6. Special Revelation II. (The Content of Revelation)
8. How do the miracles performed by Christ differ from those in the Old Testament?
Analyze the nature and purpose of Christ's miracles and how they reveal His identity and mission as the Savior of the world.
9. What is the relationship between the Old Testament prophets and the revelation given to Moses?
Reflect on the unique manner in which God communicated with Moses compared to other prophets, and the significance of this direct revelation.
10. How does the inspiration of the Holy Spirit function as a means of special revelation?
Discuss the role of the Holy Spirit in inspiring the prophets and apostles, and how this form of revelation differs from general spiritual enlightenment granted to all believers.
6. Special Revelation II:
The Content of Revelation After having considered the various manners in which special revelation has been dispensed, we now turn to its content. Just as
with general revelation, we can better understand it by briefly tracing the history of special revelation. In so doing, the purpose of special revelation will naturally become evident.
Special revelation did not commence with Abraham but began immediately after the Fall. It is no mere accident that Abraham was a son of Terah and a descendant of Shem, whose God was and would be Jehovah, as declared in Genesis 9:26. In the generation of Shem, just as before the Flood in the generation of Seth, the knowledge of God was preserved in its purity for the longest duration. Therefore, when the Lord called Abraham, He did not present Himself as a new deity, but as the God whom Abraham already knew and confessed.
From other Scriptural accounts, such as those concerning Melchizedek in Genesis 14:18-20, we know that the knowledge of the true God had not entirely vanished. Similarly, the Philistine king
Abimelech, the Hittites of Hebron, and Pharaoh in Egypt recognized and honored the God of Abraham, as seen in Genesis 20:3, 21:22-23,
23:6, 26:29, and 41:8, 16, 38, 39.
However, after the confusion of tongues and the dispersion of mankind, not mere unbelief but superstition and idolatry began to flourish. This was evident in Egypt (Exodus 18:9-12), in Canaan
(Genesis 15:16, 18:1), and in Babylon. Even among the Semites, idolatry had taken root. According to Joshua 24:2, 14, 15, the ancestors of Israel, including Terah, Abraham's father, served other gods while they lived beyond the river. From Genesis 31:19, 34, 35:24, we learn that Laban possessed and worshipped household gods, or teraphim, and is thus called an Aramean, or Syrian, in Genesis 31:20 and Deuteronomy 26:5.
To prevent humanity from sinking into superstition and unrighteousness, thereby breaking the covenant of nature with Noah and thwarting God's purpose for mankind, the Lord took a different path with Abraham. While He could not destroy humanity again with a flood, He could establish a covenant with one person, and through that individual, with one nation. Through this covenant, He could continue and fulfill His promise, eventually extending it to all mankind. This temporary isolation of one people would ultimately serve to unite all humanity.
With Abraham, a new era in the history of revelation began. The special revelation given to the patriarchs was connected to and built upon the previous revelations, continuing and developing them. It is therefore crucial to understand this new revelation in its particularity, especially since this understanding determines our view of the revelation given to Israel and, consequently, the nature of Israelite religion.
In seeking a correct understanding of the origin and nature of Israel's religion, many today obstruct their own path. Firstly, they deny any historical value to the patriarchal period, viewing Abraham,
Isaac, Jacob, and others as mythical figures akin to the demigods and heroes of Homeric epics. Secondly, they begin their examination of Israel's religion with primitive, pagan forms such as animism, fetishism, ancestor worship, polydaemonism, or polytheism. Thirdly, they argue that the essence of Israel's religion, as it evolved through the prophets—especially those of the eighth century B.C.—was an ethical monotheism recognizing one God who is all-powerful, just, and good.
This modern interpretation aims to explain Israel's religion purely through natural factors and gradual development, dismissing the notion of special revelation. However, the entirety of Scripture stands in opposition to this view, and it ultimately fails to account for the unique development and true nature of Israel's religion.
The origin of Israel's religion cannot be comprehended through such modern frameworks because the prophets consistently proclaimed the same God—the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; the God of Israel. They did not introduce a new deity but spoke in the name of the God of the covenant, whom the people were bound to serve and honor. Recognizing this, many scholars who appreciate the weight of this argument trace Israel's religion back to Moses, considering him the true founder. However, even Moses did not introduce a foreign deity; he called the people to the Exodus in the name of the God who had committed Himself to the patriarchs and was fulfilling His promises. Thus, a serious examination of Israel's religious origins necessitates returning to the patriarchal period, as Scripture demands.
To understand the nature of Israel's religion, we must also look to this patriarchal period. The essence of Israel's religion is not encapsulated in so-called ethical monotheism, though this element— recognizing God as a singular, omnipotent, just, and holy being—is certainly present. Rather, the heart and soul of Israel's religion lie in the covenant relationship where this one eternal, just, and holy God committed Himself to Israel as their God.
The Apostle Paul elucidates this understanding in Romans 4 (with parallels in Galatians 3:5ff), questioning what Abraham received
from God. Referencing Genesis 15:6, Paul emphasizes that Abraham's righteousness was not by works but by faith—by God's grace and the forgiveness of sins, which David later identifies as the salvation of the sinner.
Paul further explains that this great gift of grace was granted to Abraham long before the institution of circumcision (Genesis 15:6), with circumcision later serving as a sign and seal of the righteousness of faith (Genesis 17). Thus, the forgiveness of sins and the entirety of salvation are independent of the Law and its demands.
This universality of benefit is also evident in the promise made to Abraham—that he would be the father of many nations and heir of the world—given long before and apart from the Law.
Paul's argument is grounded in the Old Testament narrative itself.
The primary importance lies not in Abraham's knowledge of God or his actions for God, but in what God bestowed upon Abraham.
Firstly, it is God who sought out Abraham, called him, and led him to Canaan. Secondly, God promised to be Abraham's God and the God of his seed. Thirdly, He promised Abraham a seed against all expectations, making him the father of a great nation and granting that nation the land of Canaan. Fourthly, God assured Abraham that through his seed, all nations of the earth would be blessed. Finally,
God elevated this promise to a binding covenant, sealed with circumcision, and confirmed it with an oath after Abraham's trial of faith (Genesis 12:1-3, 7; 13:14-17; 15:1ff; 17:1ff; 18:10; 22:17-19).
The Content of God's Promise to Abraham These promises collectively constitute the essence of God's revelation to Abraham. At their core lies the great promise: "I will be your God
and the God of your seed." These promises extend from Israel and its land to Christ, and through Christ, to all humanity and the entire world, as Paul expounds in Romans 4:11f. It is this promise that faith and the walk of faith correspond to, as outlined in Romans 4:16-22 and Hebrews 11:8-21. For a promise can only be ours through faith, and faith is demonstrated through a righteous walk before God, as indicated in Genesis 17:1. Abraham exemplifies trusting faith, Isaac suffering faith, and Jacob fighting faith.
In the history of the patriarchs, the character and calling of Israel are already delineated. While the nations of the earth follow their own paths, developing the gifts of general grace bestowed by God
(Genesis 18:10; Deuteronomy 32:6; Isaiah 51:1, 2), from Abraham God raises a people who, like their forefather, must walk by faith, who owe their land not to their own power but to God's grace, and who, by this grace, will achieve a blessed dominion over the nations.
This people must keep the promise of the Lord's salvation, like Isaac, and await its fulfillment, like Jacob, through struggle. Neither human plans nor weaknesses can hinder its fulfillment, for God is both the giver and the fulfiller of the promise. While He punishes sin,
He simultaneously uses it to fulfill His counsel. Israel, like Jacob of old, can only partake of the promise and blessing of the Lord if purified by punishment, its strength broken, and victorious only through the struggle of faith and prayer. As Jacob declared, "I will not let thee go, except thou bless me" (Genesis 32:26; Hosea 12:4).
This promise remains the core of all subsequent revelations in the Old Testament, though it is expanded and developed therein, retaining its essence in Israelite religion. With the covenant at Sinai and the establishment of the legal dispensation, a new era
undoubtedly began. Yet, to understand Israel's religion and the Old Testament economy, we must be acutely aware that the promise made to Abraham was not annulled by the law.
Paul explicitly reinforces this teaching. In Galatians 3:15f., he compares the promise given to Abraham and his seed with a will, which, once established by the testator, cannot be annulled by another. God's promise to Abraham and all its blessings are a free disposal by God. They are, as it were, bequeathed by God to Abraham and his seed, and must therefore be handed over to that seed by divine decree. The peoples descended from Abraham according to the flesh do not qualify as that seed, thus excluding the descendants through Hagar and Keturah (Genesis 17:20; 25:2). The Scriptures speak not of "seeds," that is, many descendants or peoples, but of one seed, one generation, to come from Abraham—namely, the offspring, the seed, the people born of the promised son, Isaac, culminating in Christ, the seed par excellence.
When God bequeathed His salvation to Abraham and his seed through a will in the promise, it implied that these salvation blessings would belong to Christ, His property and possession, to be distributed by Him to His church, gathered from all nations. Thus, this promise, given to Abraham independently of all human conditions and the law, solely by God's free will, could not be nullified by a subsequent law. If it had been, God would have nullified His own promise, decree, will, and oath.
Only one path is possible: we receive the salvation goods in the promise either from the promise or from the law, from grace or merit, from faith or works. It is a fact that Abraham received
righteousness by faith through the promise, even before his circumcision; that the Israelites in patriarchal times and in Egypt, for hundreds of years, also obtained this benefit solely by virtue of the promise, not the law, which did not exist at that time; and that God bestowed this promise on Abraham and his seed until Christ, extending it to all humanity. Thus, He bestowed it as a divine gift, an everlasting covenant, confirmed with a lasting oath.
As it stands, Galatians 3:17-18 and Hebrews 6:13 and following make it clear that if the law, which God later gave to Israel, could not annul
His promise, then it becomes essential to understand why God gave the law to Israel. This inquiry is vital for grasping the meaning and significance of the covenant of grace that was instituted alongside the law, and thus for comprehending the essence of Israel's religion. This question held great significance in Paul's time and remains equally important today.
In the days of the Apostles, there were those who viewed the law as the core of Israel's religion, insisting that Gentiles could only embrace Christianity through Israel, through circumcision, and adherence to the law. Conversely, others despised the law, attributing it to a lower deity and considering it a relic of an inferior religious standpoint. Nominalism and antinomianism stood in opposition as extreme perspectives.
Today, this dichotomy persists under different names and forms.
Some define the essence of Israel's religion as ethical monotheism, recognizing God as a holy deity who merely requires obedience to His commandments, thereby erasing the distinction between Judaism and Christianity. For them, an enlightened Jew and an
enlightened Christian profess the same religion entirely. Others, from a lofty sense of spiritual freedom, disdain what they perceive as the narrow-minded legalism of Judaism. They seek to liberate humanity from what they see as the clutches of Judaism, aiming to purge all Semitic elements from Indo-European culture, believing all decay stems from Judaism and all salvation from the Indo-European race. Thus, Semitic and anti-Semitic perspectives wrestle and, as extremes, often touch.
For Paul, the question of the law's purpose and meaning was so crucial that he revisited it frequently in his epistles. His response comprises several key points:
Firstly, the law was supplementary to the promise; it was introduced later and was not originally connected to it. Many years elapsed before the law was proclaimed after the promise. When the law was added, it retained a temporary, transient character. While the promise or covenant of grace is eternal, the law was intended to last only until the time when the true seed of Abraham, Christ, would appear—the one to whom the promise was ultimately made and who was to receive and distribute its blessings (Romans 5:20, Galatians
3:17, 19).
Secondly, the temporary and transient nature of the law is evident from its origin. Although the law came from God, it was not given directly and immediately to the people of Israel or to each member of the nation. It was mediated. On God's side, the law was given through angels, accompanied by thunder, lightning, a dense cloud, and the sound of a powerful trumpet (Exodus 19:16, 18; Hebrews
12:18; Acts 7:38, 53; Galatians 3:19). On the part of the people, who
were afraid and stood at the foot of the mountain, Moses was asked to act as a mediator, to speak with God and receive the law (Exodus
19:21ff; 20:19; Deuteronomy 5:22-27; 18:16; Hebrews 12:19; Galatians 3:19-20).
The contrast is stark when considering the New Covenant. The law was given through intermediaries, while grace and truth came through Jesus Christ, God's own Son (John 1:17). This new revelation is not mediated by angels or received through a representative.
Instead, every believer receives it personally in Christ Himself (Galatians 3:22, 26).
Thirdly, being from God, the law is holy, just, good, and spiritual. It is not the cause or agent of sin, even though sin takes advantage of the commandment. The law is not powerless in itself; it is indeed a commandment meant for life, but it becomes powerless because of man's sinful nature. This does not alter the fact that the law differs from the promise, not just in degree, but in essence. While the law is not contrary to the promise, it is also not of the promise or of faith.
Therefore, it cannot nullify the promise. The law, being essentially different, carries a distinct character and serves a different purpose
(Rom. 3:8, 14:7; Gal. 3:17, 21).
Fourthly, the special purpose of the law, as given by God, is twofold.
First, it was added for the sake of transgressions (Gal. 3:19), to make transgressions more evident. Sin, then, takes on a different character; it becomes a violation distinct from sin in general. For Adam, who received a commandment tied to life and death (Rom.
5:12, 14), and for Israel, who were to receive life or death based on obedience or disobedience, sin took on a new dimension.
As sin against a law promising life or death, it became a violation, a breach of covenant, distinct from the general concept of sin. Without such a law, sin remains sin but is not a violation (Rom. 4:15). The sins of the Gentiles are indeed sins, but they do not breach the covenant as Israel's sins do; they are judged without the law God gave to Israel (Rom. 2:12).
For Israel, however, sins could become transgressions because they received a law with the promise of life and the threat of death. The law created the possibility of transgressions. Thus, Paul can say that the Sinai law, while holy and not the cause of sin, was added to increase violations; it is the power of sin, arousing desires. Sin takes its opportunity from the commandment, leading to transgression; without such a law, sin remains dormant and inactive. The law thus increases the crime—not sin in general but those particular sins bearing the nature of a breach of covenant (Gal. 3:19; Rom. 5:13, 20;
7:8; 1 Cor. 15:56). Because the law brings about this, it incurs wrath, threatening divine punishment, pronouncing judgment, justifying no one, and placing all under a curse and making them subject to God's wrath (Rom. 3:19-20; 4:15; Gal. 3:10-11, 22). Thus, if under the Old
Testament, anyone received forgiveness of sins and eternal life, it was not due to the law but to the promise.
However, alongside this negative purpose of increasing transgressions and judgment, the law given to Israel also had a positive purpose. By giving sin the character of transgression, breach of contract, and unfaithfulness, by revealing all sin, even hidden lusts in the heart, as contrary to God's law and deserving of His wrath and punishment (Rom. 3:20; 7:7; 1 Cor. 15:56), the law highlighted the necessity of the promise. It proved that if justification of sinners were
possible, it had to come from a righteousness other than works (Gal.
3:11). Thus, far from opposing the promise, the law served as a means to bring the promise closer to fulfillment. The law took Israel into custody, like a prisoner deprived of freedom, a pedagogue leading Israel by the hand, never leaving her free. It acted as a guardian, constantly supervising Israel, so she might learn to know and cherish the promise in its necessity and glory. Without the law, the promise and its fulfillment might have come to nothing. Israel would have quickly reverted to paganism, losing both God's revelation and its own religious identity and place among the nations. The law isolated and maintained Israel, preserving her from corruption, creating a space where God could keep His revelation pure, expand it, develop it, and bring it closer to fulfillment. The law served to fulfill the promise, placing all under God's wrath and the sentence of death, condemning all to sin, so the promise given to Abraham and fulfilled in Christ might be given to all believers, enabling all to obtain the adoption of sons (Gal. 3:21-4:7).
By adopting Paul's perspective, a surprising light is shed on God's revelation in the Old Testament, Israel's religion, the meaning of the law, history, prophecy, psalms, and wisdom.
With the person of Moses, a new epoch indeed dawns in the revelation of God and the history of Israel. Yet, just as God's revelation to Abraham did not sever His earlier disclosures but incorporated and advanced them, so too the dispensation of God's grace under the Law aligns with those that preceded it. The Law, which came alongside the promise, did not annul or nullify that promise; rather, it incorporated it and served its development and fulfillment. The promise is primary, the law secondary; the former is
the goal, the latter the means. The essence of God's revelation and the heart of Israel's religion lie not in the law but in the promise.
Since the promise is God's word, imbued with power, it is the expression of His will and accomplishes all that pleases Him (Ps.
33:9, Isa. 55:11). Thus, the promise is the driving force and mainspring of Israel's history until it finds its fulfillment in Christ.
Just as Abraham was redeemed by God's call from the land of the Chaldeans (Isa. 29:22) and received the covenant promise by God's free will, so Israel was first led by the Lord into Egypt and subjected to Pharaoh's servitude, only to be delivered from this misery and brought into God's covenant at Sinai. These three facts—servitude in Egypt, deliverance from bondage by God's mighty hand, and the covenant at Sinai—form the foundation of Israel's history and the pillars of its religious and moral life. They are perpetuated in memory from generation to generation, recounted in history, prophecy, and psalmody, and cannot be stripped of their historical reality even by the most radical criticism.
Moreover, these events provide immediate evidence that the law was not and could not have been given to nullify the promise. When God appeared to Moses in the burning bush and called him to his office,
He did not present Himself as an unknown deity but as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who had seen the affliction of His people and heard their cry. Because He is Jehovah, the faithful God, He descended to fulfill His promise and deliver His people from bondage. Israel did not first become God's people at Horeb or by virtue of the law; it was already His people by virtue of the promise, and it was by that same promise that it was redeemed from its misery. The misery and redemption thus preceded the legislation at
Sinai. Just as Abraham, redeemed by God's call and receiving the promise in childlike faith, was obliged to walk in holiness before God
(Gen. 17:1), so Israel, after being rescued from Egypt, was exhorted and obliged by God at Sinai to new obedience. The law given through Moses was a law of thanksgiving; it followed redemption, rested on the promise, and through its strength, God led His people to the sweet abode of His glory (Ex. 15:13). He carried them on eagle's wings and brought them to Himself (Ex. 19:4, Deut. 32:11-12). The law was therefore introduced with the promise: "I am the Lord your
God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage" (Ex. 20:2, Deut. 5:6).
However, this relationship now demanded further arrangement. In patriarchal times, when only a few families shared in the blessing of the promise to Abraham, such arrangement was unnecessary. In Egypt, where the people suffered in servitude, it was impossible. But now, redeemed and becoming an independent, free people living in their own land, Israel had to be a people of God as a nation. The covenant of grace had to take the form of a national covenant; the promise had to secure itself the aid of the law to maintain and develop further.
This was especially necessary because Israel, as Paul presents it, was still a child. It had undergone a hard schooling in Egypt and had developed a deep sense of dependency, but it was not ready for selfreliance overnight. It took all the wisdom and gentleness of Moses
(Num. 12:3) to guide such a people through the exodus and the desert. Time and again they are called a stubborn people for their refusal to bow to God's command (Ex. 32:9, 33:3, 5, 34:9, Deut. 9:6).
This characteristic persisted not only in the desert but also later in
Canaan. Israel lacked the clear self-confidence, principled spirit, philosophical sense, and power of abstract thought that characterize mature peoples. However, it was rich in mind and heart, a people deeply connected to its divine calling through faith and promise.
Israel, uniquely formed by God, was both highly receptive to His revelation and deeply influenced by a myriad of earthly and heavenly forces. This character is vividly depicted in Scripture through the lives of men and women who, when called by the Lord, responded with childlike submission: "Behold, I am here, Lord, for thy servant heareth; let it be done according to thy word." They embraced the word of the Lord, treasured it in their hearts, and lived by it. Yet, as Exodus 32:8 indicates, Israel was prone to deviate quickly from the path, displaying a nature that was fickle, capricious, and easily swayed. Their passions could flare into burning hatred or tender, maternal love; they could be plunged into the depths of sorrow or soar with joy. They were never Western-minded but always fervent with Eastern enthusiasm, drawn to stimulating foods like garlic and onions (Num. 11:5), lentil stew (Gen. 25:34), and game meat (Gen.
27:14-17). They had an affinity for brilliant colors, fine garments, perfumes, and precious stones (Josh. 7:21, Isa. 3:18 ff.), and all things that shone and glowed in the sunshine. Figures like Da Costa and Heine are products of this rich cultural heritage.
Such a people needed the guardianship and discipline of the law to fulfill their calling to be a blessing to all nations through the promise.
This encapsulates the nature of the law.
Firstly, the law is not of the promise or faith but is added to the promise, serving not to nullify but to prepare the way for its
fulfillment. In contemporary times, there is a tendency to reverse the relationship between the law and the prophets, positing that the laws in the books of Moses were developed centuries after Moses, even post-Exile. This perspective, while recognizing that the law was not the primary element of God's revelation and Israel's religion, fails to appreciate that the promise preceded and was primary, with the law serving as a means to its fulfillment. It is plausible that the Mosaic
Law underwent revisions and additions by later editors to address contemporary needs, for it was always intended to be temporary and transitory, as evidenced by its amendments in Deuteronomy.
However, the idea that prophecy preceded the law contradicts historical facts, the nature of the law, the role of prophecy, and sound reasoning. Israel had its Temple, priests, sacrifices, and necessary laws and regulations long before the eighth century. A religion without a cult and orders is inconceivable, especially in antiquity.
The objection that a written law of such richness could not exist in Moses' time loses its force in light of the discovery of Hammurabi's code, which predates Moses by several centuries.
Secondly, the law's content aligns with its divine purpose. To assess its value, it should not be compared with the laws of modern
Christian states. Although the Mosaic Law retains its significance in principle, it was a temporary measure abolished in the fullness of time due to its inherent weakness and unprofitableness.
Comparing Israel's legislation with that of ancient civilizations, such as Babylon, offers valuable insights, highlighting similarities and differences and aiding our understanding of the Mosaic Law.
However, Israel was set apart by God with a unique destiny as the
bearer of the promise. Therefore, it had to lead a life distinct from other nations to fulfill this purpose.
In conclusion, Israel's history, character, and law were intricately woven together to preserve and fulfill God's promise. The law served as a guardian, shaping the nation and preparing it for the coming of Christ, in whom the promise would be fully realized. The revelation given through Moses built upon the earlier promises and guided
Israel until the ultimate fulfillment in Christ.
When we examine the Law of God given to Israel through this lens, several distinct characteristics emerge:
1. A Thoroughly Religious Law: The Law is intrinsically religious in every aspect, not merely in sections concerning worship, but in its entirety, encompassing moral, civil, social, and political directives. It is prefaced with the declaration: "I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the house of Egypt."
This Law is grounded not in abstract monotheism but in a covenantal relationship established by God with His people. It governs Israel's life according to the demands of this Covenant, and every commandment is issued by the Divine Lawgiver and must be observed for His sake. The underlying principle of the entire Law is that Jehovah first loved Israel, sought them out, redeemed them, brought them into His covenant, and accepted them as His people.
2. A Thoroughly Moral Law: Within the Mosaic Law, we discern three elements: moral, civil, and ceremonial. This distinction is valid, yet it is crucial to remember that the entire
Law is infused with and upheld by moral principles. These moral
principles may be applied to concrete cases differently from today's standards. Jesus Himself acknowledged that Moses permitted certain allowances, such as the giving of a curse to a married woman, due to the hardness of hearts (Matt. 19:8).
However, the spirit of the Mosaic Law is one of love. This is the second commandment, equal to the first (Matt. 22:39), and in it, the whole Law is fulfilled (Rom. 13:8, Gal. 5:14, 1 Tim. 1:5). This love is particularly evident in the care shown for the weak and the oppressed: the poor, foreigners, widows, orphans, servants, the deaf, the blind, and the elderly. Such mercy was unknown in ancient laws. Israel's morality is uniquely written from the perspective of the oppressed, never forgetting their own foreignness and suffering in Egypt.
3. A Holy Law: The Mosaic Law is holy throughout, not only in the portion termed the holy law (Lev. 17-26) but in all its sections. Unlike any ancient law, it perceives sin with profound seriousness. Sin is described with various terms, indicating its grave nature: crime, guilt, apostasy, rebellion, and it is ultimately an offense against God, the God of the covenant, thus always bearing the character of a breach of the covenant.
Forgiveness for all these sins is available, but it is not earned by good works or sacrifices. Forgiveness is rooted in the promise, a benefit of the gospel, obtained only through faith (Ex. 33:19,
34:6-7, 9, Num. 14:18-20).
However, the same passages that proclaim God's grace also declare that He does not leave the guilty unpunished and visits the iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third and fourth generations.
This does not contradict the promise. Because Jehovah forgives sins
by grace, He expects His people to walk in the way of that covenant.
If they fail, God, in response to the nature of their sin, takes one of three paths with His people. In some instances, the Law, through its sacrifices, opens the possibility of reconciliation without further civil consequences. In other instances, the Law prescribes civil punishment, sometimes the death penalty, though rarely. More often, God Himself reserves the right to visit judgment upon His people through pestilence, exile, or other means. These methods do not nullify the promise but serve to fulfill it, ensuring God's faithfulness even in times of apostasy.
"Of all the nations of the earth, the Lord hath known Israel only: therefore visiteth He all their iniquities" (Amos 3:2).
4. Lastly, the Mosaic Law is also a law of liberty, granting and preserving substantial freedom. This is immediately evident from the notable fact that the people, on the one hand, voluntarily consent to God's covenant and accept His law. God does not impose His covenant and law on Israel by compulsion but invites their willing assent (Ex. 19:8; 24:3, 7; Deut. 5:27;
Josh. 24:15-25). Furthermore, the law respects existing rights and relations, recognizing and presupposing them. Even before the legislation at Sinai, Israel was already somewhat organized.
The people were genealogically divided into families, clans, genera, and tribes, thus forming a patriarchal organization. Each of these divisions had its own head or representative.
Assemblies of these elders took place even in Egypt (Ex. 4:29; 3:16 ff.) and continued after the exodus to hear the words of the Lord (Ex. 19:7), to deliberate on proposals by Moses (Deut. 1:914), or to make proposals to Moses themselves (Deut. 1:22, 23).
Besides these public assemblies, Israel had two other kinds of officials: firstly, the officers or scribes, who regulated civil affairs and already existed in Egypt (Ex. 5:6, 10, 14, 19; Num. 11:16;
Deut. 1:15; 16:18; Josh. 23:2); and secondly, the judges introduced by Moses to assist in the administration of justice
(Ex. 18:21, 23; Deut. 1:13 ff.), who were later appointed in all the cities by the choice of the elders (Deut. 16:18).
In this organization, the family was the cornerstone and the foundation, as it remains highly esteemed by the Jews today.
Because the family held such an important place in Israel, the status of women was elevated compared to other nations. The decisive question here, as has been rightly pointed out, is whether the man is primarily seen as a member of the family (husband, son, brother), or as a citizen or warrior. In Greece and Rome, the latter was the case, resulting in the woman being relegated and considered inferior. But in Israel, the man was foremost a family member; his vocation was to care for his family. He stood not in opposition to or above the woman but alongside her, who was entitled to respect and love from the children (Ex. 20:12) and was worthy of being praised as a virtuous wife (Prov. 12:4; 31:10 ff.).
This patriarchal-aristocratic form of governance, existing in Israel prior to the giving of the Law, was not only recognized but also affirmed by the Law itself. Numerous statutes pertain to marriage, ensuring the sanctity of this institution and the protection of the family. Additional provisions uphold the patriarchal governance structure against encroachments by the priesthood and monarchy.
The elders, officers, and judges were distinct from the priests and Levites. Only in the supreme court did priests participate, as seen in
Deuteronomy 17:8-13 and 19:17-18, due to the critical need for proper interpretation of the Law, a duty assigned to the priests
(Leviticus 10:8-11, Ezekiel 7:26, 44:23, Jeremiah 18:18).
Israel's governance was antithetical to hierarchical systems.
Despotism had no place under the Law. When Israel later desired and received a king (1 Samuel 8:7), he was not to be a monarch like those of other nations but was bound by God's Law, serving merely as an executor of His will (Deuteronomy 17:14-20). Fundamentally,
God Himself was Israel's King, Legislator, and Judge (Exodus 15:18, 19:6, Numbers 23:21, Deuteronomy 33:5, Judges 8:22, 1 Samuel 8:7,
Isaiah 33:22, Psalms 44:5, 68:25). This was evident in the fact that judgment was rendered through impartial judges who adhered strictly to the Law. In special cases, God's will was made known by lot, through the Urim and Thummim, and through prophets.
Significantly, for many transgressions, God reserved punishment to Himself. Many legal prescriptions were not civil laws prescribing specific punishments but rather urgent admonitions and warnings directed to the conscience, thereby affording Israel considerable freedom.
The types of punishments were few: primarily beatings, and for grave offenses (blasphemy, idolatry, sorcery, cursing of parents, murder, adultery), death by stoning. There was no mention of inquisition, torture, imprisonment, banishment, confiscation of property, burning, or hanging. If Israel adhered to the covenant, they would receive rich blessings from the Lord; but if they disobeyed, they would be struck by His curse and suffer all manner of miseries
(Deuteronomy 28:29).
From these characteristics, the purpose of the Law, as given by God to Israel, becomes evident. The Lord Himself defines this purpose when, at the conclusion of the covenant at Sinai, He instructed
Moses to tell the people of Israel that if they obeyed His voice and kept His covenant, they would be His treasured possession among all peoples, a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation (Exodus 19:5-6).
Israel is called to affirm its identity as God's chosen people, not due to their merit, but by God's free love and in accordance with His oath to the fathers (Deuteronomy 7:6-8). However, Israel did not receive this privilege to isolate themselves from other nations or to exalt themselves above them, but to serve as a kingdom of priests, tasked with bringing the knowledge and service of God to the nations, thus fulfilling a priestly role. Israel could only fulfill this calling if they themselves were a holy people, wholly devoted to the Lord, obedient to His voice, and steadfast in His covenant.
The holiness to which Israel is called does not yet encompass the full and profound meaning that this concept attains in the New
Testament. It includes not only moral holiness but also ceremonial holiness, as particularly delineated in Leviticus 17-26. Yet, these moral and ceremonial aspects of the Law are not opposed but rather complement each other. Israel is a holy nation when it adheres to all the moral, civil, and ceremonial laws given by God at Sinai, both inwardly and outwardly, in faith and practice. The Lord, in His omniscience, knew that this people would not remain steadfast in their calling but would repeatedly fall into disobedience and apostasy throughout their history. Consequently, He would visit upon them punishments more severe than those inflicted upon any other nation.
However, at the end of their tribulation, the Lord would still return to His people, restore their fortunes, and show mercy upon them. He
would circumcise their hearts and the hearts of their descendants, so that they might love the Lord their God with all their heart and soul
(Deut. 4:29-31, 30:1ff). He cannot forsake His people, for His name and honor before the enemies are at stake (Deut. 32:26-27). Through Israel's unfaithfulness, He must confirm His faithfulness, the truthfulness of His word, the immutability of His counsel, and the firmness of His covenant. He must show that He is God and there is no other (Deut. 32:39). Thus, the Law follows the promise and remains in force until the promise is fulfilled.
From the covenantal perspective, Scripture views the entirety of Israel's history. The aim of the historical books of the Old Testament is not to provide a precise and exhaustive account of all Israel's vicissitudes, nor to trace the causal relationships between all events.
Rather, they portray the progress of the Kingdom of God, briefly touching upon what is insignificant to this end or passing over it entirely, while dwelling extensively on what is significant. In the history of Israel, Scripture seeks to reveal who and what God is to His people. It is not without reason that Israel's historical narrative has been termed "Jehovah's diary." The Lord, as it were, records His findings and interventions with Israel from day to day.
In the initial period, when the people were still under the powerful impression of God's mighty deeds, they remained faithful to His law.
Through these deeds, Jehovah was manifestly demonstrated as the one true God (Ex. 6:6, 18:18), leaving the people with no inclination towards other gods. When they heard the words of the Lord from the mouth of Moses, they responded in unison, "All that the Lord has spoken we will do" (Ex. 19:8, 24:3, 7, Deut. 5:27). Later, when they had received the inheritance of Canaan and were given the choice by
Joshua regarding whom they should serve, they almost haughtily declared, "Far be it from us that we should forsake the Lord to serve other gods" (Josh. 24:16, Judg. 2:7).
But when Joshua and the elders, who had witnessed the mighty deeds of the Lord, had passed away, a new generation arose that neither knew the Lord nor the works He had wrought for Israel. They forsook the God of their fathers, who had brought them out of Egypt, and pursued other gods, the deities of the surrounding nations
(Judges 2:6-13). Israel did not innovate in idolatry; they did not devise their own false religion, but instead adopted the gods of the heathen or attempted to worship the Lord through images, imitating pagan practices. In Egypt and the wilderness, they fell into Egyptian idolatry (Ex. 16:28, Josh. 24:14, Ezek. 20:7, 13). Later in Palestine, they served the gods of the Canaanites, Phoenicians (Baal, Asherah,
Astarte), and Assyrians (worshiping fire and stars) (Judges 10:6, 2 Kings 21:3, 5, 7, 23:5-15, Jer. 7:24-31, Ezek. 20:21, 22:3f). Israel repeatedly violated the first and second commandments, thereby eroding the very foundation of the covenant.
In the era of the Judges, those "heroes of the law," Israel's history unfolded through cycles of apostasy, punishment, distress, and subsequent deliverance and blessing (Judges 2:11-23). It was a time of disorder, with tribes losing sight of the national cause, each following its own path, and every man doing what was right in his own eyes (Judges 17:6, 21:25). This chaotic period was brought to an end by Samuel and the establishment of kingship. However, after Solomon, the national unity was irreparably broken, with ten tribes seceding from the Davidic kingdom. Jeroboam deepened the political rift into a religious schism by establishing a sanctuary in Dan,
promoting idol worship, and abolishing the lawful priesthood. Thus, he became known as the king "who made Israel to sin." For two and a half centuries, the history of the kingdom of Ephraim was marked by relentless apostasy from Jehovah, despite the persistent voice of prophecy, culminating in the exile of the ten tribes. Though Judah was more favored than Israel, being ruled by the Davidic dynasty and retaining the legitimate sanctuary and priesthood, it too succumbed to such apostasy and wickedness that judgment was inevitable.
Nearly one hundred and forty years after the fall of the Kingdom of Israel, Judah also lost its sovereignty.
However, amidst Israel's continuous apostasy, God preserved a remnant according to the election of grace. Throughout the ages, there remained a core within Israel faithful to Jehovah's covenant.
Even in the darkest days of Elijah, there were still seven thousand who had not bowed to Baal. These were the devout, the righteous, the faithful, the poor, and the needy, as often described in the Psalms, who steadfastly trusted in the God of Jacob and remained true to His covenant. They thirsted for God as the deer pants for streams of water; they longed to dwell in His sanctuary; they meditated on His law and clung to His promises. For them, the law was not a burden but a delight, their meditation all day long. They echoed Moses, affirming that adherence to this law would be Israel's wisdom and understanding before the nations. When other nations heard these statutes, they would marvel: "Surely this great nation is a wise and understanding people." "For what nation is there so great, who has God so near to them, as the Lord our God is in all things that we call upon Him for? And what nation is there so great, that has statutes and judgments so righteous as all this law, which I set before you this day?" (Deut. 4:6-8).
And as the times grew darker, they clung more tightly to the promise.
God would not abandon the work of His hands; for His name's sake and His own covenant, which He had graciously made with the fathers, He would remain faithful. From their midst, God raised up prophets, psalmists, and wise men who proclaimed His word and revealed the promise in ever clearer terms. In the midst of affliction, they lifted up their heads, beheld the future by the light of the Lord's
Spirit, and foretold the coming of a new day—the day of David's Son and Lord, the root of Jesse, Immanuel, the Spirit of Righteousness, the Servant of the Lord, the Angel of the Covenant, the new covenant, and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit. The Old Testament, beginning after the fall with the promise of the seed of the woman
(Gen. 3:15), concludes with the announcement of the coming of the Angel of the Covenant (Mal. 3:1).
Even after the Exile, a faithful remnant remained in Israel (Mal.
3:16). Through the Exile, the nation was purified, turning away from idolatry and images permanently, and placed under the strict discipline of the Law by Ezra and Nehemiah. This period introduced new dangers; a focus on the letter of the Law overshadowed its essence and spirit, and sects such as Phariseism, Sadduceism, and Essenism emerged, each distorting divine revelation to their ends and substituting the fleshly for the spiritual Israel. Yet, even during the four hundred years between Malachi and John the Baptist, God's providential care continued with His people. Israel never regained full political independence after the Exile; it passed from one dominion to another, being successively subject to Persia, Media,
Macedonia, Egypt, Syria, and Rome. It was a servant in its own land.
However, this political subjugation deepened Israel's awareness of its unique character and calling. It treasured divine revelation as its highest honor and privilege, taking great care in its collection and preservation. This spiritual consciousness not only shaped Israel's national identity but also fortified it to maintain its distinctiveness under severe persecution. Israel has suffered and been oppressed like no other nation in the world.
Despite this, both within and outside Palestine, Israel remained true to itself. In its Old Testament, it possessed a treasure richer than all the wisdom of the Gentiles. It formed a cosmopolitan community with Jerusalem as its center. Through its synagogues, it offered idolatrous peoples a vision of a religion without images, altars, sacrifices, or priesthood. Everywhere it proclaimed the unity and truthfulness of Israel's God, and it harbored an unquenchable hope of a glorious future, which would bring blessing to all nations. Thus, it prepared the way for Christianity among the pagans. Within its own circle, by God's grace, the multitude of faithful were preserved— those like Simeon and Anna, who quietly awaited the redemption of Israel. Mary, the mother of the Lord, stands as the most glorious example of these pious souls. In her, Israel reaches its culmination, to receive and hold the highest revelation of God with childlike faith.
"Behold the handmaid of the Lord; be it unto me according to thy word" (Luke 1:38).
Thus, the entire revelation of the Old Testament culminates in Christ, not through a new law, doctrine, or institution, but through the person of Christ Himself. A human being, the Son of Man, is the completed revelation of God; the Son of Man is also God's own begotten Son. The Old and New Testaments do not stand together as
law and gospel, but they relate to each other as promise and fulfillment (Acts 13:12, Rom. 1:2), as shadow and substance (Col.
2:17), as image and reality (Heb. 10:1), as temporal and eternal (Heb.
12:27), as servitude and freedom (Rom. 8:15, Gal. 4). Since Christ is the very substance of Old Testament revelation (John 5:39, 1 Peter
1:11, Rev 19:10), He is also its keystone and crown in the dispensation of the New Covenant. He is the fulfillment of the law and all righteousness (Matt. 3:15, 5:17), of all promises, which in Him are yes and amen (2 Cor. 1:20), of the entire covenant, which is now confirmed in His blood (Matt. 26:28). The people of Israel, with their history, offices, institutions, temple, altar, sacrifices, ceremonies, prophecy, psalmody, and wisdom, find their destination and goal in Him. Christ fulfills all these, first in His person and appearance, and then in His words and works, in His birth and life, in His death and resurrection, in His ascension and sitting at the right hand of God.
Once He has appeared and completed His work, the revelation of God can no longer be supplemented or increased, but only explained and extended to all peoples through the apostolic witness in Scripture. Since Revelation has been completed, the time has come for its contents to become the property of all humanity. Whereas in the Old Testament everything was prepared for Christ, now everything is derived from Him. Christ is the turning point of time.
The promise made to Abraham now extends to all nations. The Jerusalem that was below makes way for the Jerusalem that is above and the mother of us all (Gal. 4:26). Israel is replaced by the congregation of all languages and nations. It is now the dispensation of the fullness of time, in which the middle wall of separation is
broken down, Jew and Gentile are created into a new man, and everything is gathered under Christ as Head (Eph. 1:10, 2:14-15).
This dispensation continues until the fullness of the Gentiles comes and Israel shall be saved. When Christ has gathered His church, prepared His bride, and completed His kingdom, He hands it over to the Father, that God may be all in all (1 Cor. 15:28). "I will be your
God and you shall be My people," that was the substance of the promise; and that promise is perfectly fulfilled in Christ, through Him who was, who is, and who is to come, in the New Jerusalem
(Rev. 21:3).
Questions for Reflection 1. What is the significance of special revelation beginning immediately after the Fall, rather than with Abraham?
Reflect on how the continuity of God's revelation from the time of Adam to Abraham shapes our understanding of His plan for humanity.
2. How did the confusion of tongues and the dispersion of mankind affect the purity of the knowledge of God?
Consider the impact of these events on human religious practices and the rise of idolatry and superstition.
3. Why did God choose to establish a covenant with Abraham, and what was the intended purpose of this covenant?
Discuss the reasons behind God's selection of Abraham and how this covenant was meant to prevent humanity from descending into superstition and unrighteousness.
4. In what ways does the promise to Abraham serve as the foundation for Israel's religion and identity?
Analyze how the promise "I will be your God and the God of your seed" influences the entire narrative of Israel's history and religion.
5. What role does faith play in the fulfillment of God's promises to Abraham and his descendants?
Reflect on the significance of Abraham's faith and how it exemplifies the relationship between promise and faith in God's plan.
6. How does the giving of the Law at Sinai relate to the promise made to Abraham?
Consider the relationship between the Law and the promise, and how the Law serves to guide and preserve Israel in light of the promise.
7. What is the dual purpose of the Law according to Paul, and how does it serve the promise?
Discuss the dual role of the Law in revealing sin and leading to transgressions, as well as its positive role in guiding Israel towards the fulfillment of the promise.