End Notes
END NOTES
Chap. 1: The Contemporary Relevance of Aquinas
1. Os Guinness, The Dust of Death (Chicago: Inter-Varsity, 1973), 36; Francis Schaeffer, The God Who Is There (Chicago: Inter-Varsity, 1968), 61.
2. Gordon Clark, "Special Divine Revelation as Rational," in Revelation and the Bible, ed. Carl F. H. Henry (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1958), 32.
3. Cornelius Van Til, The Defense of the Faith (Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1955), 73, 94, 127.
4. Cornelius Van Til, The Great Debate Today (Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1970), 91.
5. Gordon Clark, A Christian View of Men and Things (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952), 309.
6. Gordon Clark, Religion, Reason, and Revelation (Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1961), 35.
7. Gordon Clark, “Special Divine Revelation as Rational,” 32.
8. Edward J. Carnell, An Introduction to Christian Apologetics (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1956), 132, 147, 150.
9. Carl F. H. Henry, Remaking the Modern Mind (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1946), 197, 198, 201, 283.
10. Arthur Holmes, Christianity and Philosophy (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971), 25, 10, 33, 11.
11. Arthur Holmes, Faith Seeks Understanding (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971), 141. "Our principal objection would be that it is too Grecian, and as such is too heavy on the reason aspect in things. Too much of the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle is baptized into Christianity." Further, "this system is to be objected to because it does not take revelation as the indispensable starting place, and therefore leaves truth to the mercy of a clever philosopher" (Bernard Ramm, Problems in Christian Apologetics [Portland, OR: Western Baptist Theological Seminary, 1949], 22-23).
12. Ronald Nash, "Thomas Aquinas—An Evangelical Appraisal," Christianity Today (Mar. 1, 1974): 12.
13. The most popular apologist of our day whose arguments are deeply indebted to Aquinas is C. S. Lewis. This is obvious in Mere Christianity, Miracles, and The Problem of Pain.
14. See Carnell, Introduction to Christian Apologetics, 148f; Clark, Christian View of Men and Things, 309ff.
15. See Norman L. Geisler and Winfried Corduan, Philosophy of Religion (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988), pt. 3, for a defense of this point.
16. George Klubertanz, St. Thomas on Analogy (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1960); Battista Mondin, The Principle of Analogy in Protestant and Catholic Theology (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1963); Ralph McInerny, The Logic of Analogy (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1961).
17. Even Gordon Clark, despite his defense of "literal" God-talk, would fall short of this kind of Platonic dogmatism. See his Religion, Reason, and Revelation, 142f.
18. Stuart Hackett, The Resurrection of Theism (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1957).
19. Ibid., 117ff.
20. Thomas Aquinas, De veritate, X, 6, ad 6; Metaphysics, IV, lect. 2 (4766); Summa contra Gentiles, I, 7; III, 47; Summa Theologiae, la2ae. 51, 1; la, 103, 8; 80, 1, ad 3; 77, 3; 78, 1, ad 3; 105, 3; la2ae. 5, 4, ad 3; la, 79, 12.
21. Etienne Gilson, The Unity of Philosophical Experience (New York: Charles Scribner and Sons, 1965), 308.
22. T. Aquinas, Summa theologise, la. 80, 1, ad 3; cf. 77, 3; 78, 1, ad 3.
23. Cornelius Van Til, "The Total Picture," Synapse II 1 (Jan. 1972): 1. Gilbert B. Weaver attempts to distinguish Van Til's view of analogy from that of Aquinas. But he misunderstands Aquinas on at least three points. Weaver wrongly assumes: (1) that Aquinas held that "man may know some things about himself and the world whether God exists or not"; (2) "that all creatures below God are involved to some extent in non-being as well as being"; and (3) that only Van Til holds that "analogy applies not to terms, but to the overall process of human thought [about God]." The fact is that these things Weaver thinks are distinctive about Van Til in contrast to Aquinas are precisely what Aquinas held. See "Man: Analogue of God," in Jerusalem and Athens, ed. E. R. Geehan (Nutley, N.J.: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1971), 326-27.
24. Thomas Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, I, 7; III, 47; Summa Theologiae, la. 105, 3.
25. Ibid., la. 2, 3.
26. God is the source of all truth. See n. 19 above and Summa Theologiae, la. 16. 1-8; la2ac. 109, 1.
27. T. Aquinas, De veritate, XIV, 8-9; cf. Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 2, 10; De Trinitate, II, 1, ad 5; Summa contra Gentiles, I, 6.
28. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la2ae. 77, 4; 83, 3; 84, 2; cf. la2ae. 109, 1-10.
29. T. Aquinas, De veritate, XIV, 9; Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 1, 5; cf. De veritate, XIV, 5, 6.
30. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 2, 3.
31. Ibid., la. 2, 3; la. 11, 3.
32. Van Til, Defense of the Faith, 126.
33. T. Aquinas, De veritate, XIV, 8, 9; XIV, 1, ad 2; cf. Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 2, 10.
34. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 2, 3; cf. De Trinitate, II, 1, ad 5; De veritate, XIV, 1, 9; Summa contra Gentiles, I, 6.
35. See Geisler, Philosophy of Religion.
36. Huw P. Owen, Concepts of Deity (London: Herder and Herder, 1971; Summa Theologiae, 1a. 8-11, 14, 19.
Chap. 2: The Life of Aquinas
1. My biographical approach follows that of the Roman Catholic pontifical scholars from whom I took courses at a Jesuit institution, the University of Detroit. They thoroughly discredited the religiously embellished, mythological versions of the life of Aquinas.
2. James Weisheipl, Friar Thomas D'Aquino: His Life, Thought, and Works (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1983), 9.
3. Ibid., 4.
4. Marie-Dominique Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1964), 11.
5. Kenelm Foster, The Life of Saint Thomas Aquinas (Baltimore: Helicon, 1959), 159.
6. M-D Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas, 11.
7. K. Foster, Life of Saint Thomas Aquinas, 159.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid., 34.
13. J. Weisheipl, Friar Thomas D'Aquino, 4.
14. Ibid.
15. Father Angelus Walz, Saint Thomas Aquinas (Westminster, Md.: Newman, 1951), 5.
16. Ibid., 12.
17. Ibid., 13.
18. Ibid., 19.
19. M-D Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas, 81.
20. K. Foster, Life of Saint Thomas Aquinas, 27.
21. M-D Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas, 12.
22. Ibid., 39.
23. K. Foster, Life of Saint Thomas Aquinas, 30.
24. Ibid., 28.
25. Father Angelus Walz, Saint Thomas Aquinas, 37.
26. Foster, Life of Saint Thomas Aquinas, 30.
27. M-D Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas, 24.
28. Father Angelus Walz, Saint Thomas Aquinas, 57.
29. K. Foster, Life of Saint Thomas Aquinas, 26.
30. Ibid., 33.
31. Father Angelus Walz, Saint Thomas Aquinas, 62.
32. M-D Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas, 12.
33. Father Angelus Walz, Saint Thomas Aquinas, 62.
34. Ibid., 69.
35. M-D Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas, 192.
36. The verse reads: "This is the book of the commandments of God, and the law, that is forever" (Holy Bible, Douay Version, 1609).
37. M-D Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas, 21-22.
38. J. Weisheipl, Friar Thomas D'Aquino, 322.
39. Ibid., 323.
40. Ibid., 320-21.
41. Ibid.
42. J. Weisheipl (Ibid., 336-37) lists some sixteen "Thomistic" propositions that were condemned in 1277.
43. Ibid., 358-403.
44. Ibid., 403-405.
Chap. 3: An Overview of the Thought of Aquinas
1. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 173, 3, ad 1.
2. Ibid., la. 1, 2, ad 2.
3. Ibid., la. 1, 10, ad 3.
4. Ibid., 2a2ae. 1, 9.
5. Thomas Aquinas, De veritate, 10 & 2.
6. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 2, 4.
7. Thomas Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, I, 4, 3-5.
8. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 2, 10.
9. Ibid., la. 2, 3.
10. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, I, 3, 2.
11. Thomas Aquinas, De anima, III, 4.
12. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la2ae. 17, 7.
13. Ibid., la. 17, 3, ad 2.
14. The modern concept of mathematics is much broader, and includes more abstract and non-quantifiable dimensions. Aquinas would have considered this philosophy, not mathematics.
15. Thomas Aquinas, On Being and Essence.
16. T. Aquinas, Summa theologise, la. 3; la. 7-11.
17. Ibid., la. 4 & 5.
18. Ibid., la. 13; T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, I, 29-34.
19. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 44-46.
20. Ibid., la. 75-76.
21. Ibid., la. 90-93.
22. Ibid., la2ac. 91.
23. Ibid., la. 60-61.
Chap. 4: The Bible
1. J. Van der Ploeg, "The Place of Holy Scripture in the Theology of St. Thomas," Thomist 10 (1947): 402.
2. Father Angelus Walz, Saint Thomas Aquinas (Westminster, Md.: Newman, 1951), 13.
3. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians (Albany, N.Y.: Magi, 1966), 22.
4. M-D Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1964), 233.
5. Ibid., 242.
6. Father Angelus Walz, Saint Thomas Aquinas, 73.
7. J. Van der Ploeg, "Place of Holy Scripture," 403.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid., 405.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid., 406.
13. With the exception of his first commentary on Matthew, all the others were lectures taken down by his students, and, according to university rules, corrected by the master before publication (see Matthew L. Lamb, introduction to Aquinas, Commentary on Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, 22-23).
14. M-D Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas, 248.
15. T. Aquinas, Commentary on Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, 20.
16. Ibid., 3.
17. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 1, 10.
18. Ibid., la. 1, 2, ad 2.
19. Ibid., la. 1, 3.
20. Ibid., 3a. 1, 3.
21. Ibid., la. 1, 1.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid., 2a2ae. 172, 4, ad 1.
24. Ibid., 2a2ae. 173, 4.
25. Ibid.
26. Thomas Aquinas, De veritate, 12, 4; cf. Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 174, 3, ad 3.
27. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 172, 3.
28. T. Aquinas, De veritate, 12, 4, ad 1; cf. Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 172, 3, ad 1; 171, 6.
29. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 171, 6; cf. 172, 6.
30. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on Hebrews, I, lect. 4.
31. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae 2a2ae. 172.3, ad 1.
32. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on the Book of Job, 13, lect. 1.
33. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae 2a2ae. 172.6, ad 2
34. Ibid., 1a. 1.10, ad 3
35. Ibid., 1a.14, 3
36. Ibid., 1a.1.8.
37. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on John 21, lect. 6.
38. See Jack Rogers, The Authority and Interpretation of the Bible: An Historical Approach (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1979).
39. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae,2a2ae. 2, 5.
40. Ibid., 2a2ae. 1, 6, ad 1.
41. T. Aquinas, De veritate, XIV , 10, ad 11, emphasis added.
42. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae.1, 9.
43. Ibid., 2a2ae. 2, 6, emphasis added.
44. T. Aquinas, Commentary on John 21, lect. 6, emphasis added.
45. Some have challenged the conclusion that Aquinas believed the Bible was God's only revelation to the church (see J. Van der Ploeg, "Place of Holy Scripture," 417-18), appealing to his comments on 2 Thess. 2:15 that "much has not been written by the apostles and which, therefore, must be observed." This challenge, however, overlooks the context and the rest of his quotation (from 1 Cor. 11:34, where Paul says, "The rest I shall order when I come"). In the context of the living apostles, yes, there was still unwritten apostolic authority. After their death, however, Aquinas never seems to refer to any apostolic or revelatory authority outside of the Bible. His one isolated reference (in his commentary on Job) to the fall of the devil as the "tradition of the church" can easily be understood as "teaching" of the church based on Scripture. After all, Aquinas believed that many passages in Scripture clearly teach the fall of Satan both before (Gen. 3) and after (Rev. 12) Job, and cites them himself.
46. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. I, 9, ad 1; 10, ad 1.
47. Ibid., la. 1, 8.
48. Ibid., la. 1, 8, emphasis added.
49. Ibid., 2a2ae. 1, 9.
50. Ibid., 2a2ae. 1, 9, ad 4.
51. Ibid., 2a2ae. 1, 10, ad 1.
52. Ibid., 2a2ae. 1, 9, ad 1.
53. See T. Aquinas Commentary on Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, 20-21.
54. M-D Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas, 344.
55. T. Aquinas, Commentary on Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians,11.
56. It is noteworthy in this regard that when commenting on 2 Timothy 3:16 (lect. 3) Aquinas does not insert Peter Lombard's qualifying phrase that the holy letters instruct only if they are "spiritually understood."
57. See J. Van der Ploeg, "Place of Holy Scripture," 410.
58. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la.1, 10.
59. Ibid.
60. See his Contra errores Graecorum, prooem., n. 1030.
61. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 1, 10.
62. Ibid.
63. Cited by Van der Ploeg, "Place of Holy Scripture," 415.
64. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I a. 1, 10.
65. T. Aquinas, Commentary on Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians,15.
66. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 1, 10.
67. Ibid., emphasis added.
68. Prologue to T. Aquinas Commentary on the Psalms.
69. Theodore apparently did believe that a few Old Testament passages literally referred to Christ. See T. Aquinas Commentary on Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, 266, n. 78.
70. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on Matthew 1, n. 5.
71. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on Psalm 16.
72. T. Aquinas, Commentary on Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians,25.
73. Ibid., 6.
74. Beryl Smalley, The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages, 2d rev. ed. (New York: Philosophical Library, 1952), xv.
75. Ibid., 12.
76. Ibid., 13.
77. Ibid., 14.
78. Ibid.
79. Matthew Lamb, Commentary on Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, 6.
80. Beryl Smalley, Study of the Bible, xv.
81. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 92, 1, ad 10.
82. J. Van der Ploeg, "Place of Holy Scripture," 410.
83. The discussion follows M-D Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas, 250-53.
84. Ibid., 250.
85. Ibid., 251.
86. Ibid.
87. Ibid., 252.
88. According to Matthew Lamb (Commentary on Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, 22), Aquinas adopted this custom from Guerric of St. Quentin, one of his predecessors in the chair of theology at Paris.
89. M-D Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas,252.
90. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 65-74.
91. Ibid., la2ae. 98-105.
92. Ibid., 3a. 27-59.
93. M-D Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas, 322.
94. T. Aquinas, Commentary on Saint Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, 29.
Chap. 5: Faith and Reason
1. Thomas Aquinas Commentary on St. Paul’s Epistle to the Ephesians (Albany, NY: Magi, 1966), 96.
2. Thomas Aquinas, De veritate, XIV, Al, ad 2.
3. Ibid., ad 6.
4. Ibid.
5. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 2, 2.
6. Ibid., la. 3, 2.
7. Thomas Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, I, 9.
8. Thomas Aquinas, De Trinitate, II, 3.
9. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 1, 5, ad 4.
10. Ibid., 2a2ae. 2, 2, ad 3.
11. Ibid., 2a2ae. 1, 4, ad 2.
12. Ibid., 2a2ae. 2, 1, reply.
13. T. Aquinas, De veritate, XIV, 9, ad 4.
14. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 6, 1.
15. Ibid., 2a2ae. 2, 9, ad 3.
16. Ibid., 2a2ae. 2, 10, reply. See also De veritate, XIV, Al, ad 2.
17. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, I, 6.
18. T. Aquinas, De veritate,XIV, 10, ad 11.
19. T. Aquinas, De Trinitate, II, 1, ad 5.
20. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 2, 1, ad 3.
21. Ibid., 2a2ae. 2, 1, reply.
22. Ibid., 2a2ae. 4, 1, reply.
23. Ibid., 2a2ae. 2, 9, reply.
24. Ibid., 2a2ae. 4, 2, reply.
25. T. Aquinas, De veritate, I, XIV, 3.
26. Ibid., ad 5.
27. Ibid., 3, reply.
28. Ibid., 5, reply.
29. Ibid., 2, reply.
30. Ibid., 9, reply; Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 1, 5.
31. T. Aquinas, De veritate, XIV, 9, reply
32. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 1, 5.
33. T. Aquinas, De veritate, XIV, 9, ad 6.
34. Ibid., ad 8.
35. Ibid., A5, reply.
36. Ibid., A5, ad 6.
37. Ibid., 10.
38. Moses Maimonides, A Guide for the Perplexed, I, 34.
39. Ibid., 2a2ae. 2, 4, reply.
40. Ibid., 2a2ae. 2, 4.
41. Ibid., 2a2ae. 2, 6, ad 1.
42. Ibid., la2ae. 85, 2.
43. T. Aquinas, De veritate, XIV, 10, ad 7.
44. Ibid., A2, ad 9.
45. Ibid., 8, ad 2.
46. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, I, 3.
47. Ibid., I, 3, 3.
48. T. Aquinas, De Trinitate,I, 1, 4.
49. T. Aquinas, De veritate, XIV, 9, ad 1.
50. T. Aquinas, De Trinitate, II, 3.
51. T. Aquinas, De veritate, XIV, 9, reply.
52. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, 1, 7 [1].
53. 56. T. Aquinas, De veritate, XIV, Al. See also Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae.2, 1.
Chap. 6: The First Principles of Knowledge
1. Thomas Aquinas, Peri Hermeneias, I, lect. 8.
2. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on the Metaphysics of Aristotle, trans. John P. Rowan (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1961), 244.
3. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 33, 1.
4. Ibid.
5. L. M. Regis, Epistemology (New York: Macmillan, 1946), 378.
6. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la2ae. 66, 5, ad 4.
7. Ibid., la. 33, ad 3.
8. James Bacon Sullivan, An Examination of First Principles in Thought and Being in the Light of Aristotle and Aquinas (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1939), p. 235.
9. Thomas Aquinas, Metaphysics, V, lect. 11, n. 912; WI, leer. 17, n. 1652; Sent., I, 19, 1, 1, ad 2.
10. Regis, Epistemology, 395.
11. Ibid., 388-89.
12. T. Aquinas, Metaphysics, IV, lects. 6-17; XI, 5-7.
13. T. Aquinas, Peri Hermeneias, I, lect. 11, n. 5.
14. Thomas Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, II, 15.
15. Aquinas never refers to the so-called principle of sufficient reason. According to some scholastic philosophers, however, he uses it in his "Third Way" when he argues from contingency to necessity (Sullivan, Examination of First Principles, p. 80). Others say that it is an epistemological aspect of the principle of contradiction. Regis, for example, says: "But the principle of raison d'etre, or sufficient reason, is nothing but the thing's capacity to account for itself to human reason . . to be intelligible and understood. . . . However, the unintelligible has no raison d'etre, guarantees nothing, therefore is the foundation for no truth, however small" (Epistemology, p. 390). Leibnitz originated the phrase "sufficient reason" in his Theodicae (I, n. 44) and defended it, when challenged, in his Fifth Letter to Mr. Samuel Clarke (n. 125). Sullivan considers it to be broader than the principle of contradiction since the latter applies only to finite contingent being whereas "sufficient reason" applies to God. It says only that "everything must have a sufficient reason" (whether in itself or another). Causality, on the other hand, demands that every contingent being does not have a sufficient reason for its existence in itself but must find its cause in another. Sufficient reason, says Sullivan, tells us that there is a reason; causality shows us where it is (Examination of First Principles, pp. 80-83).
16. Thomas Aquinas, De potentia, II, I. c; Sent., II, 34, 1, 3.
17. Regis, Epistemology, p. 402.
18. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la2ae. 6, 1, ad 1.
19. T. Aquinas, Metaphysics, IV, c. 3, 10056.
20. See his Elements of Philosophy, vol 2.
21. Sullivan, Examination of First Principles, 58.
22. T. Aquinas, Metaphysics, IV, c. (1005b).
23. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I a2ae. 94, 2.
24. According to Sullivan, those scholastic philosophers who contend for the primacy of identity over non-contradiction "use quotations from St. Thomas favoring the primacy of the principle of Contradiction to confirm their contentions, and maintain that it is the same thing as the principle of Identity" (Examination of First Principles, p. 56). Sullivan traces the influence of the primacy of identity among philosophers to Sir William Hamilton (Lectures on Logic [1886]).
Regis observes that since Kant and the rule of the mathematic method, identity has had primacy. This is an exaltation rooted in a philosophical idealism that denies the concrete and makes existential being the starting point for philosophical reflection (Epistemology, p. 391). Along this same line Sullivan notes that even Descartes' cogito ergo sum depends on noncontradiction for its certainty because "consciousness can be doubted as well as any other source of knowledge. Moreover, even the judgment 'I think' presupposes the principle of Contradiction, for in making it one presupposes that one cannot at that time be not thinking; if one could, this judgment would be useless as a principle of further knowledge" (Examination of First Principles, p. 40).
25. Ibid., 96.
26. T. Aquinas, Metaphysics, IV,c.4 (1006a).
27. Ibid., IV, lect. 2.
28. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 1a58, 4.
29. Sullivan, Examination of First Principles, 26.
30. T. Aquinas, Metaphysics, XI, lect. 4.
31. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 17, 3, ad 2.
32. See Regis, Epistemology, 374.
33. See Sullivan, Examination of First Principles, 121-22.
34. T. Aquinas, Summa theolagiae, la2ae. 2, 10, ad 2.
35. Ibid., la2ae. 17, 7.
36. T. Aquinas, Physics, lect. 10, n. 5.
37. T. Aquinas, Sent., III, 27, 1, 2, c.
38. T. Aquinas, Peri Hermeneias, I, lect. 8, nn. 11, 15.
39. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la2ae. 105, 2, ad 8.
40. Cardinal John Newman speaks of a series of converging probabilities that can yield certainty and demand assent (Grammar of Assent [London: Longmans, Green, 1987], 72), but Aquinas does not speak of rational certitude in this sense.
41. Frederick D. Wilhelmsen, Man's Knowledge of Reality: An Introduction to Thomistic Epistemology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1956), 171.
42. Ibid., pp. 172-73.
43. T. Aquinas, Peri Hermeneias, I, lect. 8, nn. 8,19-21.
44. T. Aquinas, De anima, III, lect. 4, n. 624; cf. Summa contra Gentiles, I, 4.
45. Wilhelmsen, Man's Knowledge of Reality, 179.
46. T. Aquinas, De veritate, XIV, 1, c.
47. Wilhelmsen, Man's Knowledge of Reality, 157.
48. T. Aquinas, Physics, lect. 10, n. 5.
49. Wilhelmsen, Man's Knowledge of Reality, 419.
50. Sullivan, Examination of First Principles,30.
51. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 85, 5, ad 3.
52. Ibid., la. 16, 1.
53. Thomas Aquinas, Existence and Analogy (New York: Longmans, 1945), 45.
54. See Fernand Van Steenberghen, Epistemology (New York: Wagner, 1949), for further elaboration of this view.
55. Wilhelmsen, Man's Knowledge of Reality, 40.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid., 41.
58. Sullivan, Examination of First Principles, 98.
59. R. Garrigou-Lagrange, God: His Existence and His Nature (St. Louis, Mo.: Herder, 1945), vol. 1, 117.
60. T. Aquinas, De Trinitate, V, 4, c.
61. Aristotle, De anima, III, 4 (430a 1).
62. T. Aquinas, Summa theologise, la. 79,2.
63. Ibid., la. 84, 8, ad 1.
64. Ibid., la. 84, 6, ad 1.
65. Aristotle, De anima, III, 4, ad 6.
66. T. Aquinas, Metaphysics, IV, lect. 6, c 599.
67. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 85, 5.
68. Ibid., la. 16, 2.
69. Sullivan, Examination of First Principles, p. 21.
70. Regis, Epistemology, 376.
71. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 84, 6, ad 1.
72. Etienne Gilson, The Unity of Philosophical Experience (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1965), 308.
73. T. Aquinas, Metaphysics, IV, lect. 6, 2 (476B).
74. T. Aquinas, De veritate, 10, 6, ad 6.
75. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la2ae. 51, 1.
76. Ibid., la. 103, 8; 80, 1, ad 3; 77, 3; 78, 1, ad 3.
77. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, I, 7; III, 47; Summa Theologiae, I, 105, 3.
78. T. Aquinas, Commentary on the Book of Job, lect. 3.
79. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la2ae. 5, 4, ad 3.
80. Ibid., la. 79, 12.
81. Etienne Gilson, The Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas (St. Louis, Mo.: Herder, 1937), 246.
82. Sullivan, Examination of First Principles, 136.
83. Ibid., 33.
84. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 60, 1, ad 3.
85. Ibid., la. 80, 1, ad 3; cf. 77, 3; 78, 1, ad 3.
86. Ibid., la. 103, 8.
87. Ibid., la. 78, 1, ad 3.
Chap. 7: Reality
1. See M.-D. Chenu, Toward Understanding Saint Thomas (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1964), 330-31.
2. Parmenides, Frag. 2, in The Presocratic Philosophers, trans. G. S. Kirk and J. E. Raven (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964), 269. All other quotations from Parmenides are taken from this translation.
3. Parmenides, Frag. 7.
4. Parmenides, Frag. 8.
5. Ibid.
6. The discussion here is based on the article by Leonard J. Eslick, "The Real Distinction: Reply to Professor Reese," Modern Schoolman 38 (Jan. 1961): 149-61.
7. Ibid.
8. Simplicius, Physics, 28, 4, in The Presocratic Philosophers, trans. G. S. Kirk and J. E. Raven (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964), 400.
9. See Plato's Parmenides, especially 129 b—c; 142. On this whole question of Plato's later view of the Forms, see R. J. Teske, "Plato's Later Dialectic," Modern Schoolman 38 (Mar. 1961): 188: "The Parmenides and Theaetetus seem rather to represent a break away with the early theory of Forms and vet await the fuller exposition of the theory."
10. The earlier Platonic view of indivisible, unrelated Forms may be seen in Phaedo (103 b—c, e) and the Republic (526 a—b). As the Parmenides (129 b—c) and the Theaetetus (203 e) indicate, Plato saw that his Forms as isolated spiritual atoms, unrelated to one another, would make scientific knowledge impossible. The Sophist (241 d) and Statesman represent a new position, where Plato introduces the notion of relative nonbeing as the relating principle. On this later Platonic view, see L. J. Eslick, "The Dyadic Character of Being in Plato," Modern Schoolman 31 (Nov. 1953): 15; and Teske, "Plato's Later Dialectic," 191-92.
11. Sophist, 241 d. All references to Plato are taken from The Collected Dialogues of Plato, cds. Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984).
12. Sophist, 255 d. This "other" seems to be the same as the "receptacle" of the Timaeus, the "unlimited" of the Philebus, and the "indefinite Dyad" of Plato's oral teaching (mentioned by Aristotle in Metaphysics, XIV , 3, 109a, 1-5).
13. Aristotle held another position in which he explained a plurality of things by their composition of form and matter (act and potency) (Metaphysics, IX, 5, 1017a 35h—a), but he apparently never worked out the act/potency distinction on the level of pure Forms or Being.
14. The number varies because of two different astronomical systems that are indifferent to the metaphysical assertion that there are many (regardless how many) such simple beings.
15. Leonard J. Eslick, "Real Distinction," 152-53.
16. Aristotle, Metaphysics, XII, 8, 1073a-1074a.
17. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 4, 1, ad 3.
18. Ralph Mclnerny, St. Thomas Aquinas (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1982), 95.
19. T. Aquinas, Concerning Being and Essence, trans. George G. Leckie (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1937), 24.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid., 24-25.
24. Ibid., 26.
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid., 59.
27. Ibid., p. 6.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid., 7.
30. Ibid., 8.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid., p. 9.
33. Ibid., p. 17.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid., 28, 29, 32.
36. This is the position of Giles of Rome, but not of Aquinas.
Chap. 8: God’s Nature
1. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 1, 111; la. 1, 2; Ia. 1, 3, etc.
2. Ibid., la. 9, 1.
3. Ibid., la., 9, 2.
4. Ibid., la. 10, 1.
5. Ibid., la. 10, 2.
6. Ibid., la. 10, 3.
7. Ibid., la. 10, 4.
8. Ibid., reply to objection 2.
9. Ibid., la. 11, 3.
10. Ibid., la. 13, 7.
11. Ibid., la. 13, 7, ad 2.
12. Ibid., la. 13, 7, ad 5.
13. Ibid., la. 14, 2.
14. Ibid., la., 14, 3.
15. Ibid., la. 14, 10.
16. Ibid., la. 14, 4.
17. Ibid., la. 14, 5.
18. Ibid., 1a. 14, 15.
19. Ibid., 1a, 1, 2.
20. Ibid., 1a. 14, 11.
21. Ibid., 1a. 14, 6.
22. Ibid., la. 14, 7.
23. Ibid., la. 14, 7, ad 2.
24. Ibid., la. 14, 7, ad 3 and 4.
25. Ibid., la. 14, 8.
26. Ibid., la. 14, 8, ad 2.
27. Ibid., la. 14, 9.
28. Ibid., la. 14, 13.
29. Ibid., la. 14, 14.
30. Ibid., la. 19, 1.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid., la. 19, 2.
33. Ibid., la. 19, 2, ad 1.
34. Ibid., la. 19, 2, ad 2.
35. Ibid., la. 19, 2, ad 3.
36. Ibid., la. 19, 2, ad 4.
37. Ibid., la. 19, 3, ad 3.
38. Ibid., la. 19, 3.
39. Ibid., la. 19, 4.
40. Ibid., la. 19, 4, ad 1.
41. Ibid., la. 19, 5.
42. Ibid., la. 19, 6.
43. Ibid., la. 19, 6, ad 2.
44. Ibid., la. 19, 7.
45. Schubert M. Ogden, The Reality of God and Other Essays (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), 17.
46. Ibid., reply
47. S. Ogden, Reality of God, 17.
48. Ibid., 18.
49. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 1, 19, 3.
50. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 1, 13, 7.
51. Charles Hartshorne, Creative Synthesis and Philosophic Method (LaSalle, Ill.: Open Court, 1970), 48.
52. Ibid.
53. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 1, 14, 13, reply.
Chap. 9: Human Nature
1. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 2, 3.
2. The fourth argument is an argument from exemplar causality. The first three are from efficient causality, and the fifth from final causality.
3. See Norman L. Geisler and Win Corduan, Philosophy of Religion (Grand Rapids, MI: 1988) Chap. 9 for a parallel discussion.
4. David Hume, The Letters of David Hume, ed. J. Y. T. Greig, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1932), 1: 187.
5. There are two other reasons some philosophers never arrive at this theistic conclusion. One is that they never ask metaphysical questions about the nature of reality of being as such. Some are preoccupied with procedural questions (how?) or with descriptive questions (what?) or with the pragmatic question (so what?) and never ask the metaphysical question (why?). Second, those who do ask basic metaphysical questions do not always give a metaphysical answer. Heidegger asked the basic metaphysical question of why there is something rather than nothing at all. But he did not give a satisfactory answer. He said Dasein (man) is simply the being-there, the thrust one who is gratuitously hanging without any grounding. He is dependent, but not dependent on anything. He is thrust there, but no one thrust him there. His existence is given, but there is no Giver. It causes its own existence (which is impossible), while it is causing the existence of everything else in the series.
6. Aquinas rejects eternal creation, not because he believes it is philosophically impossible but because it is doctrinally incorrect (see Gen. 1:1; Col. 1:16-17; Heb. 11:3).
7. Sec Milton R. Munitz, The Mystery of Existence (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965); Thomas McPherson, "Finite and Infinite," Mind 66 (1957): 379-84.
8. Alvin Plantinga, God, Freedom, and Evil (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1974), 80.
9. The cosmological argument in its existential form is not new. Anselm, Aquinas, and Scotus all had strong forms of it (see chap. 8). Due to the influence of rationalism, modern philosophy has obscured the full force of this form of the cosmological argument by importing the principle of sufficient reason. See John E. Gurr, The Principle of Sufficient Reason in Some Scholastic Systems, 1750-1900 (Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1959), 130.
Chap. 10: Human Nature
1. Thomas Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, 11.
2. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a10.5.
3. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a. 9-92.
4. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.92.4.
5. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.92.7, reply to Obj. 1.
6. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.93.9.
7. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a. 9092.
8. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.100.1.
9. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.44.1.
10. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.76.3. ad 3.
11. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.119.2. ad 2.
12. See Stephen Heaney, "Aquinas and the Humanity of the Conceptus" in Human Life Review, vol. 15 No.1, 1989.
13. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.2.3, third way.
14. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1.2.3.
15. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.75.1.
16. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 2a-2ae.25.5.
17. Thomas Gilby, Thomas Aquinas: Philosophical Texts #543 from de Anima 1 ad 7; 2 ad 14.
18. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.75.1.
19. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.75.1.
20. T. Gilby, Philosophical Tests, #551 from de Anima 421a25.
21. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.76.2.
22. Gilby, Philosophical Tests, #558 from Unity of the Intellect.
23. Gilby Philosophical Tests, #558 from Unity of the Intellect.
24. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.76.2.
25. Gilby Philosophical Tests, #557 from Metaphysics 1045b16.
26. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.76.8.
27. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a76.8.
28. Thomas Aquinas, Compendium of Theology #152.
29. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.76.1 ad 5.
30. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.75.4.
31. T. Aquinas, 2 Summa contra Gentiles, 56, 57.
32. T. Aquinas, 2 Summa contra Gentiles, 56, 57, emphasis added.
33. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.76.3.
34. T. Aquinas, 2 Summa contra Gentiles, 56, 57.
35. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.76.1.
36. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.76.1.
37. T. Gilby, Philosophical Tests, from On Causes, lect. 14.
38. Thomas Aquinas, De Anima II.I. 234.
39. La Rock, "Dualistic Interaction, Natural Dependency, and Aquinas’s Composite View" in Philosophia Christi. Series 2 vol. 3 No. 2 2001, 465.
40. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologia, 1a.80.1.
41. Arabic Influences in Aquinas’s Doctrine of Intelligilbe Species. e-publications@Marquette, 2009.
42. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, Vol. 1, Chap. 10.
43. T. Aquinas, On Power, 110.
44. T. Aquinas, On Power, Q 3, Art, 2, Reply 4.
45. T. Aquinas, On Power, Q 6, Reply 4.
46. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology, Chap. 129.
47. T. Aquinas, On Power, Q 3, Art, 2, Reply 4.
48. T. Aquinas, On Power, QE 6, Reply 4.
49. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology, Chap. 129.
50. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1.6.1.
51. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1.6.1.
52. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, Chap. 73.
53. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1.9.3.
54. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.49, 1.
55. T. Aquinas, On Power, 110.
56. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1.13.6.
57. C. S. Lewis, Screwtape Letters, 460.
58. C. S. Lewis, Problem of Pain, 106-107.
59. T. Aquinas, On Power, Q 6, Response.
60. Ibid.
61. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.109.8.
62. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a-2ae.85.1.
63. Ibid.
64. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a-2e.85.2.
65. T. Aquinas, On Power, Q. 6, Objection 23.
66. T. Aquinas, On Power, Q. 6, Reply 23.
67. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, vol. 3, 11.
68. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a. 49, 3.
69. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.65.1.
70. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a. 49, 3.
71. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.49, 3.
72. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, 1a.49,3.
73. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, Chap 15.
74. Augustine, On the Morals of the Manicheans, 5.7.
75. T. Gilby, Philosophical Tests # 514.
76. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 154.
77. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 155.
78. T. Gilby, Philosophical Tests, #543 from de Anima1 ad 7; 2 ad 14.
79. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 153.
80. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 159.
81. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 161.
82. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 160.
83. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 158.
84. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 156.
85. Ibid.
86. Ibid.
87. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 157.
88. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 157).
89. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 175.
90. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 176.
91. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 177.
92. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 179.
93. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 180.
94. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 183).
95. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, 53.
96. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 149.
97. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, 62.
98. T. Aquinas, Compendium of Theology 151.
Chap. 11: Religious Language
1. Thomas Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, I, 32.
2. Thomas Aquinas, De veritate, II, 1, body.
3. Ralph Mclnerny, The Logic of Analogy (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1961).
4. Armand Maurer, "St. Thomas and the Analogy of Genus," New Scholasticism 29 (Apr. 1955): 143.
5. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 13, 5.
6. Duns Scotus, Philosophical Writings, trans. Allan Wolter (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1963), 20-21, 180-81.
7. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, I, 33.
8. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 13, 10.
9. Ibid., la. 13, 5. Sec also Summa contra Gentiles, I, 29-30.
10. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 2, 3.
11. Sec Battista Mondin, The Principle of Analogy in Protestant and Catholic Theology (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1963).
12. Thomas Aquinas, On Being and Essence; See Chap. 7.
13. Thomas Aquinas, De potentia, 7, 7, body.
14. Ever since Cardinal Cajetan's (d. 1534) noted work on analogy (The Analogy of Names and the Concept of Being), this topic has been hotly debated among Thomists. Aquinas apparently uses the analogy of proper proportionality to explain how both God and creatures could possess the same attribute. Nonetheless, when offering a basis for belief that there is a real similarity between God and creatures, Aquinas refers to the intrinsic relation between an efficient cause and its effect.
15. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, I, 29, 2.
16. Ibid., I, 33.
17. Ibid., I, 13, 5.
18. Many of these objections are taken from Frederick Ferre's article on analogy in the Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Paul Edwards (New York: Free, 1973), 1: 94-97.
19. These are elaborated in Norman L. Geisler and Winfried Corduan, Philosophy of Religion (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988), Chap. 10.
20. For a more comprehensive discussion, see David Burrell, Analogy and Philosophical Language (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973).
21. Ibid., Chap. 13.
Chap. 12: Evil
Chap. 13: Law and Morality
1. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theolquiae, la2ae. 90, I, c. and ad 3.
2. Ibid., la2ae. 90, 4.
3. Ibid., la2ae. 90, 1 and ad 3.
4. Ibid., la2ae. 90, 2.
5. Thomas Aquinas, De veritate, 3.
6. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la2ae. 90, 4.
7. T. Aquinas, De veritate, 3, ad 1.
8. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la2ae. 91, 6.
9. Ibid., la2ae. 91, 1.
10. Ibid., la2ae. 93, 3.
11. Ibid. la2ae., 91, 2.
12. Ibid., la2ae. 71, 6, ad 4.
13. Ibid., la2ae. 91, 2.
14. Thomas Aquinas, De malo, 4.
15. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, la. 49, 3, ad 5.
16. Ibid., la2ae. 71, 6.
17. Ibid., la2ae. 21, 1.
18. Ibid., la2ae. 91, 5, ad 2.
19. Ibid., la2ae. 95, 2.
20. Ibid., 2a2ae. 57, 2, ad 3.
21. Thomas Aquinas, De correction fraterna, 1.
22. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologise, la2ae. 96, 2.
23. Ibid., 2a2ae. 77, 1.
24. Ibid., 2a2ae. 96, 3.
25. Ibid., la2ae. 95, 3.
26. Ibid., la2ae. 90, 2.
27. Thomas Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, III, 111-16.
28. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 57, 2, ad 3.
29. Ibid., la2ae. 99, 2.
30. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, III, 111-16.
31. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 68, 1.
32. Ibid., 2a2ae. 120, 1.
33. Thomas Aquinas, Ethics, V, lect. 16.
34. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 120, 1.
35. Ibid., 2a2ae. 57, 2, ad 3.
36. Aquinas does not envision real conflicts within two or more natural laws and hence does not offer a hierarchy of moral principles in this context.
37. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 3a. 90, 4, ad 3.
38. Ibid., 2a2ae. 120, 1, ad 2.
39. Ibid., 2a2ae. 120, 2.
40. Ibid., 2a2ae. 47, 6, ad 3.
41. Ibid., la2ae. 57, 4.
42. Ibid., 2a2ae. 47, 1, ad 3.
43. Ibid., 2a2ae. 47, 2, ad 3.
44. Ibid., 2a2ae. 47, 6.
45. Ibid., 2a2ae. 47, 4.
46. Ibid., 2a2ae. 47, 11.
47. Ibid., 2a2ae. 47, 8.
48. Ibid., 2a2ae. 47, 3, ad 2.
49. Ethics, VI, lect. 4.
50. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 123, 6.
51. Thomas Aquinas, On the Cardinal Virtues, 1, ad 14.
52. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 123, 2.
53. T. Aquinas, Summa contra Gentiles, III, 62.
54. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, 2a2ae. 123, 9.
55. Ibid., 2a2ae. 123, 6.
56. Ibid., 2a2ae. 141, 8.
57. T. Aquinas, On the Cardinal Virtues, 1, ad 6.
58. T. Aquinas, Summa theologiae, 2a2ae. 142, 2.
59. Ibid., 2a2ae. 142, 1, ad 2.
60. Ibid., 2a2ae. 23, 3, ad 1.
61. Ibid., 2a2ae. 57, 1.
62. Ibid., 2a2ae. 58, 3, ad 3.
63. Ibid., 2a2ae. 57, 2.
64. Ibid., 2a2ae. 57, 2, ad 2.
65. Ibid., la2ae. 58, 3, ad 3.
66. Ibid., 1a.1.1, 8 ad 2.
67. Thomas Aquinas, Compendium of theology, 2.
68. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae. 67, 4 ad 1.
69. Thomas Aquinas, De spe, 1.
70. T. Aquinas, Summa Thelogiae 1a2ae.62, 4.
71. Ibid., 1a2ae 64, 4 ad 3.
72. Ibid., 1a2ae 65, 4.
73. T. Aquinas, De caritate, 3.
74. Ibid., 5 ad 4.
75. Thomas Aquinas, De perfectione vitae spiritualis, 1-8.
76. Thomas Aquinas, De potentia, 9, ad 6.
77. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologise, la2ae. 65, 4.
78. Ibid., la2ae. 56, 3, ad 1.
79. T. Aquinas, De perfectione vitae spiritualis, 1-8.
80. T. Aquinas, De potentia, 9, ad 6.
81. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologise, la2ae. 65, 4.
82. Ibid., la2ae. 56, 3, ad 1.