65. Sinclair Lewis, Elmer Gantry (New York: Dell, 1954).
63. Max Weber, “The Sociology of Charismatic Authority,” in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, edited by H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (London: Oxford University Press, 1946), 246–52. For a critical assessment of this famous axiom, see Rongfen Wang, “Cäsarismus und Machtpolitik: Eine historisch-biobibliographische Analyse von Max Webers Charismakonzept,” Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie 55 (2003): 136–51.
64. For the issues in biblical interpretation, see Gale A. Yee, “The Author/Text/Reader and Power: Suggestions for a Critical Framework for Biblical Studies,” in Reading from This Place, vol. 1, Social Location and Biblical Interpretation in the United States, edited by Fernando F. Segovia and Mary Ann Tolbert (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995), 109–18.
65. Sinclair Lewis, Elmer Gantry (New York: Dell, 1954).
66. Karl Barth, “Theology,” in God in Action (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1936), 39–57.
CHAPTER 10: BELIEVING AND BELONGING: SOME DISTINCTIVE PROTESTANT BELIEFS
1. For a comprehensive introduction to the basic themes of Christian theology, including a comparison of Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox positions, see Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction, 4th ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007).
2. For some representative works, see Heinz Zahrnt, The Question of God: Protestant Theology in the Twentieth Century (New York: Harcourt Brace & World, 1969); William A. Scott, Historical Protestantism: An Historical Introduction to Protestant Theology (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1970); John B. Cobb, Living Options in Protestant Theology: A Survey of Methods (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1986).
3. On this argument, see Dennis R. Creswell, St. Augustine’s Dilemma: Grace and Eternal Law in the Major Works of Augustine of Hippo—Studies in Church History, vol. 5 (New York: Peter Lang, 1997); Basil Studer, The Grace of Christ and the Grace of God in Augustine of Hippo: Christocentrism or Theocentrism? (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1997).
4. For the development of this doctrine, with particular reference to the controversies of the sixteenth century, see Alister E. McGrath, Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification, 3rd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
5. See the classic study by Ernst Wolf, “Die Rechtfertigungslehre als Mitte und Grenze reformatorischer Theologie,” Evangelische Theologie 9 (1949): 298–308.
6. Friedhelm Krüger, Bucer und Erasmus: Eine Untersuchung zum Einfluss des Erasmus auf die Theologie Martin Bucers (bis zum Evangelien-Kommentar von 1530) (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1970).
7. Alvin J. Beachy, The Concept of Grace in the Radical Reformation (Nieuwkoop: de Graaf, 1977).
8. Arnold Angenendt, Heilige und Reliquien: Die Geschichte ihres Kultes vom frühen Christentum bis zur Gegenwart (Munich: Beck, 1994). For a specific example of the phenomenon, see Thomas Head, Hagiography and the Cult of Saints: The Diocese of Orléans, 800–1200 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
9. See the important material assembled in Robert W. Scriber, Popular Culture and Popular Movements in Reformation Germany (London: Hambledon, 1987), 301–54.
10. For documentation and comment, see McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 406–20.
11. For the debate, which continues to this day, see Stephen Westerholm, Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The “Lutheran” Paul and His Critics (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004).
12. McGrath, Iustitia Dei, 406–20.
13. See the material in William J. Connell, ed., Society and Individual in Renaissance Florence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).
14. Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, IV.i.9.
15. Laurence R. Iannaccone and Rodney Stark, “A Supply-Side Reinterpretation of the ‘Secularization’ of Europe,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 33 (1994): 230–52.
16. Steve Bruce, “The Truth About Religion in Britain,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 34 (1995): 417–30. Bruce is critical of the approach adopted by Iannaccone and Stark.
17. W. H. C. Frend, The Donatist Church: A Movement of Protest in Roman North Africa (London: Oxford University Press, 1952).
18. On this idea, see Maureen A. Tilley, “Sustaining Donatist Self-Identity: From the Church of the Martyrs to the Collecta of the Desert,” Journal of Early Christian Studies 5 (1997): 21–35.
19. Paul Chang-La Lim, In Pursuit of Purity, Unity, and Liberty: Richard Baxter’s Puritan Ecclesiology in Its Seventeenth-Century Context (Leiden: Brill, 2004), 156–90.
20. For what follows, see Louis Bouyer, The Word, Church, and Sacraments in Protestantism and Catholicism (London: Chapman, 1961); Gary Macy, The Theologies of the Eucharist in the Early Scholastic Period (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984); Brian A. Gerrish, Grace and Gratitude: The Eucharistic Theology of John Calvin (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1993); James F. White, The Sacraments in Protestant Practice and Faith (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1999).
21. Hermann Sasse, This Is My Body: Luther’s Contention for the Real Presence in the Sacrament of the Altar (Minneapolis: Augsburg Press, 1959).
22. Charles Taylor, Modern Social Imaginaries (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004).
23. Robert Whalen, “George Herbert’s Sacramental Puritanism,” Renaissance Quarterly 54 (2001): 1273–1307.
24. For some of these issues, see Marcel Gauchet, The Disenchantment of the World: A Political History of Religion (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997).
25. For the debates, see Dewey D. Wallace, Puritans and Predestination: Grace in English Protestant Theology, 1525–1695 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982); Richard A. Muller, Christ and the Decree: Christology and Predestination in Reformed Theology from Calvin to Perkins (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988).
26. For the point, see Alister E. McGrath, The Genesis of Doctrine (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990).
27. The best account is Robert Kolb, Bound Choice, Election, and Wittenberg Theological Method: From Martin Luther to the Formula of Concord (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2005).
28. See Adolar Zumkeller, “Hugolin von Orvieto über Prädestination, Rechtfertigung, und Verdienst,” Augustiniana 4 (1954): 109–56; 5 (1955): 5–51.
29. Lutheran Church (Missouri Synod), “Brief Statement,” articles 33–35 (on the election of grace). I have taken the liberty of restating this excerpt using inclusive language.
30. The best study of the origins and emergence of these ideas remains A. W. Harrison, The Beginnings of Arminianism to the Synod of Dort (London: University of London Press, 1926).
31. Herbert B. McGonigle, Sufficient Saving Grace: John Wesley’s Evangelical Arminianism (Carlisle, UK: Paternoster Press, 2001).
32. C. H. Spurgeon’s Autobiography: Compiled from His Diary, Letters, and Records, edited by Susannah Spurgeon and W. J. Harrald, 4 vols. (London: Passmore and Alabaster, 1900), 1: 173. Spurgeon’s later comments may be noted: “Although upon doctrines of grace our views differ from those avowed by Arminian Methodists, we have usually found that on the great evangelical truths we are in full agreement, and we have been comforted by the belief that Wesleyans were solid upon the central doctrines” (The Sword and the Trowel, May 1891).
33. For a discussion, see Alister E. McGrath, A Brief History of Heaven (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002).
34. E. Beatrice Batson, John Bunyan: Allegory and Imagination (Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble, 1984).
35. Barton Levi St. Armaud, “Paradise Deferred: The Image of Heaven in the Work of Emily Dickinson and Elizabeth Stuart Phelps,” American Quarterly 29 (1977): 55–78.
36. James Martin, The Last Judgment in Protestant Theology (Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1963).
37. See Tony Gray, “Destroyed For Ever: An Examination of the Debates Concerning Annihilation and Conditional Immortality,” Themelios 21 (1996): 14–18.
38. See the discussion in Jeffrey Burton Russell, Paradise Mislaid: How We Lost Heaven—And How We Can Regain It (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).
39. Richard Landes, “On Owls, Roosters, and Apocalyptic Time: A Historical Method for Reading a Refractory Documentation,” Union Seminary Quarterly Review 49 (1996): 165–85.
40. For the history of the interpretation of this biblical work, see Kenneth G. C. Newport, Apocalypse and Millennium: Studies in Biblical Eisegesis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
CHAPTER 11: THE STRUCTURES OF FAITH: ORGANIZATION, WORSHIP, AND PREACHING
1. “Nothing is possible without people; nothing lasts without institutions.” For illustration and analysis of this point with reference to the creation of modern Europe, see François Roth, L’Invention de la Europe: De l’Europe de Jean Monnet à l’Union européenne (Paris: Armand Colin, 2005).
2. For an excellent study of one aspect of this development, see Nicholas Thompson, Eucharistic Sacrifice and Patristic Tradition in the Theology of Martin Bucer, 1534–1546 (Leiden: Brill, 2005).
3. For the difficulties this caused many Catholics, such as Reginald Pole, see Dermot Fenlon, Heresy and Obedience in Tridentine Italy: Cardinal Pole and the Counter-Reformation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972).
4. In recent times, this church has preferred to be known as the Episcopal Church in the United States of America (ECUSA), or, more simply, The Episcopal Church (TEC).
5. Jaroslav J. Pelikan, Spirit Versus Structure: Luther and the Institutions of the Church (London: Collins, 1968).
6. For comment, see Steven D. Paulson, “Lutherans on Episcopacy and Apostolicity,” Lutheran Quarterly 18 (2004): 232–48.
7. For the background, see Karin Maag, “Called to Be a Pastor: Issues of Vocation in the Early Modern Period,” Sixteenth Century Journal 35 (2004): 65–78.
8. R. E. H. Uprichard, “The Eldership in Martin Bucer and John Calvin,” Irish Biblical Studies 18 (1996): 136–55.
9. Robert M. Kingdon, “Calvin’s Idea About the Diaconate: Social or Theological in Origin?,” in Piety, Politics, and Ethics: Reformation Studies in Honor of George Wolfgang Forell, edited by Carter Lindberg (Kirksville, MO: Sixteenth Century Journal, 1984), 167–80.
10. See the classic study of R. W. Dale and Sir A. W. W. Dale, eds., History of English Congregationalism, 2nd ed. (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1907).
11. For example, Baptists in the northern states split from what became the Southern Baptist Convention in 1845 over the slavery issue. In 1907 they grouped together as the Northern Baptist Convention. Since 1972 the group has been known as the American Baptist Churches USA.
12. William Wright Barnes, The Southern Baptist Convention, 1845–1953 (Nashville, TN: Broadman Press, 1954).
13. Irenaeus of Lyons, Adversus haereses, III.xxiv.1.
14. The official histories of this assembly are rather dull and triumphalistic. For a much more interesting and racy account, see God’s Apprentice: The Autobiography of Stephen Neill, edited by E. M. Jackson (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1991), 205–39.
15. Some mergers did take place at the regional level; for example, the Uniting Church in Australia was formed in 1977 from the Congregational Union of Australia, the Methodist Church of Australasia, and the Presbyterian Church of Australia.
16. For an excellent analysis, see Mark A. Noll and Carolyn Nystrom, Is the Reformation Over? An Evangelical Assessment of Contemporary Roman Catholicism (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2005).
17. It is often forgotten that Luther was prepared to allow the liturgy to be in Latin provided that the sermon was preached in the vernacular.
18. A very readable account of the controversy may be found in W. Stanford Reid, Trumpeter of God: A Biography of John Knox (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1982), 105–29.
19. Philippe Denis, “La Prophétie dans les églises de la réforme au XVIe siècle,” Revue d’Histoire Ecclésiastique 72 (1977): 289–316; Peter Iver Kaufman, “Prophesying Again,” Church History 68 (1999): 337–58.
20. Carolyn Muessig, Medieval Monastic Preaching (Leiden: Brill, 1998).
21. Susan Wabuda, Preaching During the English Reformation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 7–8.
22. Corrie E. Norman, Humanist Taste and Franciscan Values: Cornelio Musso and Catholic Preaching in Sixteenth-Century Italy (New York: P. Lang, 1998).
23. Hans Stickelberger, “Bullingers bekanntester Satz und seine Interpretation bei Karl Barth,” in Von Cyprian zur Walzenprägung: Streiflichter auf Zürcher Geist und Kultur der Bullingerzeit, edited by Hans Ulrich Bächtold (Zug: Achius, 2001), 105–14.
24. Andrew Spicer, “Architecture,” in The Reformation World by Andrew Pettegree (London: Routledge, 2000), 505–20, esp. 509.
25. The best study remains Paul S. Seaver, The Puritan Lectureships: The Politics of Religious Dissent, 1560–1662 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1970).
26. Robert of Basevorn, “The Form of Preaching,” in Three Medieval Rhetorical Arts, edited by James J. Murphy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), 111–215.
27. For Perkins’s understanding of the role of preaching in the effecting of salvation, see Richard A. Muller, “Perkins’s A Golden Chaine: Predestinarian System or Schematized Ordo Salutis?” Sixteenth Century Journal 9 (1978): 69–81.
28. Robert H. Ellison, The Victorian Pulpit: Spoken and Written Sermons in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Selinsgrove, PA: Susquehanna University Press, 1998).
29. Helga Robinson-Hammerstein, The Transmission of Ideas in the Lutheran Reformation (Blackrock, Ireland: Irish Academic Press, 1989), 141–72.
30. The general importance of the use of music in relation to sustaining contemporary worldviews is brought out clearly by Richard Freedman, “Listening and Ideology in Reformation and Counter-Reformation: The Lassus Chansons and Their Protestant Listeners of the Late Sixteenth Century,” Musical Quarterly 82 (1998): 564–85.
31. In German, “Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott.” The motif is incorporated into some of the cantatas of Johann Sebastian Bach.
32. For the remarkable influence of the Psalms on English literature at this time, see Hannibal Hamlin, Psalm Culture and Early Modern English Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
33. For useful material, see John Morehen, ed., English Choral Practice, c. 1400–c. 1650 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
34. Suzanne Lord and David Brinkman, Music from the Age of Shakespeare: A Cultural History (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003), 73–92. Mention should also be made of the Anglican “anthem,” which was introduced around this time. This choral piece was generally based on a scriptural text or paraphrase and sung after the collects in the liturgy of matins and evensong. Thomas Tallis (c. 1505–85) composed about twenty anthems.
35. John Endres and Elizabeth Liebert, A Retreat with the Psalms: Resources for Personal and Communal Prayer (New York: Paulist Press, 2001). A similar development took place within Roman Catholicism during the 1950s—four centuries later—when the French Jesuit Joseph Gelineau developed a method of paraphrasing the Psalms that preserved the rhythmic structure of Hebrew poetry. In this style—often called “sprung rhythm”—the rhythm of the singing moves on the stressed syllables of the text.
36. Although widely referred to as the Geneva Psalter, the original title of the work was La Forme des prieres et chantz ecclésiastiques.
37. The work is often referred to as “Sternhold and Hopkins,” owing to the preponderance of their translations.
38. Erik Routley, The Music of Christian Hymnody: A Study of the Development of the Hymn Tune Since the Reformation, with Special Reference to English Protestantism (London: Independent Press, 1957).
39. Paul S. Minear, “Bach and Today’s Theologians,” Theology Today 42 (1985): 201–10.
40. For an excellent reflective account, see Richard J. Mouw and Mark A. Noll, Wonderful Words of Life: Hymns in American Protestant History and Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004). See also Edith W. Blumhofer and Mark A. Noll, Singing the Lord’s Song in a Strange Land: Hymnody in the History of North American Protestantism (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004).
41. Jon Michael Spencer, Black Hymnody: A Hymnological History of the African-American Church (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1992).
42. Tamar Frankiel, Gospel Hymns and Social Religion: The Rhetoric of Nineteenth-Century Revivalism (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978).
43. Jeremy Begbie, “The Spirituality of Renewal Music,” Anvil 8 (1991): 227–39.
44. The general issue is considered in Jeremy Begbie, Theology, Music, and Time (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 128–54.
45. For some important studies, see Sergiusz Michalski, The Reformation and the Visual Arts: The Protestant Image Question in Western and Eastern Europe (London: Routledge, 1993); Joseph Leo Koerner, The Reformation of the Image (London: Reaktion Books, 2004).
46. Lee Palmer Wandel, Voracious Idols and Violent Hands: Iconoclasm in Reformation Zurich, Strasbourg, and Basel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
47. For some of the broader issues, see Christopher Collins, Reading the Written Image: Verbal Play, Interpretation, and the Roots of Iconophobia (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991).
48. For a modern Reformed approach reflecting this position, see Jacques Ellul, The Humiliation of the Word (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1985).
49. Robert W. Scribner, For the Sake of Simple Folk: Popular Propaganda for the German Reformation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 216–17.
50. William A. Dyrness, Reformed Theology and Visual Culture: The Protestant Imagination from Calvin to Edwards (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 142–239.
51. D. Z. Phillips, R. S. Thomas: Poet of the Hidden God—Meaning and Mediation in the Poetry of R. S. Thomas (Allison Park, PA: Pickwick Publications, 1986).
52. See the useful introduction to the Baroque style by Timon H. Fokker, Roman Baroque Art: The History of a Style (New York: Hacker, 1972). For some more specific comments, see Charles Dempsey, Annibale Carracci and the Beginnings of Baroque Style, 2nd ed. (Fiesole: Cadmo, 2000).
CHAPTER 12: PROTESTANTISM AND THE SHAPING OF WESTERN CULTURE
1. For the intellectual issues, see Jaroslav Pelikan, Christianity and Classical Culture: The Metamorphosis of Natural Theology in the Christian Encounter with Hellenism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993).
2. For a range of definitions, including these, see Clyde Kluckhohn, Mirror for Man: The Relation of Anthropology to Modern Life (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985). One of the best recent accounts is to be found in Margaret Archer, Culture and Agency: The Place of Culture in Social Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
3. T. S. Eliot, Notes Towards a Definition of Culture (London: Faber & Faber, 1948), 27.
4. H. Richard Niebuhr, Christ and Culture (New York: Harper, 1951).
5. Steven M. Nolt, A History of the Amish (Intercourse, PA: Good Books, 1992).
6. For important surveys, see William R. Hutchison, The Modernist Impulse in American Protestantism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976); Mark D. Chapman, Ernst Troeltsch and Liberal Theology: Religion and Cultural Synthesis in Wilhelmine, Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
7. For an analysis, see John P. Clayton, The Concept of Correlation: Paul Tillich and the Possibility of a Mediating Theology (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1980).
8. Paul Tillich, “The Church and Contemporary Culture,” World Christian Education (1956): 41–43.
9. On this doctrine, see Per Frostin, Luther’s Two Kingdoms Doctrine: A Critical Study (Lund: Lund University Press, 1994).
10. Heinz Horst Schrey, ed., Reich Gottes und Welt: Die Lehre Luthers von den Zwei Reichen (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1969).
11. For a biography, see Geoffrey Wainwright, Lesslie Newbigin: A Theological Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
12. Lesslie Newbigin, The Household of God: Lectures on the Nature of the Church (London: SCM Press, 1953).
13. R. H. Bainton, The Medieval Church (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962), 42.
14. Gerald Biesecker-Mast, Separation and the Sword in Anabaptist Persuasion: Radical Confessional Rhetoric from Schleitheim to Dordrecht (Telford, PA: Cascadia, 2006). This aspect of Anabaptist identity is emphasized by Harold S. Bender, The Anabaptist Vision (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1944).
15. Other examples are easily given; see Frank D. Macchia, Spirituality and Social Liberation: The Message of the Blumhardts in the Light of Wuerttemberg Pietism (London: Scarecrow Press, 1993).
16. Representative works include John Howard Yoder, The Priestly Kingdom (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1988); Stanley Hauerwas, The Peaceable Kingdom: A Primer in Christian Ethics (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1983).
17. See, for example, J. Denny Weaver, The Nonviolent Atonement (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001).
18. Carl F. H. Henry, The Uneasy Conscience of Modern Fundamentalism (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1947).
19. Millard J. Erickson, The New Evangelical Theology (Westwood, NJ: Revell, 1968), 22–30.
20. William Martin, With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in America (New York: Broadway Books, 1996).
21. Ralph C. Hancock, Calvin and the Foundations of Modern Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989). Note especially his astute comment: “Calvin radically distinguishes politics and religion in order to unify them in worldly activity” (163).
22. John Calvin, The Geneva Catechism (1545), q. 107.
23. For the interpretation of this text, especially in nineteenth-century America, see Stephen R. Haynes, Noah’s Curse: The Biblical Justification of American Slavery (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).
24. Eric Metaxas, Amazing Grace: William Wilberforce and the Heroic Campaign to End Slavery (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2007).
25. Willard M. Swartley, Slavery, Sabbath, War, and Women: Case Issues in Biblical Interpretation (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1983).
26. For an excellent study of the problem, see Kevin W. Giles, “The Biblical Argument for Slavery: Can the Bible Mislead? A Case Study in Hermeneutics,” Evangelical Quarterly 66 (1994): 3–17.
27. For a popular account of this movement, see Bruce Barron, The Health and Wealth Gospel: What’s Going on Today in a Movement That Has Shaped the Faith of Millions? (Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 1987).
28. Frederick Coutts, Bread for My Neighbor: An Appreciation of the Social Action and Influence of William Booth (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1978).
29. The best study of this social activism is Diane H. Winston, Red-hot and Righteous: The Urban Religion of the Salvation Army (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).
30. For a useful study, see John P. McDowell, The Social Gospel in the South: The Woman’s Home Mission Movement in the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, 1886–1939 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1982).
31. Gary Scott Smith, “To Reconstruct the World: Walter Rauschenbusch and Social Change,” Fides et Historia 23 (1991): 40–63.
32. See the analysis in Donald E. Miller, Global Pentecostalism: The New Face of Christian Social Engagement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007).
33. See the analysis in Alister E. McGrath, The Twilight of Atheism: The Rise and Fall of Unbelief in the West (New York: Doubleday, 2003).
34. For details, see Robert P. Ericksen, Theologians Under Hitler: Gerhard Kittel, Paul Althaus, and Emanuel Hirsch (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985).
35. Frank J. Sorauf, The Wall of Separation: The Constitutional Politics of Church and State (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976).
36. A full examination of the thesis lies beyond this work. The following critical studies should be consulted: Hartmann Tyrell, “Worum geht es in der ‘Protestantischen Ethik’?,” Saeculum 41 (1990): 130–77; Friedhelm Guttandin, Einfüh-rung in die “Protestantische Ethik” Max Webers (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1998).
37. Weber regarded Lutheranism as anemic and paid little attention to the Radical Reformation. Much attention has been paid recently to the socioeconomic thought of Anabaptism and its theological foundations; see Thomas Heilke, “Locating a Moral-Political Economy: Lessons from Sixteenth-Century Anabaptism,” Polity 30 (1997): 199–229.
38. Michael H. Lessnoff, The Spirit of Capitalism and the Protestant Ethic: An Inquiry into the Weber Thesis (Aldershot, UK: Elgar, 1994).
39. Günther Roth and Hartmut Lehmann, Weber’s “Protestant Ethic”: Origins, Evidence, Contexts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
40. The classic study is John T. Noonan, The Scholastic Analysis of Usury (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957). For a more recent analysis, see Odd Lang-holm, Economics in the Medieval Schools: Wealth, Exchange, Value, Money, and Usury According to the Paris Theological Tradition, 1200–1350 (Leiden: Brill, 1992). For Noonan’s reflections on subsequent developments, see John T. Noonan, “Development in Moral Doctrine,” Theological Studies 54 (1993): 662–78.
41. See texts such as Leviticus 25:35–37, Deuteronomy 23:19–20, Psalm 15:5, and Ezekiel 18: 13. For comment, see Cyril S. Rodd, Glimpses of a Strange Land: Studies in Old Testament Ethics (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 2001), 142–57.
42. Ambrose primarily based his argument on the prohibitions of usury in the Old Testament, as at Exodus 22:25 and Leviticus 25: 36.
43. See Diana Wood, Medieval Economic Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002). For theological reflection, see Joan Lockwood O’Donovan, “The Theological Economics of Medieval Usury Theory,” Studies in Christian Ethics 14 (2001): 48–64.
44. For English attitudes, see Norman L. Jones, God and the Moneylenders: Usury and the Law in Early Modern England (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989).
45. The best study remains André Biéler, La Pensée économique et sociale de Calvin (Geneva: Librairie de l’Université, 1959), 453–76.
46. Ibid., 455.
47. P. E. Martin, “Calvin et le prêt à intérêt à Genève,” in Mélanges d’histoire économique et sociale, en hommage au professeur Antony Babel (Geneva: Imprimerie de la Tribune de Genève, 1963), 251–63.
48. Martin H. Körner, Solidarités financières suisses au XVIe siècle: Contribution à l’histoire monétaire, bancaire, et financière des cantons suisses et des états voisins (Lausanne: Payot, 1980).
49. Alfred Bürgin, Kapitalismus und Calvinismus: Versuch einer wirtschaftsgeschichtlichen und religionssoziologischen Untersuchung der Verhältnisse in Genf im 16. und beginnenden 17. Jahrhundert (Winterthur: Keller, 1960), 108–22.
50. See, for example, Gordon Marshall, Presbyteries and Profits: Calvinism and the Development of Capitalism in Scotland, 1560–1707 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980). More generally, see Richard Grassby, The Business Community of Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
51. Anne K. Knowles, Calvinists Incorporated: Welsh Immigrants on Ohio’s Industrial Frontier (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
52. For a critical analysis, see Rafael Llano Sánchez, Max Webers Kulturphilosophie der Moderne: Eine Untersuchung des Berufsmenschentums (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1997).
53. For the negative consequences of this belief, see James Gilbert, Work Without Salvation: America’s Intellectuals and Industrial Alienation, 1880–1910 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977).
54. Jacques LeGoff, Time, Work, and Culture in the Middle Ages (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980).
55. George Ovitt, The Restoration of Perfection: Labor and Technology in Medieval Culture (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1987), 90–106.
56. Adriano Tilgher, Homo Faber: Work Through the Ages (Chicago: Regnery, 1958).
57. See the classic study by Gustaf Wingren, Luthers Lehre vom Beruf (Munich: Kaiser Verlag, 1952). For slight correction and amplification, see Karlfried Froelich, “Luther on Vocation,” Lutheran Quarterly 13 (1999): 195–207; Kenneth Hagen, “A Critique of Wingren on Luther on Vocation,” Lutheran Quarterly 16 (2002): 249–73.
58. William Perkins, “A Treatise of the Vocations or Callings of Men,” in The Work of William Perkins, edited by Ian Breward (Appleford, UK: Sutton Courtenay Press, 1970), 250–69.
59. Vittorio Tranquilli, Il concetto di lavoro da Aristotele a Calvino (Milan: Ricciardi, 1979).
60. For useful reflections, see Gilbert C. Meilaender, Working: Its Meaning and Its Limits (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2000).
61. Miroslav Volf, Work in the Spirit: Toward a Theology of Work (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
62. See Robert Wuthnow and John Hyde Evans, eds., The Quiet Hand of God: Faith-Based Activism and the Public Role of Mainline Protestantism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002). Although this study focuses on the last three decades of the twentieth century, its findings are of wider relevance.
63. See the important analysis by Gerald Strauss, Luther’s House of Learning: Indoctrination of the Young in the German Reformation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978).
64. Note the points made by Steven E. Ozment, Protestants: The Birth of a Revolution (New York: Doubleday, 1992).
65. Philip J. Greven, The Protestant Temperament: Patterns of Child-Rearing, Religious Experience, and the Self in Early America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).
66. A point stressed by Mary Wilson Carpenter, Imperial Bibles, Domestic Bodies: Women, Sexuality, and Religion in the Victorian Market (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003).
67. Thomas W. Laqueur, Religion and Respectability: Sunday Schools and Working-Class Structure, 1780–1850 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1976).
68. Gillian Lewis, “The Geneva Academy,” in Calvinism in Europe, 1540–1620, edited by Andrew Pettegree, Alastair Duke, and Gillian Lewis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 35–63.
69. John S. Whitehead, The Separation of College and State: Columbia, Dartmouth, Harvard, and Yale, 1776–1876 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973).
70. For a series of case studies illustrating these developments, see George M. Marsden and Bradley J. Longfield, eds., The Secularization of the Academy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
71. For analysis of this development and how it might be countered, see Richard T. Hughes and William B. Adrian, eds., Models for Christian Higher Education: Strategies for Success in the Twenty-first Century (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1997).
72. See the analysis in James Tunstead Burtchaell, The Dying of the Light: The Disengagement of Colleges and Universities from Their Christian Churches (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998). Virtually all of the seventeen institutions analyzed by Burtchaell were Protestant.
73. For a study of such developments outside the CCCU, see Robert Benne, Quality with Soul: How Six Premier Colleges and Universities Kept Faith with Their Religious Traditions (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001).
74. George Marsden, Reforming Fundamentalism: Fuller Seminary and the New Evangelicalism (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987).
75. See Katharina M. Wilson, Women Writers of the Renaissance and Reformation (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1987); Christine Peters, Patterns of Piety: Women, Gender, and Religion in Late Medieval and Reformation England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). An early attempt by a male writer deserves honorable mention: Roland H. Bainton, Women of the Reformation in Germany and Italy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1974).
76. As noted by Jane Dempsey Douglass, Women, Freedom, and Calvin (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1985).
77. This little gem is found in Charles Duplessis d’Argentré, Collectio judiciorum de novis erroribus, 3 vols. (Paris: André Cailleau, 1725–36), 2/1:96–97.
78. The importance of this role is evident from a reading of K. J. P. Lowe, Nuns’ Chronicles and Convent Culture: Women and History Writing in Renaissance and Counter-Reformation Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
79. Merry E. Wiesner, Women and Gender in Early Modern Europe: New Approaches to European History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
80. See the important study by Nancy J. Duff, “Vocation, Motherhood, and Marriage,” in Women, Gender, and Christian Community, edited by Jane Dempsey Douglass and James F. Kay (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1997), 69–81.
81. There is a large literature; see especially Lyndal Roper, The Holy Household: Women and Morals in Reformation Augsburg (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991); Joel F. Harrington, Reordering Marriage and Society in Reformation Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
82. Scott Hendrix, “Christianizing Domestic Relations: Women and Marriage in Johann Freder’s ‘Dialogus dem Ehestand zu Ehren,’” Sixteenth Century Journal 23 (1992): 251–66.
83. For a useful analysis, see Robert J. Bast, Honor Your Fathers: Catechisms and the Emergence of a Patriarchal Ideology in Germany, c. 1400–1600 (Leiden: Brill, 1997).
84. For a brilliant yet controversial statement of this thesis, see Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Free Press, 2002).
85. Jack Donnelly, “Twentieth-Century Realism,” in Traditions of International Ethics, edited by Terry Nardin and David R. Mapel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 85–111.
86. For similar ideas in Catholicism, see Robert J. Schreiter, Constructing Local Theologies (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1985).
CHAPTER 13: PROTESTANTISM, THE ARTS, AND THE NATURAL SCIENCES
1. Eamon Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England, c. 1400–c. 1580 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), 11.
2. Carlos M. N. Eire, War Against the Idols: The Reformation of Worship from Erasmus to Calvin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 12.
3. John Bossy, Christianity in the West, 1400–1700 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 11–13.
4. Sergiusz Michalski, The Reformation and the Visual Arts: The Protestant Image Question in Western and Eastern Europe (London: Routledge, 1993), 75–98.
5. For a refutation of this position, see Paul Corby Finney, The Invisible God: The Earliest Christians on Art (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).
6. See the issues noted in Mitchell Stephens, The Rise of the Image, the Fall of the Word (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
7. Robert Scribner, Popular Culture and Popular Movements in Reformation Germany (London: Hambledon Press, 1987), 277–300.
8. David Freedberg, Iconoclasm and Painting in the Revolt of the Netherlands, 1566–1609 (New York: Garland, 1988).
9. Mariet Westermann, “After Iconography and Iconoclasm: Current Research in Netherlandish Art, 1566–1700,” Art Bulletin 84 (2002): 351–72.
10. This point is stressed by Elizabeth Alice Honig, Painting and the Market in Early Modern Antwerp (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998).
11. John Phillips, The Reformation of Images: Destruction of Art in England, 1535–1660 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), 186. See also Julie Spraggon, Puritan Iconoclasm During the English Civil War (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2003).
12. Angela Vanhaelen, “Iconoclasm and the Creation of Images in Emmanuel de Witte’s Old Church in Amsterdam,” Art Bulletin 87 (2005): 249–64.
13. For this theme in Puritan spirituality and iconography, see Lynn Haims, “The Face of God: Puritan Iconography in Early American Poetry, Sermons, and Tombstone Carving,” Early American Literature 14 (1979): 15–47.
14. The classic study remains Robert Daly, God’s Altar: The World and the Flesh in Puritan Poetry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978). See also Michael Clark, “The Crucified Phrase: Sign and Desire in Puritan Semiology,” Early American Literature 13 (1978): 278–93.
15. For an Anglican example, see Richard Harries, Art and the Beauty of God: A Christian Understanding (London: Mowbray, 1993).
16. Jeremy Begbie, Voicing Creation’s Praise: Towards a Theology of the Arts (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1991). Note especially Begbie’s engagement with the neo-Calvinist tradition.
17. Alan Sinfield, “The Cultural Politics of the Defense of Poetry,” in Sir Philip Sidney and the Interpretation of Renaissance Culture: The Poet in His Time and in Ours, edited by Gary F. Waller and Michael D. Moore (Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble, 1984), 124–43.
18. Efterpi Mitsi, “The ‘Popular Philosopher’: Plato, Poetry, and Food in Tudor Aesthetics,” Early Modern Literary Studies 9 (2003): 1–23.
19. Cited in Daly, God’s Altar, 68.
20. Jane Donahue Eberwein, “‘Art, Nature’s Ape’: The Challenge to the Puritan Poet,” in Poetics in the Poem: Critical Essays on American Self-Reflexive Poetry, edited by Dorothy Z. Baker (New York: Peter Lang, 1997), 24–45; Sara Eaton, “Anne Bradstreet’s ‘Personal’ Protestant Poetics,” Women’s Writing 4 (1997): 57–71.
21. Clarence H. Miller, “Christ as the Philosopher’s Stone in George Herbert’s ‘The Elixir,’” Notes and Queries 45 (1998): 39–41. For a related Protestant theme, see Judy Z. Kronenfeld, “Herbert’s ‘A Wreath’ and Devotional Aesthetics: Imperfect Efforts Redeemed by Grace,” English Literary History 48 (1981): 290–309.
22. Gillian R. Evans, “John Donne and the Augustinian Paradox of Sin,” Review of English Studies 33 (1982): 1–22.
23. See, for example, Aliki Barnstone, Michael T. Manson, and Carol J. Singley, eds., The Calvinist Roots of the Modern Era (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1997).
24. Susan E. Schreiner, The Theater of His Glory: Nature and the Natural Order in the Thought of John Calvin (Durham, NC: Labyrinth Press, 1991).
25. Jane Milling and Peter Thomson, eds., The Cambridge History of British Theater: Origins to 1660, 3 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 141–42.
26. For a full discussion, see Jonas A. Barish, The Anti-Theatrical Prejudice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981).
27. See the analysis in Cecelia Tichi, “Thespis and the ‘Carnall Hipocrite’: A Puritan Motive for Aversion to Drama,” Early American Literature 4 (1969): 86–103.
28. See the analysis and contextualization in Michael O’Connell, The Idolatrous Eye: Iconoclasm and Theater in Early Modern England (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
29. See David Bevington, Tudor Drama and Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968), 293–99.
30. The best attempt to do this is Huston Diehl, Staging Reform, Reforming the Stage: Protestantism and Popular Theater in Early Modern England (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997).
31. Alice Lyle-Scoufos, Shakespeare’s Typological Satire: A Study of the Falstaff-Oldcastle Problem (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1979).
32. See especially the recent critical biography of Stephen Greenblatt, Will in the World: How Shakespeare Became Shakespeare (London: Jonathan Cape, 2004).
33. For what follows, see Stephen Greenblatt, Hamlet in Purgatory (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001).
34. Greenblatt, Hamlet in Purgatory, 203, 257.
35. For a provocative analysis, see Clare Asquith, Shadowplay: The Hidden Beliefs and Coded Politics of William Shakespeare (New York: Public Affairs, 2005).
36. For the development of this genre, see Andrew M. Roberts, The Novel: A Guide to the Novel from Its Origins to the Present Day (London: Bloomsbury, 1994); Michael McKeon, The Origins of the English Novel, 1600–1740 (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2002).
37. Rodger M. Payne, The Self and the Sacred: Conversion and Autobiography in Early American Protestantism (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1998).
38. John W. Ripley, “The Strange Story of Charles M. Sheldon’s In His Steps,” Kansas Historical Quarterly 34 (1978): 241–65.
39. For an analysis of the possible roots of this appeal, see Ferenc Morton Szasz, The Divided Mind of Protestant America, 1880–1930 (University: University of Alabama Press, 1982), 56–58.
40. For a good survey, see Jan Blodgett, Protestant Evangelical Literary Culture and Contemporary Society (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1997), 33–133.
41. Nancy Struna, “Puritans and Sports: The Irretrievable Tide of Change,” Journal of Sports History (1977): 1–21.
42. The best studies are Tony Ladd and James A. Mathisen, Muscular Christianity: Evangelical Protestants and the Development of American Sport (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1999); Clifford Putney, Muscular Christianity: Manhood and Sports in Protestant America, 1880–1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 11–43.
43. See the analysis in Ann Douglas, The Feminization of American Culture (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998).
44. Putney, Muscular Christianity, 79–81.
45. There is much useful material in the bibliography provided in David Goodhew, “The Rise of the Cambridge Inter-Collegiate Christian Union, 1910–1971,” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 54 (2003): 62–88.
46. George B. Kirsch, The Creation of American Team Sports: Baseball and Cricket, 1838–1872 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989).
47. Interestingly, the new importance attached to “life coaching” or “spiritual coaching” in evangelical circles can thus be argued to be a reversion to an original vision, not a departure from it. For an example of the approach, see Laurie Beth Jones, Jesus, Life Coach: Learn from the Best (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2004).
48. See Sharon Mazer, “The Power Team: Muscular Christianity and the Spectacle of Conversion,” Drama Review 38 (1994): 162–88.
49. For some reflections on such themes, see Timothy P. O’Hanlon, “School Sports as Social Training: The Case of Athletics and the Crisis of World War I,” Journal of Sports History 9 (1982): 5–29.
50. Frank Miller Turner, “The Victorian Conflict Between Science and Religion: A Professional Dimension,” Isis 69 (1978): 356–76; Colin A. Russell, “The Conflict Metaphor and Its Social Origins,” Science and Christian Faith 1 (1989): 3–26.
51. See the groundbreaking essays in David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers, God and Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).
52. The most important study is Peter Harrison, The Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise of Natural Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). Harrison’s thesis confirms the central argument of this work: that shifting patterns of biblical interpretation were important in shaping Protestantism’s attitudes and engagements.
53. Kenneth J. Howell, God’s Two Books: Copernican Cosmology and Biblical Interpretation in Early Modern Science (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2002).
54. Richard Burnett, “John Calvin and the Sensus Literalis,” Scottish Journal of Theology 57 (2004): 1–13.
55. Peter Berger, The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1967), 111–13.
56. Stephen Shapin, “Understanding the Merton Thesis,” Isis 79 (1988): 594–605.
57. For some fascinating insights, see Kenneth Knoespel, “Interpretative Strategies in Newton’s Theologicae gentilis origins philosophiae,” in Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence, edited by James E. Force and Richard H. Popkin (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1999), 179–202.
58. See Stephen D. Snobelen, “Newton, Heretic: The Strategies of a Nicodemite,” British Journal for the History of Science 32 (1999): 381–419.
59. For an outstanding collection of studies, see John Brooke and Ian McLean, eds., Heterodoxy in Early Modern Science and Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).
60. As shown by Larry Stewart, “Seeing Through the Scholium: Religion and Reading Newton in the Eighteenth Century,” History of Science 34 (1996): 123–65.
61. Robert E. Schofield, The Enlightened Joseph Priestley: A Study of His Life and Work from 1773 to 1804 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004).
62. Bertrand Russell, History of Western Philosophy, 2nd ed. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1961), 515.
63. Edward Rosen, “Calvin’s Attitude Towards Copernicus,” Journal of the History of Ideas 21 (1960): 431–41.
64. Stephen D. Benin, The Footprints of God: Divine Accommodation in Jewish and Christian Thought (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993).
65. For a modern account, see Stephen Jay Gould, The Structure of Evolutionary Theory (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002).
66. For an excellent historical account, see John Hedley Brooke, Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
67. D. L. LeMahieu, The Mind of William Paley: A Philosopher and His Age (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1976).
68. See especially Karl W. Giberson and Donald A. Yerxa, Species of Origins: America’s Search for a Creation Story (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002).
69. David N. Livingstone, “B. B. Warfield, the Theory of Evolution, and Early Fundamentalism,” Evangelical Quarterly 58 (1986): 69–83.
70. David N. Livingstone and Mark A. Noll, “B. B. Warfield (1851–1921): A Biblical Inerrantist as Evolutionist,” Isis 91 (2000): 283–304.
71. J. I. Packer, The Evangelical Anglican Identity Problem (Oxford: Latimer House, 1978), 5.
72. Ronald L. Numbers, The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).
73. For discussion from an evangelical perspective, see James Porter Moreland and John Mark Reynolds, eds., Three Views on Creation and Evolution (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1999).
74. William A. Dembski, The Design Inference: Eliminating Chance Through Small Probabilities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
75. Robert T. Pennock, Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics: Philosophical, Theological, and Scientific Perspectives (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001).
76. See, for example, Richard Dawkins, The God Delusion (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006); Daniel C. Dennett, Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon (New York: Viking Penguin, 2006). For a critique of this general approach, see Alister E. McGrath, Dawkins’ God: Genes, Memes, and the Meaning of Life (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004).
77. For Ruse’s Darwinism, see Michael Ruse, Taking Darwin Seriously: A Naturalistic Approach to Philosophy (New York: Prometheus Books, 1998). The exchange of e-mails between Ruse and Dennett took place on Sunday, February 19, 2006, and was widely distributed.
78. For an assessment, see Alister E. McGrath, with Joanna Collicutt McGrath, The Dawkins Delusion? Atheist Fundamentalism and the Denial of the Divine (London: SPCK, 2007).
PART 3: TRANSFORMATION
1. Phillip E. Hammond, “In Search of a Protestant Twentieth Century: American Power and Religion Since 1900,” Review of Religious Research 24 (1983): 281–94.
2. Simon Coleman, The Globalization of Charismatic Christianity: Spreading the Gospel of Prosperity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 24–26.
3. The best study is Jon Ruthven, On the Cessation of the Charismata: The Protestant Polemic on Postbiblical Miracles (Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993).
4. “Jim Crow,” a shabbily dressed rural black played by a blackfaced white artist, had become a standard character in minstrel shows in the early 1830s. The best study of Jim Crow laws is Leon F. Litwack, Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998). Such laws were finally repealed by the Civil Rights Act of 1965.
CHAPTER 14: THE CHANGING SHAPE OF AMERICAN PROTESTANTISM
1. The best study is Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., The Fundamentalism Project, 5 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993–2004).
2. The best study remains Bradley J. Longfield, The Presbyterian Controversy: Fundamentalists, Modernists, and Moderates (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
3. George M. Marsden, Reforming Fundamentalism: Fuller Seminary and the New Evangelicalism (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1987), 4–8.
4. For the episode, see Longfield, The Presbyterian Controversy, 181–208. On Machen, see Darryl G. Hart, Defending the Faith: J. Gresham Machen and the Crisis of Conservative Protestantism in Modern America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
5. George M. Marsden, Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1991).
6. For comment, see Joel Carpenter, Revive Us Again: The Reawakenings of American Fundamentalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).
7. See Marsden, Reforming Fundamentalism, 69–244.
8. On this point, see William C. Martin, A Prophet with Honor: The Billy Graham Story (New York: Quill, 1991).
9. The political ambivalence of Graham’s ministry is probably best seen in his relationship to the civil rights campaigns of Martin Luther King Jr.; see the important analysis in Michael G. Long, Billy Graham and the Beloved Community: America’s Evangelist and the Dream of Martin Luther King Jr. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
10. George M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth-Century Evangelicalism: 1870–1925 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 85–93.
11. Tom Wolfe, “The Great Relearning,” in Hooking Up (London: Jonathan Cape, 2000), 140–45.
12. John Shelby Spong, Why Christianity Must Change or Die: A Bishop Speaks to Believers in Exile (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1998).
13. For an assessment of the ephemeral appeal of this work, see Colin Slee, ed., Honest to God: Forty Years On (London: SCM Press, 2004).
14. For a sympathetic account of Cupitt’s ideas, see Nigel Leaves, Odyssey on the Sea of Faith: The Life and Writings of Don Cupitt (Santa Rosa, CA: Polebridge Press, 2004).
15. The Reagan era is often singled out as being of particular importance, partly on account of the renewal and politicization of conservative Protestantism. For a perceptive analysis of developments within the leadership of this movement, see C. Kirk Hadaway and Penny Long Marler, “The Politics of Elite Disunity in the Southern Baptist Convention, 1946–1992,” Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion 6 (1994): 53–102.
16. Michael Shermer, How We Believe: Science, Skepticism, and the Search for God (New York: Freeman, 2000), 16–31.
17. Harvey Cox, Religion in the Secular City: Toward a Postmodern Theology (New York: Simon & Shuster, 1984).
18. Harvey Cox, Fire from Heaven: The Rise of Pentecostal Spirituality and the Reshaping of Religion in the Twenty-first Century (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1995). For a useful collection of essays, some exploring Cox’s changes of mind, see Arvind Shamra, ed., Religion in a Secular City: Essays in Honor of Harvey Cox (Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International, 2001).
19. H. Richard Niebuhr, The Social Sources of Denominationalism (New York: Holt, 1929).
20. For a detailed study, see John R. Sutton and Mark Chaves, “Explaining Schism in American Protestant Denominations, 1890–1990,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 43 (2004): 171–90.
21. Will Herberg, Protestant, Catholic, Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1955).
22. The Vanishing Protestant Majority, GSS Social Change Report 49 (Chicago: University of Chicago, National Opinion Research Center, 2004).
23. I deliberately use the loose term “charismatic” here; the term “Pentecostal” often has denominational overtones. For comment, see Allan Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 9–15.
24. For what follows, see Dean R. Hoge, Benton Johnson, and Donald A. Luidens, Vanishing Boundaries: The Religion of Mainline Protestant Baby Boomers (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1994).
25. Donald E. Miller, Reinventing American Protestantism: Christianity in the New Millennium (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
26. See Robert Moats Miller, Harry Emerson Fosdick: Preacher, Pastor, Prophet (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).
27. For a detailed discussion, see Randall Balmer, Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory: A Journey into the Evangelical Subculture in America, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
28. For an illustration of the importance of the device, see Kathy Mills, “Deconstructing Binary Oppositions in Literacy Discourse and Pedagogy,” Australian Journal of Language and Literacy 28 (2005): 67–82.
29. As pointed out by Michael Wheeler, The Old Enemies: Catholic and Protestant in Nineteenth-Century English Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
30. John T. McGreevy, Catholicism and American Freedom: A History (New York: Norton, 2003).
31. As argued by Philip Jenkins, The New Anti-Catholicism: The Last Acceptable Prejudice (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
32. See Mark A. Noll and Carolyn Nystrom, Is the Reformation Over? An Evangelical Assessment of Contemporary Roman Catholicism (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2005), 185–208.
33. See the agenda set out by John Shelby Spong, Why Christianity Must Change or Die: A Bishop Speaks to Believers in Exile (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1998).
34. For example, see Robert A. Sungenis, Not by Faith Alone: The Biblical Evidence for the Catholic Doctrine of Justification (Santa Barbara, CA: Queenship, 1997). For a Protestant perspective, see R. C. Sproul, Faith Alone: The Evangelical Doctrine of Justification (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1995).
CHAPTER 15: TONGUES OF FIRE: THE PENTECOSTAL REVOLUTION IN PROTESTANTISM
1. For this example and an excellent analysis of the movement in general, see Allan Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004). There is a mass of useful information in the authoritative collection assembled by Stanley M. Burgess and Ed M. van der Maas, eds., The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2003).
2. There are significant differences within Pentecostalism over which of these individuals is to be seen as the true founder of the movement. For comment, see James R. Goff, Fields White unto Harvest: Charles F. Parham and the Missionary Origins of Pentecostalism (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1988); Walter J. Hollenweger, Pentecostalism: Origins and Developments Worldwide (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1997), 18–20. The argument that Pentecostalism is derived from the Radical Reformation—as stated in John Driver, Radical Faith: An Alternative History of the Christian Church (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1999)—is historically implausible.
3. R. M. Anderson, Vision of the Disinherited: The Making of American Pentecostalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980).
4. Estrelda Alexander, The Women of Azusa Street (Cleveland, OH: Pilgrim Press, 2005).
5. For this phenomenon in Methodist camp and tabernacle meetings in the United States during the nineteenth century, see Ann Taves, Fits, Trances, and Visions: Experiencing Religion and Explaining Experience from Wesley to James (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 232–40.
6. D. William Faupel, The Everlasting Gospel: The Significance of Eschatology in the Development of Pentecostal Thought (Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 202–9.
7. Anderson, Vision of the Disinherited, 190.
8. For a popular account of the movement’s development in the United States, see Jack W. Hayford and S. David Moore, The Charismatic Century: The Enduring Impact of the Azusa Street Revival (New York: Warner Faith, 2006).
9. C. Peter Wagner, The Third Wave of the Holy Spirit: Encountering the Power of Signs and Wonders Today (Ann Arbor, MI: Servant, 1988).
10. John Wimber and Kevin Springer, Power Healing (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1991).
11. Steve Brouwer, Paul Gifford, and Susan D. Rose, Exporting the American Gospel: Global Christian Fundamentalism (London: Routledge, 1996).
12. On the possible origins of Pentecostalism in nineteenth-century India, see the important study by Gary B. McGee, “‘Latter Rain’ Falling in the East: Early-Twentieth-Century Pentecostalism in India and the Debate over Speaking in Tongues,” Church History 68 (1999): 648–65.
13. See the careful analysis of Allan Anderson, “Revising Pentecostal History in Global Perspective,” in Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia, edited by Allan Anderson and Edmond Tang (Oxford: Regnum Books International, 2005), 147–73.
14. McGee, “‘Latter Rain’ Falling in the East.”
15. See, for example, Paul A. Pomerville, The Third Force in Missions: A Pentecostal Contribution to Contemporary Mission Theology (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1985).
16. This point is stressed by Margaret M. Poloma, The Assemblies of God at the Crossroads: Charisma and Institutional Dilemmas (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1989).
17. For discussion of the biblical ideas, see Gordon D. Fee, “Towards a Pauline Theology of Glossolalia,” in Pentecostalism in Context: Essays in Honor of William W. Menzies, edited by Wonsuk Ma and Robert P. Menzies (Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), 24–37.
18. There have been relatively few scientific studies of the phenomenon. See, for example, N. G. Holm, “Sundén’s Role Theory and Glossolalia,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 26 (1987): 383–89, which interprets the phenomenon as a “pseudolanguage” learned through imitation and practiced according to linguistic rules.
19. As noted by Oliver McMahan, “A Living Stream: Spiritual Direction Within the Pentecostal/Charismatic Tradition,” Journal of Psychology and Theology 30 (2002): 336–45.
20. Daniel M. Epstein, Sister Aimee: The Life of Aimee Semple McPherson (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1993).
21. Robert Beckford, God of the Rahtid: Redeeming Rage (London: Darton Longman & Todd, 2001).
22. Roger Stronstad, The Prophethood of All Believers: A Study in Luke’s Charismatic Theology (Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999).
23. Walter Hollenweger, “Pentecostalism’s Global Language,” Christian History 17, no. 2 (Spring 1988), 42. For a more nuanced assessment of Pentecostalism’s historical roots, see his “Verheissung und Verhängnis der Pfingtsbewegung,” Evangelische Theologie 53 (1993): 265–88.
24. See, for example, Timothy B. Cargal, “Beyond the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy: Pentecostals and Hermeneutics in a Postmodern Age,” Pneuma: The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies 15 (1993): 163–87; Veli-Matti Karkkainen, “Pentecostal Hermeneutics in the Making: On the Way from Fundamentalism to Postmodernism,” Journal of the European Pentecostal Theological Association 18 (1998): 76–115.
25. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992), 216.
26. James Henley Thornwell, Collected Writings, 4 vols. (Richmond, VA: Presbyterian Committee of Publication, 1870–73), 1: 34.
27. Iain S. MacLean, Opting for Democracy?: Liberation Theology and the Struggle for Democracy in Brazil (New York: Peter Lang, 1999).
28. For a discussion of this doctrine, see Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction, 4th ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 254–55.
29. For a classic critique, see John MacArthur, Charismatic Chaos (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1992).
30. See the classic study by Hans Hofer, “Zweite Reformation” oder Vollendung der Reformation? (Leipzig: Dörffling & Franke, 1935).
31. For an excellent survey, see Hugh McLeod and Werner Ustorf, eds., The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750–2000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
32. Wolfhart Pannenberg, An Introduction to Systematic Theology (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1991), 12–13.
33. See the discussions in Murray W. Dempster, Byron D. Klaus, and Douglas Petersen, eds., The Globalization of Pentecostalism: A Religion Made to Travel (Carlisle, UK: Regnum Books International, 1999).
CHAPTER 16: THE NEW FRONTIERS OF PROTESTANTISM: THE GLOBAL SOUTH
1. The best study is Philip Jenkins, The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
2. Dana L. Robert, “The First Globalization: The Internationalization of the Protestant Missionary Movement Between the World Wars,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 26 (2002): 50–66.
3. For a case study, see Francis X. Hezel, “Indigenization as a Missionary Goal in the Caroline-Marshall Islands,” in Mission, Church, and Sect in Oceania, edited by James A. Boutilier, Daniel T. Hughes, and Sharon W. Tiffany (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1984), 251–73.
4. The best study is Eric J. Sharpe, Not to Destroy but to Fulfill: The Contribution of J. N. Farquhar to Protestant Missionary Thought in India Before 1914 (Lund: Gleerup, 1965).
5. For an excellent study of this approach, see Sung-Deuk Oak, “Shamanistic Tan’gun and Christian Hananim: Protestant Missionaries’ Interpretation of the Korean Founding Myth, 1805–1934,” Studies in World Christianity 7 (2001): 42–57.
6. Ray Wheeler, “The Legacy of Shoki Coe,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 26 (2002): 77–80.
7. This eventually led to the idea of such missions being self-supporting, self-governing, and self-propagating. Later, increased attention came to be paid to the idea of “self-theologizing”—the need to undertake theological and missiological reflection with the specific missionary context in mind. For an excellent analysis, see Peter C. Phan, Mission and Catechesis: Alexandre de Rhodes and Inculturation in Seventeenth-Century Vietnam (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1998), 201–202.
8. Kwame Bediako, “The Roots of African Theology,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 13 (1989): 58–65.
9. See Brian Stanley, ed., Christian Missions and the Enlightenment (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001).
10. John H. Mbiti, Bible and Theology in African Christianity (Nairobi, Kenya: Oxford University Press, 1986).
11. Elizabeth Isichei, A History of Christianity in Africa from Antiquity to the Present (London: SPCK, 1995), 254.
12. These are also referred to as “African independent churches” and “African instituted churches” in the literature. The same abbreviation (AIC) serves all. See Philomena Njeri Mwaura, “African Instituted Churches in East Africa,” Studies in World Christianity 10 (2004): 180–84.
13. I here follow Allan Anderson’s excellent analysis, Bazalwane: African Pentecostals in South Africa (Pretoria: Unisa Press, 1992). This seminal work should be consulted for further analysis, although the pace of change is now so rapid that modification of his taxonomy will be necessary in due course.
14. Africa Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2006).
15. Steve S. C. Moon, “The Recent Korean Missionary Movement,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 27 (2003): 11–16.
16. For a survey of the literature, see John H. Sinclair, “Research on Protestantism in Latin America: A Bibliographic Essay,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 26 (2002): 110–17.
17. Jean-Pierre Bastian, “The Metamorphosis of Latin American Protestant Groups: A Sociohistorical Perspective,” Latin American Research Review 28 (1993): 33–61, esp. 34–5.
18. Ibid., 53.
19. David Stoll, Is Latin America Turning Protestant? The Politics of Evangelical Growth (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990). Stoll takes an anthropological perspective; for a sociological approach, see David Martin, Tongues of Fire: The Explosion of Protestantism in Latin America (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990). Both writers see developments in Latin America as demonstrating the fecundity of Anglo-Saxon Protestantism.
20. For the application of this economic model to the rise of charismatic Catholicism in the region, see R. Andrew Chesnut, Competitive Spirits: Latin America’s New Religious Economy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 64–101.
21. See the comments of Samuel J. Escobar, “A Missiological Approach to Latin American Protestantism,” International Review of Mission 87 (1987): 161–73.
22. Chesnut, Competitive Spirits, 128–46.
23. Melba Padilla Maggay, “Early Protestant Missionary Efforts in the Philippines: Some Intercultural Problems,” Journal of Asian Missions 5 (2003): 119–31.
24. David S. Lim, “A Critique of Modernity in Protestant Missions in the Philippines,” Journal of Asian Missions 2 (2000): 149–77.
25. See Kenton J. Clymer, Protestant Missionaries in the Philippines, 1898–1918: An Inquiry into the American Colonial Mentality (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986).
26. This is the judgment of Peter G. Gowing, “Christianity in the Philippines: Yesterday and Today,” Silliman Journal 12 (1965): 1–43.
27. Peter Schreurs, Caraga Antigua, 1521–1910: The Hispanization and Christianization of Agusan, Surigao, and East Davao, 2nd ed. (Manila: National Historical Institute, 2000).
28. Joseph Suico, “Pentecostalism in the Philippines,” in Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia, edited by Allan Anderson and Edmond Tang (Oxford: Regnum Books International, 2005), 345–62.
29. For the application of the concept in Asia, see Michael Green, Asian Tigers for Christ: The Dynamic Growth of the Church in South East Asia (London: SPCK, 2001).
30. For an analysis, see David S. Lim, “Mobilizing the Local Church in Evangelism and Mission,” Journal of Asian Missions 6 (2004): 43–57.
31. Lode Wostyn, “Catholic Charismatics in the Philippines,” in Anderson and Tang, Asian and Pentecostal, 363–83.
32. Wong Man Kong, “The China Factor and Protestant Christianity in Hong Kong: Reflections from Historical Perspectives,” Studies in World Christianity 8 (2002): 115–39; Fuk-Tsang Ying and Pan-Chiu Lai, “Diasporic Chinese Communities and Protestantism in Hong Kong During the 1950s,” Studies in World Christianity 10 (2004): 136–53.
33. For traditional Protestant denominations, see Alan Hunter and Kim-Kwong Chan, Protestantism in Contemporary China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). For more recent developments, see Deng Zhaoming, “Indigenous Chinese Pentecostal Denominations,” in Anderson and Tang, Asian and Pentecostal, 437–66; Yamamoto Sumiko, History of Protestantism in China: The Indigenization of Christianity (Tokyo: Toho Gakkai, 2000).
34. Mauly Purba, “From Conflict to Reconciliation: The Case of the Gondang Sabangunan in the Order of Discipline of the Toba Batak Protestant Church,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 26 (2005): 207–33; Gani Wiyono, “Pentecostals in Indonesia,” in Anderson and Tang, Asian and Pentecostal, 307–28.
35. Paul Tsuchido Shew, “Pentecostals in Japan,” in Anderson and Tang, Asian and Pentecostal, 487–508. For some of the cultural barriers that Protestantism faces in Japan, see Mark R. Mullins, “What About the Ancestors? Some Japanese Responses to Protestant Individualism,” Studies in World Christianity 4 (1998): 41–64.
36. For reflection, see Wilbert R. Shenk, “New Wineskins for New Wine: Toward a Post-Christendom Ecclesiology,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 29 (2005): 73–79.
37. Robert J. Schreiter, Constructing Local Theologies (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1986), 11.
38. Steve Bruce, Religion in the Modern World: From Cathedrals to Cults (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 112–13.
CHAPTER 17: PROTESTANTISM: THE NEXT GENERATION
1. For the theory, see A. M. van Harten, Mutation Breeding: Theory and Practical Applications (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
2. For a detailed study, see Alister E. McGrath, “The Evolution of Doctrine? A Critical Examination of the Theological Validity of Biological Models of Doctrinal Development,” in The Order of Things (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 117–68.
3. On halophilic bacteria, see Russell H. Vreeland and Lawrence I. Hochstein, The Biology of Halophilic Bacteria (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1993).
4. Richard F. Costigan, “Bossuet and the Consensus of the Church,” Theological Studies 56 (1995): 652–72.
5. As pointed out by Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi and Michael Argyle, Acquiring Religious Beliefs: Socialization and Continuity (London: Routledge, 1997), 97–113.
6. Clifford Geertz, “Common Sense as a Cultural System,” in Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretative Anthropology, edited by Clifford Geertz (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 73–93. Geertz argues that “commonsense” truths do not represent some kind of universal truth but rather are a social construction reflecting historical and cultural specificities and resting on “historically constructed and…historically defined standards of judgment” (76). This does not mean that “common sense” is irrational or lacks epistemic justification; it is simply to note the important role played by the history and experience of the community that accepts the “common sense” of certain ideas and values.
7. Perry Miller, “The Cambridge Platform in 1648,” in Henry Wilder Foote, ed., The Cambridge Platform of 1648 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1949), 60.
8. For the historical background to these ideas, see James Tunstead Burtchaell, From Synagogue to Church: Public Services and Offices in the Earliest Christian Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). Burtchaell concludes that the spiritual dynamism of the early church was not concentrated in those who held formal ecclesiastical office but in the people who “without community screening or authorization did God’s work.”
9. Yukio Matsudo, “Protestant Character of Modern Buddhist Movements,” Buddhist-Christian Studies 20 (2000): 59–69.
10. Richard F. Gombrich, “Buddhism in the Modern World: Secularization or Protestantization?” in Secularization, Rationalism, and Sectarianism, edited by E. Barker, J. A. Beckford, and K. Dobbelaere (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 47–58.
11. See George Makdisi, Ibn ‘Aqil: Religion and Culture in Classical Islam (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997); William C. Chittick, The Self-Disclosure of God: Principles of Ibn al-’Arabi’s Cosmology (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998).
12. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (New York: Random House, 1988).
13. Douglas Johnston and Cynthia Sampson, Religion, the Missing Dimension of Statecraft (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
14. The quotation comes from Jeffrey K. Hadden and Anson D. Shupe, Secularization and Fundamentalism Reconsidered (New York: Paragon House, 1989), 110–11. For a more up-to-date analysis, see George M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).