7. The Holy Scriptures
8. How did the prophets in Israel maintain the continuity of God's promise despite the nation's apostasy and idolatry?
Reflect on the role of the prophets in calling Israel back to the covenant and preserving the hope of the promise amidst widespread disobedience.
9. What is the ultimate fulfillment of the promise made to Abraham, and how is it realized in Christ?
Analyze how Christ embodies the fulfillment of God's promise and how His person and work are the culmination of the entire
Old Testament revelation.
10. How does the New Covenant in Christ extend the promise to all nations, and what implications does this have for the church today?
Discuss the transition from the Old Covenant with Israel to the New Covenant with all nations, and how this shapes the mission and identity of the Christian church.
7. The Holy Scriptures In acquainting ourselves with both general and special revelation, we turn to the Holy Scriptures. It is vital to discern the distinction and connection that exist between the two. On the one hand, there is a
significant difference between revelation and Scripture. Revelation often preceded its written account by considerable time; for instance, before Moses, there was revelation, yet no Scripture. Such revelation frequently encompassed far more than what was eventually recorded in writing; the books of the prophets, like Amos, often represent only a brief summary of their spoken messages to their contemporaries.
Numerous prophets in the Old Testament and apostles in the New Testament, though all were conduits of special revelation, left nothing in writing; even of Jesus, it is explicitly stated that He did many other signs, so numerous that if each were written down, the world could not contain the books, John 20:30, 21:25. Conversely, there are instances where God revealed something to His prophets and apostles as they wrote, which they had not known beforehand and thus could not have preached, such as the revelation John received on Patmos regarding the future.
Therefore, Scripture is not the revelation itself but the description, the record, through which revelation can be known. However, when we refer to Scripture as the record of revelation, we must be wary of another misconception. Some distinguish between Revelation and Scripture to such an extent that they separate and disassociate them.
They concede that God acted in a special manner in the revelation preceding the Scriptures, but then suggest that the recording of this revelation was left entirely to the human authors themselves, without God's special providence. In this view, Scripture remains a record of revelation, but an incidental and imperfect one, causing great difficulty in discerning what does or does not belong to special revelation. From this perspective, a significant distinction is drawn between the Word of God and Holy Scripture, leading to the claim
that Holy Scripture is not the Word of God, but rather that the Word of God is contained within Holy Scripture.
This representation is inherently improbable. Besides adopting a far too mechanical view of the relationship between word and scripture, it overlooks the necessity that if God intended to provide a special revelation meant for all humanity through the seed of Abraham, that is, in Christ, He must also have taken special measures to preserve this revelation unaltered and to make it universally known through the Scriptures. The written word serves this purpose admirably.
Unlike the spoken word, which dissipates into the air, the written word remains; it is not corrupted like oral tradition but retains its purity, and it is not confined to a few listeners but can be extended to all peoples and all times. Writing preserves the spoken word, safeguards it from decay, and renders it universal.
We need not dwell any longer on this human reasoning. The notion that special revelation is from God, but that Scripture came into being without His special care, stands in direct opposition to the testimony of Scripture itself. Repeatedly and emphatically, Scripture declares that it is not merely a human record but the very Word of God. While distinct from previous revelation, Scripture is not separate from it. It is not an incidental or imperfect addition to Revelation but a constituent part of it. It serves as the conclusion, the completion, and the cornerstone of God's revealed truth.
To see this clearly, we need only consider the testimonies contained within Scripture itself.
Firstly, God repeatedly instructs the prophets to not only communicate His revelations orally but also to record them in
writing. In Exodus 17:14, Moses is commanded by the Lord to write down the account of the battle against Amalek, which held great significance for Israel. In Exodus 24:3-4, 7, and 34:27, Moses is directed to record the statutes and laws by which God established
His covenant with Israel. When Israel completed its wanderings and arrived in the plains of Moab, it is expressly stated that Moses documented the journeys of the children of Israel at the command of the Lord, Numbers 33:2. The Lord also instructed Moses to write down the song in Deuteronomy 32, to serve as a witness against the Israelites in times of apostasy, Deuteronomy 31:19, 22. Similar commands to record revelations are given to later prophets, such as in Isaiah 8:1, 30:8, Jeremiah 25:13, 30:2, 36:2, 27-32, Ezekiel 24:2,
Daniel 12:4, and Habakkuk 2:2. Though these directives apply to a portion of Scripture, they underscore that God, who forbids adding to or subtracting from His words, Deuteronomy 4:2, 12:32, Proverbs
30:6, has also extended His care to the written record of revelation.
Secondly, Moses and the prophets are acutely aware that their writings are not their own words but the Word of God. Moses is not only called to lead Israel, Exodus 3, but God speaks to him face to face, as a man speaks to his friend, Exodus 33:11, revealing His statutes and commandments. The entire body of Mosaic Law is attributed to the Lord throughout Scripture. God made known His words to Jacob and His statutes to Israel; He has done this for no other nation, Psalm 147:19-20, 103:7. Likewise, the prophets know they are called by the Lord, 1 Samuel 3, Isaiah 6, Jeremiah 1, Ezekiel
1-3, Amos 3:7-8, 7:15, and they receive their revelation from Him, Isaiah 5:9, 6:9, 22:14, 28:22, Jeremiah 1:9, 3:6, 20:7-9, Ezekiel 3:16,
26-27, Amos 3:8. Amos's assertion captures their conviction: surely the Lord God does nothing without revealing His secret to His
servants the prophets, Amos 3:7, echoing Genesis 18:17. They understand that in writing, they do not convey their own words but the Word of the Lord. As Moses wrote the laws, they introduce their prophecies with phrases such as: Thus says the Lord, or: The word of the Lord came to me, or: The vision, the word, the burden of the Lord, Isaiah 1:1, 2:1, 8:1, 13:1, Jeremiah 1:2, 4, 11, 2:1, Ezekiel 1:1, 2:1,
3:1, Daniel 7:1, Amos 1:3, 6, 9, etc.
Thirdly, there is the testimony of the New Testament. Jesus and the apostles frequently cite statements from the Old Testament under the names of Moses, Isaiah, David, and Daniel (Matt. 8:4, 15:7,
22:43, 24:15). Equally often, they employ phrases such as: "It is written" (Matt. 4:4), "The Scriptures say" (John 7:38), "God says"
(Matt. 12:26), and "The Holy Spirit says" (Heb. 3:7). By using such expressions, they demonstrate that the Scriptures of the Old
Covenant, despite being composed of various parts and authored by different individuals, constitute a unified whole with God as their ultimate author. This conviction is not merely implied but is also explicitly affirmed by Jesus and the apostles. Jesus asserts that "Scripture cannot be broken," meaning it cannot be annulled or stripped of its authority (John 10:35). He also declares that He did not come to abolish the Law and the Prophets, but to fulfill them
(Matt. 5:17, Luke 16:27). The apostle Peter refers to the prophetic word as firm and reliable, a light shining in a dark place. This is because the prophecy contained in the Scriptures was not produced by human will; rather, holy men of God spoke as they were moved by the Holy Spirit (2 Pet. 1:19-21, cf. 1 Pet. 1:10-12). Similarly, Paul affirms that the holy Scriptures, which comprise the Old Testament, can make one wise unto salvation through faith in Christ Jesus. He asserts that all Scripture is God-breathed (theopneustos) and thus
profitable for teaching, reproof, correction, and training in righteousness (2 Tim. 3:16).
Fourthly, regarding the Scriptures of the New Testament, Jesus Himself did not leave any writings. However, He chose, called, and empowered His apostles, especially after His departure from the world, to serve as His witnesses (Matt. 10:1, Mark 3:13, Luke 6:13,
9:1, John 6:70). He endowed them with special gifts and powers for this purpose (Matt. 10:1, 9, Mark 16:15ff, Acts 2:43, 5:12, Rom. 15:19,
1 Thess. 2:4), particularly with the Holy Spirit, who would remind them of all that Jesus had said and would also reveal future things to them, guiding them into all truth (John 14:26, 16:13). Thus, it is not merely the apostles themselves who testify about Christ; it is the Holy Spirit who acts in and through them as Jesus' witness (John
15:26, 27). Just as the Son came to glorify the Father (John 17:4), so the Holy Spirit comes to glorify the Son, taking from the Son all that He speaks and does (John 16:14).
The apostles were charged to bring the testimony of Christ not only to their own people and contemporaries in Jerusalem, Judea, and Samaria, but to all mankind and to the ends of the earth (Mark 16:15,
Acts 1:8). While the explicit command to write down their testimony is not directly stated, the promise made to Abraham—intended for all mankind in Christ—implies that the Gospel must be recorded, preserved for all ages, and extended to all nations. Consequently, the apostles, guided by the Holy Spirit in their missionary work, naturally took up the pen and, through the Gospels and epistles, bore witness to the fullness of grace and truth revealed in Christ. They were consciously devoted not only in their oral preaching but also in
their writings to expound the truth which God had revealed in Christ and made known to them through His Spirit.
Matthew pens the genealogy, the history of Jesus Christ, the Son of David (Matt. 1:1). Mark recounts the commencement of the Gospel with Jesus Christ, the Son of God, marking its origin from Him
(Mark 1:1). Luke, through diligent investigation and orderly narration, seeks to provide Theophilus with certainty concerning those matters fully affirmed among the faithful by the Apostolic testimony (Luke 1:1-4). John, in his Gospel, aims to instill belief that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, so that through believing, we may have life in His name (John 20:32). Similarly, in his first letter, John declares what he has seen, heard, looked upon, and handled of the Word of life, that we might have fellowship with the Apostles, and thereby, fellowship with the Father and His Son, Jesus Christ (1 John
1:1-3). Paul, fully convinced of his Apostolic calling by Jesus Christ Himself (Gal. 1:1), asserts that he received his Gospel through revelation (Gal. 1:12, Eph. 3:2-8, 1 Tim. 1:12), and proclaims that he preaches the Word of God both orally and by letter (1 Thess. 2:13, 2
Thess. 2:15, 3:14, 1 Cor. 2:4, 10-13, 2 Cor. 2:17). He sternly declares that anyone who preaches another gospel is accursed (Gal. 1:8). Just as all the apostles tied the eternal fate of humanity to the reception or rejection of their word, John, in the final chapter of Revelation, pronounces severe judgment upon anyone who adds to or subtracts from the prophecy of this book (Rev. 22:18-19).
The unique activity of the Holy Spirit, through which the recording of revelation was accomplished, is termed inspiration (2 Tim. 3:16).
This concept is elucidated through comparisons with natural phenomena and further scriptural explanations. In general, humans
are capable of receiving thoughts from others and being guided in their thinking by them; all education, instruction, knowledge, and science are grounded in this capability.
Typically, this communication occurs through signs, gestures, spoken, or written words, which we consciously and intentionally incorporate into our minds, often with significant effort. However, phenomena such as hypnotism and suggestion demonstrate that ideas and thoughts can be introduced into our consciousness and imposed upon our will and actions without our effort. In such cases, individuals can be reduced to mindless tools, merely executing the commands of another (the hypnotist). Scripture and experience attest that humans are similarly susceptible to the influence and effects of evil spirits, speaking and acting under their control, as seen when the evil spirit, through the possessed person, recognizes Jesus as the Holy One of God (Mark
1:24).
Another phenomenon shedding light on the Holy Spirit's inspiration is the inspiration observed among artists. Great thinkers and poets often experience their best and most beautiful works as not resulting from their efforts, but as thoughts suddenly occurring to them. Such experiences do not negate prior research and thought; rather, genius and inspiration complement effort and diligence.
Yet, although diligent study is often an essential precursor to such profound experiences, they do not necessarily arise as the logical culmination or mature outcome of such efforts. There remains a mysterious and incalculable force at work in genius. Nietzsche, in a letter to his sister, described this phenomenon: "You cannot comprehend the violence of such creations; one is full of passionate enthusiasm, rapture, and tension. One hears and sees nothing, one
takes. The thought strikes like lightning. Everything happens involuntarily to the highest degree, as if in a storm of feeling of freedom, of independence, of power, of divinity; that is my experience of inspiration."
If such phenomena are already present in the ordinary lives of humans or artists, then all objections to the possibility of God's influence upon the thoughts and will of His creatures must be laid to rest. God's Spirit resides in all created things (Genesis 1:3, Ps. 33:6,
Ps. 104:30) and particularly in humans, who are enlivened by the breath of the Almighty (Job 33:4, Ps. 139:1-16). "In Him we live, move, and have our being" (Acts 17:28). Even human thought, will, and action—though tainted by sin—remain under God's dominion; nothing transpires outside His foreknowledge and counsel (Eph.
1:11). "The king's heart is in the hand of the Lord; he directs it like a watercourse wherever he pleases" (Prov. 21:1). He weighs the hearts and considers all man's ways (Prov. 5:21, 16:9, 19:21, 21:2).
In a more intimate manner, God's Spirit dwells within His children; it is by this Spirit that they confess Christ as Lord (1 Cor. 12:3), know the things freely given to them by God (1 Cor. 2:12, 1 John 2:20, 3:24,
4:6-13), are endowed with gifts of wisdom and knowledge (1 Cor.
12:8), and are energized both to will and to act according to His good pleasure (Phil. 2:13).
These workings of the Spirit in the world and in the church differ from the inspiration granted to the prophets and apostles, but they can help to elucidate the latter. If the Spirit of God indeed dwells and works within all creation, and if that same Spirit dwells especially within God's children, then there is no rational basis for deeming the
particular activity known as inspiration impossible or improbable.
Yet it is crucial to understand the distinction between the Spirit's general working in the world and the church and His specific inspiration of the prophets and apostles. This distinction becomes clear when comparing Romans 8:14 with 2 Peter 1:21. In the former,
Paul asserts that all who are led by the Spirit of God are children of God. In the latter, Peter explains that holy men of God, the prophets, were carried along by the Holy Spirit and thus delivered prophecy.
The Spirit's guidance of believers involves enlightening the mind and guiding and controlling the will and affections, thereby enabling them to know, desire, and perform what pleases God. Conversely, the inspiration given to prophets and apostles was a unique impetus, compelling them to reveal God's counsel to humanity.
The nature of this inspiration is further elucidated by the formula frequently employed: what is written in the Old Testament was spoken by the Lord through the prophet (Matt. 1:22, 2:15, 17, 23, 3:3,
4:14). In Greek, the preposition used with "the Lord" indicates Him as the origin of what is spoken; the preposition used with "the prophets" indicates that they are the means, the instruments through which God has spoken. This is even more evident when it is said that God spoke through the mouth of His prophets (Luke 1:70, Acts 1:16,
3:18, 4:25). Thus, Scripture teaches us that God or His Spirit is the actual author or speaker of His word, while the prophets and apostles served as His instruments.
We would, however, greatly misunderstand Scripture if we were to infer from this notion that the prophets and apostles were mere instruments devoid of consciousness or will, serving only as passive conduits in the hand of the Holy Spirit. God always honors His own
creation and never treats His rational creatures as if they were insensible beings. The Scriptures strongly contradict this mechanical conception of inspiration. Although the prophets were moved by the Holy Spirit, they themselves spoke (2 Pet. 1:21). The words they wrote are repeatedly cited as their own words, such as in Matt.
22:43, 45, John 1:23, 5:46, Rom. 10:20, etc. In receiving and recording the revelation, they remained fully conscious and engaged.
Their own activity was not suppressed but elevated, strengthened, and purified by the impulse of the Spirit. They diligently investigated, as Luke mentions (Luke 1:3), they thought and acted with awareness, and they were not afraid to act. They reflected on and remembered past revelations (John 14:26), used historical sources (Num. 21:14, John 10:13), and found inspiration in their own experiences, as the psalmists did for their songs. In all the writings comprising the Bible, the distinct personalities, development, education, language, and style of the various authors are evident. The study of Scripture reveals not only the one word of God but also the unique characteristics of its human writers. What a difference exists between the books of Kings and Chronicles, between Isaiah and Jeremiah, between Matthew and Luke, between John, Peter, and Paul!
Here again, as in all God's works, diversity emerges from unity and unity from diversity. When God spoke through the prophets and apostles, He employed their entire personalities, which He had shaped Himself, making them the self-conscious and self-operating instruments of His inspiration. This inspiration, therefore, bore no mechanical, but an organic character.
In this view of inspiration, we can fully appreciate the human aspect of Scripture. The Bible did not descend from the sky all at once but came into being gradually. The Old Testament, as we use it, contains thirty-nine books: five books of law, twelve historical books (Joshua to Esther), five poetical books (Job to Song of Songs), and seventeen prophetic books. This order is not chronological; for instance, many historical books like Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther are of much later date than many poetic and prophetic books, and among the prophetic books, some shorter ones like Joel, Obadiah, Amos, and Hosea are older than the larger books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. The order groups similar books together. The genesis of all these books occurred gradually over many centuries, under varied circumstances, through the labors of diverse men.
In theology, a special discipline investigates the circumstances under which a certain book of the Bible was written, by whom, and to whom it was addressed. Because of the misuse of this discipline, it has acquired an unfavorable reputation, and it is often said that the critics have "torn out page after page from the Bible." But misuse does not negate the proper use. For a proper understanding of Scripture as a whole and of each of its parts, it is crucial to know precisely how it came into being over time and under what circumstances each book was written. This knowledge ultimately benefits the interpretation of the Word of God. It teaches us that the inspiration of God's Spirit profoundly influenced the lives and thoughts of His holy men.
For centuries, up to the time of Moses, there existed no Scripture, no penned Word of God, or at least no record of such is known to us. It is entirely plausible, however, that even before Moses, some records
of significant words or events pivotal to the history of special revelation might have been documented and later incorporated into his books.
This suggestion might once have been dismissed as fanciful, owing to a belief that the art of writing had not been discovered by the time of Moses. Yet, contemporary discoveries in Babylon and Egypt have enlightened us greatly, revealing that the art of writing was not only known but also extensively utilized long before Moses. We are aware of historical and legal documents written centuries before him, supporting the notion that Moses could have employed older written sources to compose his narratives and laws. The account in Genesis
14, for instance, might well derive from such a written tradition.
Despite these possibilities, we possess no definitive evidence of written scriptures prior to Moses. Nonetheless, this does not imply an absence of the Word of God since special revelation commenced immediately post-fall, thereby establishing a canon—a rule of faith and life. Humanity has always been endowed not only with the general revelation of God through nature and conscience but also with His special revelation through word and deed. Initially, this
Word of God was transmitted orally from one generation to the next within families. In an era when human society was smaller, life spans longer, and familial and ancestral respect profoundly more significant than today, such oral tradition sufficed for preserving and transmitting God's Word purely.
However, as humanity grew and diverged into various forms of idolatry and superstition, mere oral tradition became inadequate.
Thus, with Moses, we see the advent of the written Word of God.
While it is plausible that Moses might have utilized existing documents, which he then compiled and edited—since direct references to Moses' own writings are sparse within the Pentateuch— this remains speculative. But it is conceivable that parts of the Pentateuch predated Moses or were subsequently edited and expanded upon either by him, under his directive, or by others posthumously. This was widely accepted regarding the description of Moses' death in Deuteronomy 34, and considering additions such as those in Genesis 12:6, 13:7, and 36:31, this view could extend to other sections as well.
Such potential origins detract not from the Divine authority of these texts. Scripture repeatedly refers to the law or the book of Moses
(e.g., 1 Kings 2:3, 2 Kings 14:6, Malachi 4:4, Mark 12:26, Luke 24:27, 44, John 5:46, 47) even if some passages might have been derived from other sources, dictated by Moses' assistants, or later revised in his doctrinal spirit by subsequent writers. Similarly, Paul often dictated his epistles, evident in passages like 1 Corinthians 16:21.
And the Psalms, while traditionally attributed to David as he founded the psalmody, include works by other authors, emphasizing that a collection's association with a foundational figure does not necessitate his authorship of every part.
On the foundation of Mosaic legislation—that is, the covenant God established with the patriarchs, reaffirmed with Israel at Sinai, and inscribed in the Law of Moses—there emerged, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, three distinct kinds of sacred literature in the history of Israel: prophecy, psalmody, and wisdom literature. These divine gifts of the Holy Spirit complemented the natural endowments of the Semitic race and especially the people of Israel. They transcended
these natural gifts, being consecrated to the service of the Kingdom of God and intended for the edification of humanity at large.
Prophecy commenced even with Abraham, as evidenced in Genesis 18:17, 20:7, Amos 3:7, and Psalm 105:15, continued with Jacob
(Genesis 49), Moses (Numbers 11:25, Deuteronomy 18:18, 34:10, Hosea 12:14), and Miriam (Exodus 15:20, Numbers 12:2). However, it particularly flourished through and after Samuel, persisting throughout Israel's history until long after the exile. The Hebrew Old
Testament divides the books of the prophets into two major groups: the "former" and the "latter" prophets. The "former" prophets include the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings. These books are so named because they were authored by prophets and document the activities of earlier prophets.
Thus, there were many more prophets in Israel beyond the four major prophets and the twelve minor prophets whose books are preserved in our Bible. The aforementioned historical books are replete with the names of prophets, detailing their actions at length.
They recount the lives of Deborah, Samuel, Gad, Nathan, Ahijah, Shemaiah, Azariah, Hanani, Jehu son of Hanani, Elijah, Elisha,
Huldah, Zechariah (the first martyr among the prophets of Judah), and numerous others, some unnamed (e.g., 2 Chronicles 25). Of these prophets, none left scriptural records that have survived to us.
There is even mention of prophetic schools (1 Samuel 10:5-12, 19:1920; 2 Kings 2:3, 5; 4:38-43; 6:1), where many sons or disciples of the prophets engaged in spiritual exercises and theocratic labor. These schools likely contributed to the prophetic historiography preserved in the books of Joshua, Judges, and others. Particularly in the books
of Chronicles, historical writings by prophets are mentioned multiple times (1 Chronicles 29:29; 2 Chronicles 9:29; 20:34, etc.).
The prophets whose activities are chronicled in the historical books are often referred to today as prophets of action, to distinguish them from the later writing prophets. This distinction, while not incorrect, must be understood in the context that all prophets, whether early or later, were prophets of the word. They all spoke and bore witness; their Hebrew name, nabi, likely indicates this (Exodus 4:16, 7:1). The fundamental aspects of prophetic preaching are already evident in the testimonies of the earliest prophets. However, the prophets of the earlier period differed from the later ones in two main respects:
First, their focus was confined to the internal affairs of the people of Israel, excluding other nations from their purview. Second, they concentrated more on the present than the future, with their exhortations and warnings often aimed at immediate, practical concerns. This period, which spanned the reigns of David and Solomon and continued for some time thereafter, was characterized by the hope that Israel would adhere to God's covenant and walk in His ways.
In the ninth century B.C., when Israel began to entangle itself in foreign politics and, forsaking its unique calling and destiny, succumbed to external influences, the prophets shifted their gaze to the nations surrounding Israel. They no longer anticipated the complete fulfillment of God's promises in the current apostate age but looked forward to a Messianic future orchestrated by God
Himself. Positioned on their watchtowers, these prophets surveyed the breadth and length of the earth. They interpreted the signs of the times not through their own wisdom but by the illumination of the
Holy Spirit (1 Pet. 1:4, 2 Pet. 1:20-21), testing all circumstances within Israel's religious, moral, political, and social spheres, as well as its interactions with other nations such as Edom, Moab, Asshur,
Chaldaea, and Egypt, against the central covenant that Jehovah maintained with His people. In this way, each prophet, according to his own nature and era, proclaimed the unalterable word of God.
They exposed Israel's sins and declared God's impending judgments, offered comfort with the assurance of His steadfast covenant and the promise of forgiveness, and directed all eyes to the joyous future when God, through a king from David's house, would extend His dominion over Israel and all nations.
This prophetic word thus acquired a significance that transcended the immediate present. It was no longer confined to ancient Israel but contained a universal scope, pointing towards fulfillment in the entirety of humanity. Beginning in the ninth century B.C., from the times of Joel or Obadiah, prophets began committing their oracles to writing, sometimes at God's explicit command (Isa. 8:1, Hab. 2:2,
Isa. 30:8), with the clear intention that these words endure until the last day, to be validated by future generations (Isa. 34:16).
Parallel to prophecy runs psalmody, which also dates back to ancient times. Song and music were beloved in Israel (1 Sam. 18:7, 2 Sam.
19:35, Am. 6:5). Historical books preserve various songs on diverse subjects: the song of the sword (Gen. 4:23-24), the song of the well
(Num. 21:17-18), the song of the conquest of Hesbon (Num. 21:2730), the song of the crossing of the Red Sea (Ex. 15), the song of Moses (Deut. 32), the song of Deborah (Judges 5), the song of Hannah (1 Sam. 2), David's lament for Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. 1), and his lament for Abner (2 Sam. 3:33-34). The Book of the
Righteous, referenced in Joshua 10:13 and 2 Samuel 1:18, likely contained many songs. Additionally, numerous songs are found within the prophetic writings, such as the song of the vineyard (Isa.
5), the song of mockery for the fallen king of Babylon (Isa. 14), the psalm of Hezekiah (Isa. 38:9ff), Jonah's prayer (Jonah 2), and the hymn of Habakkuk.
Many of these songs closely relate to the psalms and often blend seamlessly with them. There exists an intimate connection between prophecy and psalmody, even reflected in their forms; both are born from the powerful inspiration of the Holy Spirit, encompass the whole world of nature and history, view all things in the light of God's word, aim to proclaim the Messianic kingdom, and employ the language and form of poetry. When the psalmist is granted insight into God's counsels, he becomes a seer; when the prophet renews his spirit with God's promises, he adopts the tone of the psalms (1
Chron. 25:1-3). Asaph is called a seer (2 Chron. 29:30), and David is referred to as a prophet (Acts 2:30).
Yet there remains a distinction. The psalmody was nurtured by the aforementioned songs, notably the song of Miriam (Exod. 15), the song of Moses (Deut. 32), and the psalm of Moses (Ps. 90). However, it reached its zenith in David, the beloved psalmist of Israel (2 Sam.
23:1), following the revival of the service of Jehovah under Samuel.
Davidic psalmody set the foundational forms for subsequent psalmody under Solomon, Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and during and after the exile. In the superscription of Ps. 72, the psalms of David are collectively referred to as "prayers," indicating their fundamental nature.
Though psalms vary—being hymns of praise and thanksgiving, laments, or supplications—they are invariably
characterized by a prayerful disposition. While prophecy often involves the Spirit overpowering an individual, the same Spirit leads the psalmist into the depths of personal soul experiences. The psalmist's state of mind, shaped by the Spirit of the Lord, forms the basis of his song.
David's status as the "sweet singer of Israel" is deeply rooted in his character and rich life experiences. His emotional states— encompassing sadness, fear, temptation, persecution, and resurrection—serve as the strings upon which God's objective words and deeds play their melodies. The harmony achieved between God's objective revelation and His subjective guidance is expressed in the psalmist's song, sung in God's presence and to His glory, inviting all creatures to join in His praise until heaven and earth unite in song.
The Psalms thus become timeless expressions of the deepest soul experiences in connection with God's revelation in Christ. They were not only spoken by the psalmists but also inscribed, becoming the prayers of the congregation throughout the ages.
Alongside prophecy and psalmody stands "chokmah," the wisdom literature. This wisdom, rooted in natural gifts, is exemplified by Jotham's fable (Judges 9:7), Samson's riddle (Judges 14:14),
Nathan's parable (2 Sam. 12), and the counsel of the wise woman of Tekoa (2 Sam. 14). However, it attained its sanctified character primarily through Solomon (1 Kings 4:29-34, Prov. 10-22, 25-29), continuing in the Proverbs of other sages (Prov. 22:17, 30-31) and in the books of Job, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs, extending well beyond the exile. Prophecy unfolds God's counsel in Israel's and the nations' history; psalmody interprets the spiritual resonance of this divine counsel in the devout soul; wisdom literature (chokmah)
relates divine counsel to practical life. This wisdom literature, grounded in the divine revelation that the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom (Prov. 1:7), applies revelation to daily life— husband and wife, parents and children, friendship, business, and social interactions. While it does not reach the prophetic heights or descend into the depths of psalmody, it addresses the vicissitudes of life, providing faith in the justice of God's providence, thus acquiring universal human significance and being preserved in Scripture for all time under the guidance of the Spirit.
Revelation—the Law, the counsel of God, initially encapsulated in the books of Moses—is brought to completion in the Old Testament through the preaching of the prophet, the song of the psalmist, and the wisdom of the sage. The prophet serves as the head, the psalmist as the heart, and the sage as the hand.
In the Old Covenant, the prophetic, priestly, and royal ministries executed their divine mandate for Israel and for mankind. In Christ, this invaluable treasure of sacred literature has become the common inheritance of the entire world.
As the fulfillment accords with the promise, so the Scriptures of the New Testament harmonize with those of the Old Covenant. Each is incomplete without the other; the Old Testament is fully revealed in the New, and the New Testament is already enfolded in the Old by its core and essence. They relate to each other as pedestal to statue, lock to key, shadow to body. The names Old and New Testament initially denoted the two dispensations of the covenant of grace, granted by God to His people before and after Christ, as seen in Jeremiah
31:31ff, 2 Corinthians 3:6ff, Hebrews 8:6ff. Over time, these terms
were extended to the scriptures that describe and account for these two covenantal dispensations. In Exodus 24:7, the law, which proclaimed God's covenant with Israel, was already termed the book of the covenant, cf. 2 Kings 23:2, and Paul in 2 Corinthians 3:14 refers to a reading of the Old Testament, meaning the books of the Old Covenant. Following these examples, the word Testament gradually came to refer to the writings or books contained in the Bible, which elucidate the old and new dispensations of grace.
The New Testament, like the Old, is comprised of multiple books: five historical (the four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles), twentyone doctrinal (the Epistles of the Apostles), and one prophetic book
(the Revelation of John). Yet, while the thirty-nine books of the Old Testament were composed over more than a thousand years, the twenty-seven books of the New Testament were all written within the latter half of the first century A.D.
The Gospels hold the first place in the New Testament, a precedence of substance rather than chronology. Although many of the Apostolic
Epistles are older, the Gospels stand foremost because they address the person and work of Christ, forming the foundation for all subsequent apostolic endeavors. The term Gospel originally signified a pleasant, joyful message; by the New Testament era, it specifically referred to the joyful message proclaimed by Jesus the Christ, as noted in Mark. Later ecclesiastical writers like Ignatius and Justin extended this term to the books or writings that contained that joyful message of Christ.
Four such Gospels are positioned at the forefront of our New Testament. However, these four writings do not present four distinct
gospels or glad tidings, for there is but one Gospel, the Gospel of Jesus Christ, as affirmed in Mark 1:1 and Galatians 1:6-8. This one
Gospel, this singular glad tidings of salvation, is depicted in four distinct narratives, by four distinct authors, from four distinct perspectives. This concept is reflected in the headings above our
Gospels. They are identified as the one Gospel, but according to the four distinct descriptions of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. This phrasing does not suggest that our four Gospels were not genuinely written by these four men, but rather emphasizes that in the four
Gospels, the one Gospel, the one portrait of the person and work of Christ, is rendered from different vantage points. Thus, the early church likened the four Evangelists to the four cherubim in Revelation 4:7: Matthew with the man, Mark with the lion, Luke with the ox, and John with the eagle. For the first Evangelist depicted
Christ in His humanity, the second in His prophetic office, the third in His priestly role, and the fourth in His divinity.
Matthew, also known as Levi the tax collector, was chosen by Christ to join the ranks of the apostles, as noted in Matthew 9:9 and Mark
2:14. According to the early church father Irenaeus, Matthew initially composed his Gospel in Aramaic, targeting the Jewish Christians in Palestine around 62 A.D. His aim was to demonstrate that Jesus was indeed the Christ, fulfilling all the prophecies of the Old Testament, as declared in Matthew 1:1.
Mark, the son of Mary (Acts 12:12), likely had his residence in Jerusalem. Initially a companion of Paul and later of Peter (1 Peter
5:13), tradition holds that the Christians in Rome urged him to recount the origins of the Gospel through Jesus Christ. Mark, being intimately acquainted with these events due to his time in Jerusalem
and his close association with Peter, likely penned his Gospel in Rome between 64 and 67 A.D., encapsulating this knowledge in his narrative (Mark 1:1).
Luke, affectionately referred to as the beloved physician by Paul (Colossians 4:14), is thought to have hailed from Antioch, becoming an early member of the church there around 40 A.D. He accompanied and collaborated with Paul, remaining steadfastly loyal to him until the end (2 Timothy 4:11). Luke authored a historical account, not only of Christ's life and ministry in his Gospel but also of the early spread of the Gospel across Palestine, Asia Minor,
Greece, and Rome in the Acts of the Apostles, dedicating these works to a certain Theophilus, a man of notable standing who showed great interest in the Gospel. These writings were likely completed between 70 and 75 A.D.
The first three Gospels—Matthew, Mark, and Luke—share a close relationship, preserving the tradition upheld by the initial disciples concerning Jesus' teachings and life. The fourth Gospel, however, stands apart in its character. John, the beloved disciple of Jesus, remained in Jerusalem after Christ's ascension and, along with James and Peter, was regarded as one of the pillars of the early church (Galatians 2:9). Eventually, John left Jerusalem and, towards the end of his life, settled in Ephesus, succeeding Paul. During the reign of Emperor Domitian around 95-96 A.D., John was exiled to the island of Patmos, where he later died a martyr around 100 A.D.
John did not engage prominently in missionary endeavors or in founding new churches. His primary concern was preserving the existing churches in the pure knowledge of the truth. By the end of
the first century, the church's context had shifted. The early conflicts regarding the relationship between the Christian community and Judaism, particularly concerning the Law and circumcision, had subsided. The church, having established its independence from Judaism, was increasingly interacting with the Greco-Roman world and encountering emerging ideologies, notably early Gnosticism.
John's purpose in his later writings, dating from 80 to 95 A.D., was to guide the church through these anti-Christian threats, particularly those denying the incarnation of the Word (1 John 2:22, 4:3). In contrast to these heretical views, John elaborated on the full reality of Christ as the Word made flesh. His Gospel underscores that Christ embodied this reality during His earthly ministry; his Epistles affirm that Christ continues to be such within the church; and Revelation proclaims that Christ will remain so in the future.
All these New Testament writings, thus far discussed, have come into being under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. This is equally true for the other epistles penned by Paul and Peter, as well as those by James and Jude. Following Jesus' ascension and the subsequent persecution of the Jerusalem congregation, the apostles went forth to preach the Gospel to both Jews and Gentiles, yet they did not sever their fellowship and interaction with the congregations that had sprung up through their ministry.
They received both oral and written reports concerning the spiritual state of these congregations, took a profound interest in their wellbeing, and felt the weight of the care of all the churches upon their apostolic hearts, as Paul testifies in 2 Corinthians 11:28. They felt compelled, therefore, to visit these congregations whenever possible
or to address their needs through letters, offering admonition, comfort, warning, or encouragement, thereby further instructing them in the truths of godliness.
Like all their apostolic endeavors, this written work—integral to their ministry—had a foundational character. The Gospels and Epistles of the Apostles, akin to the writings of the prophets, though prompted by specific occasions, transcend the immediate and local concerns of their initial audiences. They speak to the church universal and for all ages.
Every Scripture, despite its historical context, is, as St. Augustine aptly described, a letter sent by God from heaven to His congregation on earth. Far from diminishing the divine nature of Scripture, historical inquiry into the origins of the biblical books, when conducted properly, reveals the marvelous means by which God has fashioned this masterpiece.
This investigation into the origins of the biblical books is but the beginning of the study of Scripture. A whole array of sciences has gradually developed around Scripture, all aimed at attaining a deeper understanding of its meaning and message. It is necessary here to make some observations about these sciences.
Firstly, the various books of the Bible did not only come into existence individually; they were also gathered and compiled into a canon—a definitive list or collection of writings that serve as the rule of faith and life. This process of collection had already begun with some books of the Bible; for instance, the Psalms and the Proverbs were composed by different authors and later compiled into one volume. The same process occurred later with all the books of the
Bible. This compilation should not be misconstrued to suggest that the Church created the canon or conferred canonical authority upon the writings of the prophets and apostles. From the moment these writings were penned, they possessed authority within the Church, serving as the rule of faith and life. The Word of God, whether unwritten or written, derives its authority not from men or the faithful, but from God, who Himself oversees it and brings it to recognition.
But when, in the fullness of time, the number of prophetic and apostolic writings increased, and other writings began to emerge that did not originate from true prophets or apostles but were falsely attributed to them, it became necessary for the Church to discern the genuine, canonical books from the spurious, apocryphal, or pseudepigraphical writings. This discernment was undertaken both for the books of the Old Testament before the coming of Christ and for the writings of the New Covenant in the fourth century after Christ. A specialized field of study emerged, meticulously examining these matters to illuminate the canonicity of the Scriptures.
Secondly, it is a solemn truth that the original manuscripts penned by the prophets and apostles themselves have all perished. What we possess now are merely copies. The oldest extant copies of the Old
Testament date back to the ninth and tenth centuries, while those of the New Testament date to the fourth and fifth centuries. Between the original autographs and these extant copies lie many centuries during which the text has undergone a history of transmission, often subject to minor or significant variations.
For instance, the original Hebrew manuscripts lacked vowel points, punctuation marks, and inscriptions; these were only added in subsequent centuries. The chapter divisions as we know them today were introduced in the early thirteenth century, and the division into verses appeared in the mid-sixteenth century. Therefore, there exists a necessary science devoted to establishing the original text using every available means, which then serves as the foundation for sound exegesis.
Thirdly, the Scriptures were originally written in Hebrew for the Old Testament and Greek for the New Testament. As soon as the Bible was disseminated among peoples unfamiliar with these languages, the need for translation arose. By the third century B.C., a translation of the Old Testament into Greek had begun, known as the Septuagint. Subsequently, translations of both the Old and New
Testaments continued into many ancient and later into modern languages. Following the resurgence of missionary activity among the Gentiles in the nineteenth century, this work was fervently renewed, resulting in the Scriptures being translated, in whole or in part, into nearly four hundred languages. The study of these translations, especially the ancient ones, is crucial for the correct understanding of the Scriptures, as every translation inherently involves interpretation.
Fourthly, from the days of the Jewish people to the present age, and not least in our own time, an immense amount of care and effort has been dedicated to the exposition of the Scriptures. While it is true that every heretic finds support for his views and many interpretations reflect personal biases, the history of biblical exegesis reveals a remarkable progress, with each century contributing its
own insights. Ultimately, it is God Himself who, through all human errors and wanderings, sustains His Word and makes His thoughts prevail over the wisdom of the world.
Study Questions for Reflection 1. How does the distinction between revelation and Scripture help us understand the purpose and nature of the Bible?
Reflect on the significance of revelation preceding its written account and how this affects our view of Scripture as the record of God's revelation.
2. What are the implications of viewing Scripture as not just a human record but the very Word of God?
Consider how this understanding influences our approach to reading, interpreting, and applying the Bible in our lives.
3. Why did God instruct prophets and apostles to write down His revelations, and what purpose does the written word serve?
Discuss the advantages of the written word over oral tradition in preserving and spreading God's revelation.
4. In what ways did the prophets and apostles demonstrate their awareness that their writings were the Word of God?
Reflect on specific examples from Scripture where prophets and apostles acknowledged the divine origin of their messages.
5. How do Jesus and the apostles in the New Testament affirm the authority and unity of the Old Testament Scriptures?
Analyze the ways in which Jesus and the apostles referenced and interpreted the Old Testament as the authoritative Word of God.
6. What role did the Holy Spirit play in the inspiration and writing of the New Testament Scriptures?
Consider the significance of the Holy Spirit's guidance in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the apostolic writings.
7. How does the concept of inspiration relate to the unique contributions of the human authors of the Bible?
Discuss how the distinct personalities, styles, and experiences of the biblical authors were used by God in the process of inspiration.
8. Why is it important to understand the historical context and development of the biblical canon?
Reflect on how knowledge of the canon's formation aids in our appreciation of the Bible's authority and coherence.
9. What challenges and methods are involved in establishing the original text of the Scriptures from existing copies?
Explore the significance of textual criticism and the efforts to preserve the integrity of the biblical text.