John Calvin And Geneva
JOHN CALVIN AND GENEVA
John Calvin (1509–64) is one of the most significant players in the great religious debates and developments of the sixteenth century. Jean Cauvin—to use his French name for the moment—was born in the French city of Noyon, about seventy miles northeast of Paris. His father was involved in the financial administration of the local diocese, and could rely on the patronage of the bishop to ensure support for his son's career. At some point in the early 1520s (probably 1523), the young Calvin was sent up to the University of Paris. From now on, he would be known by a Latinized form of his name—John Calvin.
Portrait of John Calvin (Artist Unknown)
After completing his undergraduate studies at Paris, Calvin moved to Orléans to study civil law. Although Calvin's father had originally intended that his son should study theology with a view to entering the priesthood, he changed his mind shortly after Calvin began his studies. The study of law generally makes people—and their relatives—rich, Calvin later remarked caustically. It is also possible that Calvin's father may have lost the patronage of the local bishop on account of a financial wrangle back at Noyon. If Calvin was to have a brilliant career in the Church, he would need powerful patrons—and Calvin's father appears to have alienated those who might otherwise have supported him.
Soon after graduating in law at Orléans, Calvin returned to Paris to continue his scholarly work. During this period, he became increasingly sympathetic to the reforming ideas that were then gaining an excited hearing in that city. Parisian academic culture found itself both fascinated and revolted by Luther, and his ideas were widely discussed by students. On November 2, 1533, Calvin was obliged to leave Paris in some haste. The rector of the University of Paris, Nicolas Cop, had delivered a university address in which he seemed to endorse some aspects of Luther's reform program. A copy of Cop's sermon has survived in Calvin's handwriting, prompting some to speculate that Calvin might have been the author of this piece of reform rhetoric.
The Parisian authorities immediately took action against Cop and his circle—which included Calvin—and set about rounding them up. Calvin, realizing that he was a marked man, fled Paris, fearful for his safety. During the following year, he settled in the Swiss city of Basel, known as a place of political and religious asylum, safe from any threat from the French authorities.
Calvin was now firmly committed to the cause of the Reformation, and felt a special responsibility for advocating its ideas in his native France. While in exile in Basel, he wrote a short book, dedicated to the king of France, in which he set out clearly the main ideas of the French reform constituency. Calvin's intention was both to refute its many critics within France, and to set out clearly and attractively the leading themes of Protestant theology. The work was published in Latin in May 1536, with the title The Institutes of the Christian Religion. It became one of the most influential books of the sixteenth century, and established Calvin as a leading Protestant intellectual.
Calvin seems to have had no real idea what to do next. As it happened, others would make that decision for him. After a period of restless wandering, Calvin decided to settle in the great German city of Strasbourg, which had become a citadel of Protestantism in the early 1530s. After settling some family business, Calvin began his journey to Strasbourg in the summer of 1536. The activities of French and German armies caused him to take an indirect route to his destination, passing through the city of Geneva. Calvin intended to spend a night there, resuming his journey in the morning. Fate—or, Calvin would say divine providence—intervened. He was recognized by Geneva's Protestant leaders as the author of the Institutes. They demanded that he stay and help consolidate the Reformation in Geneva.
So began the association between Calvin and Geneva that is one of the fixed reference points of sixteenth-century intellectual history. The relationship was often troubled and stormy especially in its early stages. Calvin's rather rigorous conception of reform gave rise to much opposition within the city. Genevans did not particularly like being forced to attend long sermons. More seriously Calvin allowed it to be known that he was critical of Geneva's political dependence on Berne, particularly in matters of religion. For example, the Bernese churches celebrated Holy Communion four times a year, while Calvin wished to celebrate communion monthly. Not wanting to alienate their powerful ally, the Geneva city council insisted that Geneva fall into line. What Berne wanted, Berne would get. Calvin protested, and was thrown out of Geneva in April 1538.
Calvin spent the period 1538–41 in exile in Strasbourg. It was no great hardship for him. His original intention, two years earlier, had been to settle in this great city, and get on with a life of scholarship. In the event, Calvin was called back to Geneva in 1541. Political and religious instability had broken out in his absence, and the city council had reluctantly decided that they would prefer to have Calvin than chaos. The anti-Calvin faction at Geneva had been fatally wounded by a scandal over Bernese treaty obligations, which had seen their credibility evaporate virtually overnight. They wanted Calvin back.
The treaty between Berne and Geneva, signed after Berne had routed the Savoyard besiegers of the city in February 1536, contained several obscure clauses that became the subject of some tension between the cities in 1539. A delegation of four Genevans traveled to Berne to negotiate a satisfactory resolution of the difficulties. The negotiations were conducted in Swiss German, the language of Berne. The Genevan negotiators presented themselves as international statesmen, who were perfectly capable of negotiating in languages other than their native French. They returned home to popular acclaim, well satisfied with their achievements.
A few months later, however, the Bernese thoughtfully provided Geneva with a full French translation of the articles negotiated at Berne. These were received with disbelief, then outrage. The Geneva negotiators had clearly failed to understand the terms they had allegedly “negotiated.” Geneva immediately repudiated the articles, and ordered their negotiators back to Berne to sort out the mess. Their refusal to do so was viewed as tantamount to treason. The pro-Bernese faction was discredited, being seen as little more than a Bernese fifth column within Geneva. In the next round of city elections, the faction was swept from power, and the way cleared for Calvin to be invited to return to Geneva. He accepted their invitation. Calvin would remain in the city until his death in 1564.
Calvin was a man of vision, and recognized the importance of printing as a means of spreading the ideas of the Reformation throughout Europe. The printing presses of Geneva would produce copies of his works, both in Latin and French, which would actively promote the cause of reform within his native France. Yet Calvin was also aware of another means by which the Protestant cause could be advanced. As Calvin's ideas gained influence throughout Europe, especially in the late 1540s and early 1550s, many religious refugees from France, England, and Italy began to arrive in Geneva. Not only would the city offer them asylum from their enemies, it would allow them to absorb Calvin's ideas and methods at firsthand. Every refugee was a potential Protestant missionary to his country of origin.
Calvin realized that Geneva's unique situation allowed it an unrivaled position as a catalyst for Protestant revolution throughout Europe. Geneva could produce both Protestant books and highly motivated individuals who would be able and willing to spread the ideas of the Reformation. Although Calvin's primary concern would always be for his native France, he was not unaware of the critical role that educated English Protestant émigrés might play in bringing about a Protestant revolution in England.
As events made clear, this point was not lost on a group of English refugees who sought asylum in Geneva, while they plotted the conversion of their native land to Calvin's cause.