as the “word of God”; the question concerned the implications of this recognition and especially the way in which the divine “logos” in Jesus Christ related to his human nature.
Lutheranism
The religious ideas associated with Martin Luther, particularly as expressed in the Lesser Catechism (1529) and the Augsburg Confession (1530).
A strongly fatalist position associated with the Manichees, to which Augustine of Hippo attached himself during his early period. A distinction is drawn between two different divinities, one of which is regarded as evil and the other good. Evil is thus seen as the direct result of the influence of the evil god.
Modalism
A Trinitarian heresy, which treats the three persons of the Trinity as different “modes” of the Godhead. A typical modalist approach is to regard God as active as Father in creation, as Son in redemption, and as Spirit in sanctification.
Monophysitism
The doctrine that there is only one nature in Christ, which is divine (from the Greek words monos, “only one,” and physis, “nature”). This view differed from the orthodox view, upheld by the Council of Chalcedon (451), that Christ had two natures, one divine and one human.
Neo-orthodoxy
A term used to designate the general position of Karl Barth (1886–1968), especially the manner in which he drew upon the theological concerns of the period of Reformed orthodoxy.
Ontological Argument
A term used to refer to the type of argument for the existence of God especially associated with the scholastic theologian Anselm of Canterbury.
Orthodoxy
A term used in a number of senses, of which the following are the most important: orthodoxy in the sense of “right belief,” as opposed to heresy; Orthodoxy in the sense of the forms of Christianity that are dominant in Russia and Greece; orthodoxy in the sense of a movement within Protestantism, especially in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, which laid emphasis upon the need for doctrinal definition.
Parousia
A Greek term, which literally means “coming” or “arrival,” used to refer to the second coming of Christ. The notion of the parousia is an important aspect of Christian understandings of the “last things.”
Particularism
The understanding of the relation between Christianity and other faiths, which affirms the distinctiveness of Christian truth and salvation.
Patripassianism
A theological heresy that arose during the third century, associated with writers such as Noetus, Praxeas, and Sabellius, focusing on the belief that the Father suffered as the Son. In other words, the suffering of Christ on the cross is to be regarded as the suffering of the Father. According to these writers, the only distinction within the Godhead was a succession of modes or operations, so that Father, Son, and Spirit were just different modes of being, or expressions, of the same basic divine entity.
Patristic
An adjective used to refer to the first centuries in the history of the church, following the writing of the New Testament (the “patristic period”), or thinkers writing during this period (the “patristic writers”). For many writers, the period thus designated seems to be c.100–451 (in other words, the period between the completion of the last of the New Testament writings and the landmark Council of Chalcedon). The term “early Christian writers” is increasingly found as an alternative to “patristic.”
Pelagianism
An understanding of how humans are able to merit their salvation, which is diametrically opposed to that of Augustine of Hippo, placing considerable emphasis upon the role of human works and playing down the idea of divine grace.
Perichoresis
A term relating to the doctrine of the Trinity, often also referred to by the Latin term circumincessio. The basic notion is that all three persons of the Trinity mutually share in the life of the others, so that none is isolated or detached from the actions of the others.
Pietism
An approach to Christianity, especially associated with German writers in the seventeenth century, which places an emphasis upon the personal appropriation of faith and the need for holiness in Christian living. The movement is perhaps best known within the English-language world in the form of Methodism.
Pluralism
An approach to the relation of Christianity and other faiths that regards the world’s religions as equally valid manifestations or representations of the same fundamental spiritual reality.
Postliberalism
A theological movement, especially associated with Duke University and Yale Divinity School in the 1980s, which criticized the liberal reliance upon human experience and reclaimed the notion of community tradition as a controlling influence in theology.
Postmodernism
A general cultural development, especially in North America, which resulted from the general collapse in confidence of the universal rational principles of the Enlightenment.
Praxis
A Greek term, literally meaning “action,” adopted by Karl Marx to emphasize the importance of action in relation to thinking. This emphasis on “praxis” has had a considerable impact within Latin American liberation theology.
Protestantism
A term used in the aftermath of the Diet of Speyer (1529) to designate those who “protested” against the practices and beliefs of the Roman Catholic church. Prior to 1529, such individuals and groups had referred to themselves as “evangelicals.”
Quadriga
The Latin term used to refer to the “four-fold” interpretation of Scripture according to its literal, allegorical, tropological/moral, and analogical senses.
A term used with increasing frequency to refer to the Anabaptist movement – in other words, the wing of the Reformation that went beyond what Luther and Zwingli envisaged, particularly in relation to the doctrine of the church.
Reformed
A term used to refer to a tradition of theology that draws inspiration from the writings of John Calvin (1510–1564) and his successors. The term is now generally used in preference to “Calvinist.”
Sabellianism
An early trinitarian heresy, which treated the three persons of the Trinity as different historical manifestations of the one God. It is generally regarded as a form of modalism.
Sacrament
In purely historical terms, a church service or rite that was held to have been instituted by Jesus Christ himself. Although Roman Catholic theology and church practice recognize seven such sacraments (baptism, confirmation, eucharist, marriage, ordination, penance, and unction), Protestant theologians generally argue that only two (baptism and eucharist) were to be found in the New Testament itself.
Schism
A deliberate break with the unity of the church, condemned vigorously by influential writers of the early church, such as Cyprian and Augustine.
Scholasticism
A particular approach to Christian theology, associated especially with the Middle Ages, which lays emphasis upon the rational justification and systematic presentation of Christian theology.
Scripture principle
The theory, especially associated with Reformed theologians, that the practices and beliefs of the church should be grounded in Scripture. Nothing that could not be demonstrated to be grounded in Scripture could be regarded as binding upon the believer. The phrase sola scriptura, “by Scripture alone,” summarizes this principle.
Soteriology
The section of Christian theology dealing with the doctrine of salvation (Greek: soteria).
Synoptic gospels
A term used to refer to the first three gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke). The term (derived from the Greek word synopsis, “summary”) refers to the way in which the three gospels can be seen as providing similar “summaries” of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
Synoptic problem
The scholarly question of how the three synoptic gospels relate to each other. Perhaps the most common approach to the relation of the three synoptic gospels is the “two-source theory,” which claims that Matthew and Luke used Mark as a source, while also drawing upon a second source (usually known as “Q”). Other possibilities exist: for example, the Griesbach hypothesis, which treats Matthew as having been written first, followed by Luke and then Mark.
A term coined by Leibniz to refer to a theoretical justification of the goodness of God in the face of the presence of evil in the world.
Theopaschitism
A disputed teaching, regarded by some as a heresy, which arose during the sixth century, associated with writers such as John Maxentius and the slogan “one of the Trinity was crucified.” The formula can be interpreted in a perfectly orthodox sense and was defended as such by Leontius of Byzantium. However, it was regarded as potentially misleading and confusing by more cautious writers, including Pope Hormisdas (died 523), and the formula gradually fell into disuse.
Theotokos
Literally, “the bearer of God.” A Greek term used to refer to Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ, with the intention of reinforcing the central insight of the doctrine of the incarnation – that is, that Jesus Christ is none other than God. The term was extensively used by writers of the eastern church, especially around the time of the Nestorian controversy, to articulate both the divinity of Christ and the reality of the incarnation.
Third Quest
A phrase used to describe the historical investigation of the life of Jesus initiated during the 1970s.
Transubstantiation
The doctrine according to which the bread and the wine are transformed into the body and blood of Christ in the eucharist, while retaining their outward appearance.
Trinity
The distinctively Christian doctrine of God, which reflects the complexity of the Christian experience of God. The doctrine is usually summarized in maxims such as “three persons, one God.”
Two Natures, doctrine of
A term generally used to refer to the doctrine of the two natures, human and divine, of Jesus Christ. Related terms include “Chalcedonian definition” and “hypostatic union.”
Vulgate
The Latin translation of the Bible, largely deriving from Jerome, upon which medieval theology was largely based.
Zwinglianism
The term is used generally to refer to the thought of Huldrych Zwingli, but is often used to refer specifically to his “memorialist” views on the sacraments, especially on the “real presence” (which for Zwingli was more of a “real absence”).