8. Scripture and Confession
10 . How have translations and interpretations of the Bible impacted its accessibility and understanding across different cultures and languages?
Consider the importance of translations and the role of biblical exegesis in making Scripture understandable and relevant to diverse audiences.
8. Scripture and Confession In the era of the apostles and the subsequent generations, myriad disputes arose regarding the essence of Christianity and its relationship to both Judaism and paganism. Yet, it is profoundly remarkable to witness the unanimity with which the Scriptures were universally acknowledged as the Word of God throughout the Christian Church.
This acknowledgment pertains primarily to the Old Testament. In the teachings of Jesus and the apostles, continual references and appeals were made to these Scriptures. Naturally and seamlessly, the authority of the Old Testament transitioned from the Jewish synagogue to the Christian ecclesia through the ministry of Jesus and the apostles. The Gospel carried the Old Testament with it, and it could not be received or recognized independently. The Gospel is the fulfillment of the promises of the Old Testament, without which it
would be devoid of foundation, and the Old Testament serves as the bedrock upon which the Gospel stands, the root from which it has sprung. Whenever the Gospel was embraced in any place, the Scriptures of the Old Testament were concurrently accepted as the Word of God, without dissent or contradiction. Hence, the New
Testament Church has never existed without a Bible; from its inception, it possessed the Law, the Psalms, and the Prophets.
Soon, the apostolic writings were appended to these Scriptures.
Some of these writings, such as the Gospels and the General Epistles, were intended for the universal Church; others, like various Epistles, were addressed to specific congregations in cities like Rome, Corinth, and Colossae.
It is evident that these writings, originating from apostles and apostolic men, were held in high regard from the outset by Christian congregations. They were read in assemblies and circulated to other congregations for communal reading. The apostle Paul himself urged that the epistle he wrote to the Colossians be read in the church at Laodicea and that the Colossians also familiarize themselves with the letter he wrote from Laodicea, likely referring to the letter to the Ephesians (Col. 4:16). In 2 Peter 3:15-16, Peter not only mentions a letter received from Paul but also references other epistles by Paul, which echo the doctrine Peter himself espouses, though they contain complexities that the unlearned and unstable might distort. While this does not imply that a complete collection of Paul's letters existed at that time, it clearly indicates that Paul's writings were widely known beyond the local congregations to which they were specifically addressed. In those early days, the churches primarily derived their
understanding of the Gospel from the oral teachings of the apostles and their emissaries.
But when the apostles and their immediate successors passed from this life, and their preaching ceased, the value of the apostolic writings naturally increased. From testimonies around the middle of the second century, we learn that the Gospels, and later the Epistles, were regularly read in the assembly of the faithful, quoted as authoritative proof of various truths, and were esteemed on par with the writings of the Old Testament. By the end of the second century, the writings of the New Testament, together with those of the Old
Testament, were regarded as "the whole Scripture," "the foundation and pillar of our faith," and as the Scriptures regularly read in religious assemblies (Irenaeus, Clemens Alexandrinus, Tertullianus).
There was prolonged debate about whether certain writings (Hebrews, James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Revelation of John,
Epistle of Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermas, etc.) should be included among the Holy Scriptures. Yet, clarity and unanimity gradually emerged. The universally recognized writings were collected under the name of the canon (rule of truth or faith), and at the synods of Laodicea in 360, Hippo Regius in 393, and Carthage in 397, they were formally listed and established as such.
These Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments constitute the foundation of prophets and apostles, upon which all Christian churches, in communion with one another, position themselves, or at least claim to do so. Every church has officially acknowledged the divine authority of these Scriptures in their confessions and accepted them as a reliable rule of faith and life. This dogma has never been a matter of contention or dispute among Christian churches; the
challenges to Scripture as the Word of God have traditionally come from outside, such as from heathen philosophers like Celsus and Porphyry in the second century, and only began to arise within Christendom in the eighteenth century.
However, the church has not received this Scripture from God to rest idly upon it, much less to bury this treasure in the ground. On the contrary, it is called to preserve, interpret, proclaim, apply, translate, disseminate, praise, and defend this Word of God; in essence, to make the thoughts of God, as contained in the Scriptures, prevail over the thoughts of men everywhere and at all times. All the activity to which the congregation is called is a labor on and a ministry of the Word of God. It is the ministry of the Word of God when it is preached, declared, and applied in the assembly of the faithful, when it is dispensed in the signs of the covenant and enforced in the discipline. But the service of the Word in a broader sense also entails its application, elaboration, and dominion in one's own heart and life, in profession and business, in home and workplace, in science and art, in state and society, in works of mercy and mission, in all aspects and directions of life. The church must be a pillar and firm ground of the truth (1 Tim. 3:15), that is, a pillar and foundation that upholds the truth, not in itself—for the truth rests in God—but that upholds, maintains, and confirms the truth here on earth before the world. If the Church neglects this duty, it forfeits its calling and undermines its own existence.
As soon as the church begins to fulfill its calling, however, differences of opinion about the meaning of God's Word inevitably arise. Though the Holy Spirit has been promised and given to the church as a guide into all truth, neither the church as a whole nor its particular
members are endowed with the gift of infallibility. Already in the apostolic congregations, various errors emerged, originating either from Judaism or Paganism. Throughout the centuries, these have been the two pitfalls perpetually threatening the congregation, which it must avoid with utmost vigilance and prudence.
In the face of these errors, both from the right and the left, the church of Christ is compelled to declare resolutely and clearly the truth entrusted to it by God in His Word. The church does this by convening in smaller and larger assemblies (synods) and there determining what, in one matter or another, it is convinced is the divine truth and thus the doctrine of the church. The truth laid down in Scripture naturally leads to a confession by everyone who believes and embraces it. Confession is the calling of all believers and also the impulse of their hearts; whoever truly believes, with all his heart and soul, cannot but confess, that is, testify to the truth that has set him free, and to the hope that has been planted in his heart by that truth.
Every believer and every congregation, as they bear the witness of the Holy Spirit within them, testify that God's Word is the truth. As error assumes subtler forms, the congregation must, with increasing diligence, account for the content of the truth it professes, and express in clear and unambiguous terms what it believes. Thus, oral confession necessarily evolves into written confession (symbol, confession).
There have been objections from various quarters against the drafting and handing down of such ecclesiastical confessions. The Remonstrants in this country, for instance, argued that a confession contradicted the exclusive authority of the Holy Scriptures, deprived the conscience of its freedom, and hindered the growth of
knowledge. But these objections stem from misunderstanding; the confessions do not diminish the Scriptures but uphold them and safeguard them against individual arbitrariness; they do not violate but support the freedom of conscience against all kinds of erroneous spirits, who seek to mislead weak and ignorant souls; and they do not impede the development of knowledge but preserve and direct it on the right path, and they can always be legitimately examined and revised in light of the Scriptures as the only rule of faith.
The Apostles' Creed (the 12 Articles) is the oldest symbol. Although it was not composed by the apostles, it originated at the beginning of the second century, developing from the Trinitarian baptismal commandment given by Christ Himself, Matt. 28:19. Originally, it was somewhat shorter than it is today, but the fundamental structure was the same; it was a brief enumeration of the great facts on which Christianity rests, and as such, it remains the common basis and the indissoluble bond of all Christendom. To this apostolic symbol should be added four other confessions of an ecumenical (general) character, which are adopted by many churches: the confession of the Council at Nicea in 325; the confession which, in Article 9 of our
Dutch Confession of Faith, is referred to as the Nicene Creed, but which, although it incorporates the Nicene Creed, expands upon it and only came into being somewhat later; next, the creed of the Council of Chalcedon in 451; and finally, the creed of Athanasius, which is mistakenly attributed to him, and which is also accepted as a symbol in Article 9 of the Confession of the Netherlands.
In all these creeds, the doctrine of Christ and the Trinity is expounded. This was the focal point of the great controversies in the early centuries. "What do you think of the Christ?" That was the
paramount question the congregation had to answer for itself and to the entire world, grounded in the Word of the Lord.
On the Jewish side, there were those willing to acknowledge Jesus as a man, sent by God, endowed with extraordinary gifts, animated by the prophetic spirit, powerful in words and deeds, yet no more than a man. On the Pagan side, some viewed Jesus as a son of the gods, a divine manifestation who descended from heaven, much like the angels in the Old Testament, appearing on earth briefly and taking on a semblance of a body; but they refused to confess Him as the only begotten of the Father, truly incarnate. Confronting these heresies, the church had to uphold, in accordance with Scripture, both the true divinity of Christ as the only begotten Son of God and His true incarnation in the flesh. After prolonged struggle, she articulated this in the aforementioned creeds and, with the Apostle
John, denounced as anti-Christian any doctrine that denied the Son of God's incarnation, 1 Jn 2:18, 22, 4:2, 3. By doing so, the Christian
Church preserved the essence and core, the very unique nature of the Christian faith. Hence, the councils and synods that accomplished this monumental task hold fundamental significance for all
Christendom. The facts of Christianity enumerated in the Apostles'
Creed and the doctrines concerning the person of Christ and the triune nature of God foster a unity among Christian churches against Judaism and Paganism, a unity that, despite their sad divisions, should never be forgotten or overlooked.
Yet, on this common ground, various disagreements and schisms soon emerged. The practice of discipline led to the separations of Montanism (second half of the 2nd century), Novatianism (mid-3rd century), and Donatism (4th century). More serious was the gradual
schism between the Church in the East and that in the West. Various factors contributed to this: primarily, the aversion between Greeks and Latins, the rivalry between Constantinople and Rome, and the conflict for supremacy between the Patriarchs and the Pope.
Additionally, there were many minor doctrinal and liturgical differences, the most significant being the Greek Church's confession that the Holy Spirit did not proceed from the Father and the Son
(filioque), as taught in the West, but only from the Father. The separation, which had intermittently occurred, reached a climax in 1054. The Eastern Church, which prefers to call itself Orthodox, believing it has remained more faithful to the teachings of the ancient Church than Rome, suffered significant losses due to various sects (Armenian Christians; Nestorians in Syria; Thomas Christians in Persia; Monophysite Jacobites in Syria and Copts in Egypt;
Maronites in Lebanon), which separated from it, and especially due to the rise of Mohammedanism, which in 1453 even conquered
Constantinople.
On the other hand, the Orthodox Church gained significantly through the conversion of the Slavs, and today persists in Greece,
Turkey, Russia, and smaller nations such as Bulgaria, Serbia, and Romania. Yet, in Russia, its stability is threatened by the emergence of numerous and diverse sects. Like the state, the church finds itself in a profound crisis.
In the West, the power of the Catholic Church, under the leadership of the bishops of Rome, expanded progressively through the centuries. Following a prolonged period of persecution and defamation, the conversion of Emperor Constantine to Christianity
heralded an era of peace, privilege, and prestige. Despite increasing secularization, the church made notable contributions from Constantine's conversion until the Reformation. Just as she combated and overcame paganism in the early centuries, she later worked diligently for the conversion of the European peoples and the advancement of civilization. She upheld the core truths of Christianity and defended the church's independence with commendable steadfastness, significantly contributing to the development of Christian art and science. However, despite her merits, it is undeniable that in her quest for expansion and power, she often diverged from the path laid by original, apostolic
Christianity. This is particularly evident in three areas.
First, the Catholic Church increasingly elevated tradition to an independent rule of faith alongside, above, and even against Scripture. Many Roman doctrines and practices, such as the Mass, clerical celibacy, the veneration of saints, and the immaculate conception of Mary, lack scriptural substantiation but are upheld based on tradition. Although it is claimed that this tradition includes
"what has been believed everywhere, always, and by all," ultimately, it is the pope who decides whether something constitutes tradition.
Thus, Rome has inverted the entire relationship between Scripture and Church. In Rome's view, Scripture is not necessary but merely useful for the Church, whereas the Church is deemed necessary for Scripture. The Scriptures hold no authority apart from the Church, which asserts their credibility; they are inherently obscure and become clear only through the Church's interpretation; they do not precede nor form the foundation of the Church, but rather the Church is primary and is the foundation upon which the Scriptures
rest. Although the prophets and apostles were endowed with the gift of inspiration, the pope too, when speaking "ex cathedra," in his papal capacity, is believed to enjoy special support and guidance from the Spirit, rendering him infallible. Consequently, the Church is considered self-sufficient, even in the absence of the Scriptures; it is viewed as the one true and perfect agent of salvation, possessing and dispensing all the benefits of grace through the sacraments; it is perceived as the preeminent agent of grace, the state, and kingdom of God on earth.
Secondly, the Catholic Church has muddled the essence of the Gospel, namely, God's free grace and the justification of sinners by faith alone, devoid of works of the law. If not wholly lost, this core has been tainted with very impure elements, thereby confounding the distinction between law and Gospel. This corruption of the original Gospel began in the early centuries but later intensified and received official endorsement. In the struggle between Augustine and Pelagius, a battle that continues in principle to this day, the Roman
Church, especially post-Reformation, has increasingly sided with the latter—not in name but in practice. While God grants the power to convert and persevere in conversion to those who hear the Gospel, the will and accomplishment ultimately depend on man. Man must gain entry to the kingdom of God through good works.
In Rome, these good works fall into two major categories: works to maintain the ordinary commandments applicable to all, and works to accomplish the counsels added by Christ to these commandments
(celibacy, poverty, and obedience). The first way is good, but the second is better, more arduous, yet shorter and safer. The former is for laymen, the latter for monks and nuns. Those who tread this path
of good works receive from the Church, via the sacraments, as much grace as they have earned. Ultimately, if they persevere to the end, they enter the kingdom of heaven—not at the moment of rebirth or even at death, but after years spent in purgatory.
Thirdly, the Catholic Church soon distinguished between clergy and laity. The clergy alone are considered true priests, not the general faithful. Furthermore, within the clergy, various distinctions arose over time.
In the New Testament, "elder" and "overseer" refer to the same ministers. However, by the second century, this unity was obscured; the bishop (episcopus, bishop) was elevated far above deacons and elders (or presbyters, priests) and gradually regarded as a successor to the Apostles and a guardian of tradition. These bishops have pastors, parish priests, and chaplains under them, with archbishops, patriarchs, and ultimately the pope above them. The pope, officially declared infallible at the Vatican Council in Rome in 1870, represents the culmination of this extensive ecclesiastical hierarchy. He is the "father" (papa, pope) of the entire Church, the "chief priest," the successor of Peter, the "deputy of Christ," wielding supreme legislative and judicial power. With the support of a large cadre of officials (curia: cardinals, prelates, procurators, notaries, etc.), he governs the entire Church.
These errors, originating from minor deviations, have magnified over the centuries. They continue to evolve, transforming the ancient
Christian Catholic Church into the Ultramontane, the Roman Church (inseparably tied to the Church in Rome), and the Papal Church. In this transformation, Mary, the mother of Christ, and the Pope, the
vicar of Christ, increasingly eclipse the person and work of Christ.
These three errors represent a reduction of and an infringement upon the prophetic, priestly, and royal office of Christ.
This corruption of the church did not proceed without vigorous resistance at every turn. Particularly in the Middle Ages, there was no shortage of individuals and movements striving for reform.
However, these efforts largely bore little fruit; some passed quietly without lasting impact, while others were violently suppressed and extinguished in bloodshed. Such means of suppression and extermination were also employed against the Reformation in the sixteenth century, yet they did not succeed. This failure was due to the fact that the times were ripe for reformation. The church had fallen into such profound religious and moral decay that even her own sons no longer trusted her; there was a widespread sense that the status quo was untenable, and a fervent desire for change; in Italy, for example, many ridiculed all religion and Christianity, plunging into complete disbelief. What the fate of the church would have been without the Reformation is beyond speculation; the Reformation proved to be a blessing for the Roman church, a benefit that persists to this day.
Moreover, the Reformation was not an isolated movement heralding the new era. It was preceded, accompanied, and followed by other significant movements in various fields. The invention of printing and gunpowder, the rise of the bourgeoisie, the discovery of America, the Renaissance of literature and art, and the advancements in science and philosophy—all these phenomena and events signified the awakening of self-consciousness and the transition from the Middle Ages to the modern age.
Through all these movements, the Reformation, while stemming from its own principles and aiming at its own goals, was supported and propelled forward.
Furthermore, and perhaps most importantly, the Reformation, in its opposition to the Roman church, attacked the root of the problem. It sought not merely an external improvement in forms but aimed to eliminate the very cause of the decay. For this, a fixed point of departure, a reliable yardstick, a positive principle was necessary.
This principle was found, in contrast to the traditions of the Roman church, in the word of Christ—credible in itself, essential for the life and welfare of the church, and perfectly sufficient and clear. In contrast to the good works to which Rome bound salvation, the Reformation emphasized the perfect and all-sufficient work of Christ, needing no supplementation by human effort. And in contrast to the pope, who claimed to be the infallible substitute of Christ, it upheld the Spirit of Christ, poured out in the church, leading all
God's children into the truth.
The Reformation did not arrive at this positive principle through scientific research and reflection, but through the experience of the guilt-laden heart, which found reconciliation and forgiveness only in God's free grace. The Reformation was not a scholarly or scientific movement but a religious and moral one. Many joined it, as often happens in times of division and upheaval, for impure and unjust motives; but its core was formed by the weary and burdened, who sighed under Rome's oppression and found rest for their souls at the feet of the Holy One.
Luther rested in the experience of forgiveness, finding solace in discovering "a merciful God." While this revelation granted him a more expansive view of the world than the Roman Christian, who deemed the natural inherently profane, he ultimately relegated secular matters—art, science, state, and society—to their own courses. The Lutheran Reformation thus confined itself to restoring the preaching ministry. Upon answering the question, "How does man attain salvation?" from Scripture, their efforts largely ceased.
For Zwingli and Calvin, however, who spearheaded the reformation in Switzerland, this was merely the starting point. They too arrived at reformation not through rational argument but through the profound experience of sin and grace, of guilt and reconciliation. Yet, for them, this experience was the foundation, not the culmination.
They delved deeper and traced further back. Behind the grace of God manifest in the forgiveness of sin lay the sovereignty of God, His infinite and awe-inspiring essence with all His virtues and perfections. If God was sovereign in salvation, He was sovereign always and everywhere, in creation as well as in re-creation. If He had become King in the heart, He must also reign in the mind and hand, in the household and workplace, in the state and society, in science and the arts. The query, "How does man attain salvation?" was not sufficient; it must be encompassed within the higher, deeper, all-encompassing question, "How does God receive His due glory?"
Hence, for Zwingli and more profoundly for Calvin, finding peace for their hearts in the blood of the cross marked the true commencement of reformation.
For them, the entire world lay open—not to be abandoned to its devices, but to be permeated and sanctified through the Word of God
and prayer. They began locally, with the church and city wherein they dwelt, restoring not only the preaching office but also worship and discipline, transforming religious life on Sunday and civil and social life during the week, influencing both the private life of the citizen and the public life of the state. From these beginnings, their reformation radiated outward to other lands. While the Lutheran
Reformation mainly took root in Germany and the Nordic countries, Calvin's Reformation spread to Italy and Spain, Hungary and Poland,
Switzerland and France, Belgium and the Netherlands, England and Scotland, and across to America and Canada. Had it not been for the "Counter-Reformation" led by the Jesuits, which opposed, repelled, and eradicated it in many regions, Calvin's Reformation might well have permanently dismantled Rome's world dominion.
It was not destined to be so. From its inception, the Reformation faced staunch opposition from the Church of Rome, which at the Council of Trent firmly set itself against the reformers and resolutely continued on its chosen path. This self-imposed opposition weakened the church through internal divisions and endless disputes. In the same sixteenth century, Socinianism and Anabaptism emerged, both rooted in the same fundamental dichotomy—the irreconcilable opposition between nature and grace
—and thus offered either grace to nature or nature to grace. This enduring conflict between creation and re-creation, between the human and the divine, between reason and revelation, between earth and heaven, between humanity and Christianity, or however one might articulate these opposing forces, has persisted to this day. The divisions and schisms initiated in the sixteenth century did not cease there; each successive century has witnessed an increase in their number.
The seventeenth century saw the rise of Remonstrantism in the Netherlands, Independentism in England, and Pietism in Germany.
In the eighteenth century, Herrnhuttism, Methodism, and Swedenborgianism emerged, while Deism swept over all the churches like a flood. Following the French Revolution at the dawn of the nineteenth century, a powerful religious awakening took place within both Roman and Protestant churches. Nonetheless, divisions continued to multiply: Darbyism and Irvingianism, Mormonism and Spiritism, along with a multitude of other sects, chipped away at the integrity of the churches, which themselves were often weakened and consumed by a spirit of doubt and indifference. Beyond the churches, the force of monism, in its materialistic or pantheistic forms, was organizing a final, deadly assault on the entirety of the Christian faith.
It thus appears that all hope for the unity and universality of the church of Christ is lost. Of the more than 1.5 billion people living on earth according to common estimates, there are approximately 10 million Jews, 175 million Muslims, 214 million Brahmins, 120 million Buddhists, 300 million Confucians, 140 million Shintoists, and 173 million polytheists. Christians comprise only about a third of the world's population, approximately 534 million, and among themselves are divided into 254 million Roman Catholics, 106 million Eastern Orthodox, 165 million Protestants, along with many other groups and sects.
Yet, there is one enduring consolation—Christ is gathering His own from all races and languages, from all peoples and nations; He will bring them all together, and they will hear His voice. "And they shall be one flock, one shepherd," (John 10:16).
Study Questions for Reflection 1. How did the early Christian Church view the authority of the Old
Testament Scriptures, and what role did they play in the transition from Judaism to Christianity?
Reflect on the continuity of the Old Testament's authority from the Jewish synagogue to the Christian church and its significance in the early Church's theology.
2. What process did the early Christian Church follow to recognize and compile the New Testament Scriptures?
Consider the criteria and practices involved in the early Church's recognition and circulation of apostolic writings.
3. Why is it important for the Church to preserve, interpret, and proclaim the Word of God according to the chapter?
Discuss the responsibilities and duties of the Church in relation to Scripture as outlined in the chapter.
4. What challenges and errors did the early Church face regarding the interpretation and understanding of God's Word?
Reflect on the various errors that emerged from both Judaism and Paganism and how the Church addressed these issues.
5. What is the purpose and importance of confessions in the Christian Church, according to the chapter?
Consider how confessions help in maintaining doctrinal purity and unity within the Church.
6. How do the Apostles' Creed and other ecumenical creeds contribute to the unity of the Christian Church?
Discuss the significance of these creeds in articulating core Christian beliefs and their role in fostering unity among different Christian traditions.
7. What were the primary doctrinal controversies addressed by the early ecumenical councils, and why were they significant?
Reflect on the issues concerning the divinity and humanity of Christ and the Trinity, and how the councils resolved these controversies.
8. How did the Roman Catholic Church's view of tradition and Scripture contribute to its divergence from original apostolic
Christianity?
Analyze the Catholic Church's elevation of tradition and its impact on the relationship between Scripture and the Church's authority.
9. What were the key principles of the Reformation, and how did they contrast with the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church?
Discuss the Reformers' emphasis on the sufficiency of Scripture, justification by faith, and the role of Christ's work versus human effort.